African Socialism in Postcolonial Tanzania - Assetsassets.cambridge.org/97811071/04525/frontmatter/9781107104525_front... · African Socialism in Postcolonial Tanzania Between the

African Socialism in Postcolonial Tanzania

Between the Village and the World

Drawing on a wide range of oral and written sources, this book tellsthe story of Tanzania’s socialist experiment: the ujamaa villagizationinitiative of 1967–75. Inaugurated shortly after independence, ujamaa(“familyhood” in Swahili) both invoked established socialist themesand departed from the existing global repertoire of development pol-icy, seeking to reorganize the Tanzanian countryside into communalvillages to achieve national development. Priya Lal investigates howTanzanian leaders and rural people creatively envisioned ujamaa anddocuments how villagization unfolded on the ground, without affixingthe project to a trajectory of inevitable failure. By forging an empiricallyrich and conceptually nuanced account of ujamaa, African Socialismin Postcolonial Tanzania restores a sense of possibility and process tothe early years of African independence, refines prevailing theories ofnation building and development, and expands our understanding ofthe 1960s and 1970s world.

Priya Lal is Assistant Professor of History at Boston College. Her workhas been published in the Journal of African History, Africa: Journalof the International African Institute, and Humanity.

www.cambridge.org© in this web service Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press978-1-107-10452-5 - African Socialism in Postcolonial Tanzania: Between the Village andthe WorldPriya LalFrontmatterMore information

http://www.cambridge.org/9781107104525

http://www.cambridge.org







African Socialism inPostcolonial Tanzania

Between the Village and the World

PRIYA LALBoston College






32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, ny 10013-2473, usa

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit ofeducation, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.orgInformation on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107104525

C© Priya Lal 2015

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exceptionand to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,no reproduction of any part may take place without the written

permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2015

Printed in the United States of America

A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication DataLal, Priya, author.

African socialism in postcolonial Tanzania : between the village andthe world / Priya Lal, Boston College.

pages cmIncludes bibliographical references and index.

isbn 978-1-107-10452-51. Ujamaa villages – Tanzania. 2. Socialism – Tanzania. 3. Rural development –

Tanzania. 4. Tanzania – History – 1964– I. Title.hx771.3.a3l35 2015

307.7709678′09045–dc23 2015002307

isbn 978-1-107-10452-5 Hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls forexternal or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication and does not

guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.






Contents

List of Figures and Maps page vii

Acknowledgments ix

Introduction 1

1 A Postcolonial Project in the Cold War World 27The Ujamaa Vision 30Pan-Africanism and African Socialism 37The Village in the 1960s World 45Self-Reliance, Security, and Sovereignty 55From the Arusha Declaration to Operation Vijiji 68

2 Militants, Mothers, and the National Family 78Mobile Men, Militarized Men 81Mothers, Wives, and Domestic Guardians 102Representations and Realities of Familyhood 114Kinship, Political Community, and the Tensions of

Nationalism 119

3 Uneven Development and the Region 129Colonial Contexts 131Ujamaa and the Cinderella Region 142A National Periphery? 148Managing Villagization, Planning Development 155Beyond Villagization, beyond the Nation 168

4 Remembering Villagization 177Experiences of Resettlement 179Life in an Ujamaa Village 192

v






vi Contents

Popular Political Subjectivities 209After Ujamaa 217

Conclusion 227

Bibliography 241

Index 257






List of Figures and Maps

Figures

1. The Mtwara–Newala Road bisecting Nanguruwe Village,2008. page 2

2. Tanzanian officials and a foreign adviser on a NationalService farm, undated photo (likely 1960s). 50

3. Chinese doctors at Mtwara Health Center, September 12,1975. 53

4. Vice President Rashidi Kawawa with Chinese officials onthe TAZARA, March 2, 1972. 58

5. TANU membership card from 1955, Nanguruwe Village,2008. 88

6. Minister of National Service inspecting servicemen andservicewomen at National Service training at Ruvu,July 1974. 91

7. National Service members in a training camp, undated(likely late 1960s or early 1970s). 93

8. People’s Militia soldiers marching at the National Stadiumto celebrate ten years of independence, December 9, 1971. 96

9. TANU Youth League members supervising theconstruction of houses in the ujamaa village of Mnopwe inMasasi District, Mtwara, 1972. 99

10. UWT chairwoman Sofia Kawawa (wife of RashidiKawawa) examining handicrafts made by local women ondisplay in the Mtwara Town Parish Hall while opening aUWT branch for members of the Mtwara Domestic ScienceCentre, undated (likely from the late 1960s or early 1970s). 106

11. A development officer conducting a “better food”demonstration for women of Likonde Village, Mtwara

vii






viii List of Figures and Maps

District, during a ten-day seminar, undated (likely from thelate 1960s). 108

12. Women weaving baskets in Namenjele Village, MtwaraDistrict, 1975. 110

13. Young Makonde boys dancing a traditional dance called“Mwachilendenda,” June 1971. 154

14. Residents of Mumbaka Village, Masasi District, Mtwara,working the maize plot of the village’s ujamaa farmalongside members of TANU’s Regional Council, 1975. 158

15. A woman gathering water on the Makonde Plateau,undated (likely early to mid-1970s). 161

16. Cashew production in Tanzania from 1945 to 1995. 16217. Plan for ujamaa village, Mtwara Region, 1968. 16618. Plans for two types of houses in Mtwara ujamaa villages:

with thatched roofs and metal roofs, 1968. 16719. Residents of Mangaba Village, Mtwara District, sorting

their cashew nuts for sale, 1977. 17220. House near the center of Rwelu Village, 2008. 19321. A neighborhood (mtaa) in Nanguruwe Village, 2008. 19522. Maili Kumi, Mdui Village, 2008. 200

Maps

1. Contemporary map of Tanzania. xiii2. Contemporary map of Mtwara Region. xiv3. Contemporary map of Mtwara District, locating the

villages examined in this study – Nanguruwe, Mdui, andRwelu – and the coastal city of Mtwara. xv

4. Cashew production in southeastern Tanzania, 1962. 139






Acknowledgments

I first began work on this book – in its initial incarnation, as a dissertationproposal – in 2006. The nine years of research and writing that followed havebeen a true adventure, full of formative challenges, unexpected discoveries,and delightful rewards. As my project matured over the years, so did I,both personally and professionally. Those who have supported my scholarlydevelopment have also enriched me as a human being, and vice versa. It iswith much gratitude that I acknowledge some of them here.

In a broader sense, this project’s origins might be traced to a still earlierpoint – my time as an undergraduate at Columbia University. There GregMann introduced me to the excitement and potential of studying Africanhistory. With his encouragement, I entered a graduate program at New YorkUniversity, where I encountered many influential teachers and peers. As myadvisor, Fred Cooper was a steady and discerning intellectual guide. I owemore than I can measure to his thoughtfulness as a professor, reader, andmentor. Manu Goswami was an inspiration; she pushed me to think moreexpansively about the past and cultivate a comparative perspective in mywork. Linda Gordon taught me how to think critically and creatively aboutgender. As my external readers, Greg Mann provided astute feedback anddependable support, and Jim Brennan deepened my understanding of thehistorical particulars of postcolonial Tanzania. In addition, the friendshipand counsel of my brilliant and animated fellow students made graduateschool stimulating and fun. I think especially of Abena Asare, Leslie Barnes,Maggie Clinton, Brandon County, Ezra Davidson, Anne Eller, Kendra Field,Bekah Friedman, Kiron Johnson, Rashauna Johnson, Seth Markle, ReynoldsRichter, Naomi Schiller, Jenny Shaw, Franny Sullivan, Susan Valentine, andQian Zhu.

Many more senior scholars provided crucial advice at the outset of mydissertation research, including Felicitas Becker, James Giblin, Linda Helges-son, Andrew Ivaska, Stacey Langwick, Jaime Monson, and Leander Schnei-der. In Tanzania, the following people made my research experience – the

ix






x Acknowledgments

bulk of which took place between 2007 and 2008 – lively and produc-tive: Billy Bludgus, Rajabu Chipila, Bre Grace, Josh Grace, Amy Jamison,Edith Lyimo, Samuel Mhajida, Andreana Prichard, Dominic Rwehumbizaand his family, Julie Weiskopf, and Nawanda Yahaya. I benefited from theassistance of archivists and librarians at the Tanzania National Archives inDar es Salaam and Dodoma, the National Library of Tanzania, and thelibraries of the Mwalimu Nyerere Academy and the University of Dar esSalaam. In Dar es Salaam, Amina Iddi’s translation skills proved to be animmense help in sorting through reams of source material. I could not havecompleted my fieldwork in southeastern Tanzania without Issa Chilindima,whose resourcefulness, gregariousness, and knowledge of Mtwara were agift. I am, of course, indebted to the many residents of Mtwara – young andold, men and women, in the city and in the countryside – who entertainedmy questions and speculations about their lives and graciously shared theirmemories and reflections with me.

As my dissertation evolved into a book manuscript, numerous colleaguesand friends provided indispensable wisdom and community. Among others,Jeff Ahlman, Monique Bedasse, Emily Callaci, Dan Magaziner, and Mered-ith Terretta offered useful suggestions on everything from conference papersto book proposal drafts. Countless conversations with Dushko Petrovichhelped sharpen my ideas and arguments. Yuka Suzuki and Wendy Urban-Mead at Bard College and Fodei Batty, Grace Yukich, and Rob Werth atQuinnipiac University were supportive colleagues during a sometimes try-ing period of transition. Many of my fellow historians at Boston College –including Robin Fleming, Penny Ismay, Kevin Kenny, Dana Sajdi, and LingZhang – have made my current institutional home a wonderful place towork. Sana Aiyar and Kate Luongo have also been bright lights in theBoston area. Kendra Field, Shane Minkin, Katerina Seligmann, and FrannySullivan have been my anchors in many ways; I have so appreciated theirlove, humor, and insight.

A variety of institutional support and funding materially enabled myresearch and writing: a Henry MacCracken Fellowship, a Meriwether-Sattwa Fellowship, and a Dean’s Dissertation Fellowship at New YorkUniversity; the Social Science Research Council’s International Disserta-tion Research Fellowship; and research grants from Quinnipiac University.Allison Hughes, Arun Ivatury, Nilu Vajpeyi, and Christian Lyons generouslyopened their homes to me during postdissertation research stints in CollegePark and London. Will Hammell initially saw the value of my project, andthe editorial and production teams at Cambridge University Press have sinceshepherded this book through the publication process.

Over the years, audiences, discussants, and fellow presenters at a range ofvenues have asked productive questions that prompted me to both widen andrefine my analysis. These include the University of Dar es Salaam, New YorkUniversity, Columbia University, the City University of New York Graduate






Acknowledgments xi

Center, George Washington University, Yale University, Emory Univer-sity, and the University of California, Berkeley, as well as meetings of theAfrican Studies Association, the Greater New York Area African HistoriansWorkshop, the American Historical Association, and the Berkshire Confer-ence of Women Historians. The observations and recommendations of edi-tors, anonymous reviewers, and readers of my prior publications have alsoenhanced the content of this book. Portions of the following works appearin the pages that follow: “Militants, Mothers, and the National Family: Uja-maa, Gender, and Rural Development in Postcolonial Tanzania,” Journal ofAfrican History 51, 1 (2010) 1–20; “Self-Reliance and the State: The Mul-tiple Meanings of Development in Early Post-Colonial Tanzania,” Africa:Journal of the International African Institute 82, 2 (2012) 212–34; “Maoismin Tanzania: Material Connections and Shared Imaginaries,” in AlexanderCook, ed., Mao’s Little Red Book: A Global History (New York: CambridgeUniversity Press, 2014), 96–116; and “African Socialism and the Limits ofGlobal Familyhood: Tanzania and the New International Economic Orderin Sub-Saharan Africa,” Humanity 6, 1 (2015) 17–31.

Long before I entered graduate school, my parents, Shail and RajeshLal, prioritized my education; in doing so, they made it possible for me topursue a career that has brought me so much joy and satisfaction. Morerecently, Elizabeth Brett and Cathy Loula have helped me learn invaluablenew ways of thinking about myself and the world, which have made me abetter scholar. Finally, the curiosity and passion of many students at NewYork University, Bard College, Quinnipiac University, and Boston Collegehave reminded me how urgent and illuminating it can be to ask probingquestions about Africa’s past. I hope that this book will do the same for itsreaders.











0 100 200 300 km

0 10050 150 200 miles

M B E Y A

D O D O M A

I R I N G A

R U K W A

T A B O R A

K I G O M A

M A R A

S H I N Y A N G A

SI

NG

ID

A

ARUSHA

T A N G A

R U V U M A

L I N D I

M T W A R A

MO

RO

GO

RO PWANI

MA

LA

WI M O Z A M B I Q U E

BURUNDI

RWANDAK E N Y A

Z A MB

IA

Sumbawanga

Mbeya

Njombe

Iringa

Dodoma

TaboraKigoma

Bukoba

Mwanza

Musoma

Shinyanga

Singida

Arusha Moshi

Tanga

Zanzibar

Songea

Lindi

Mtwara

Morogoro Dar esSalaam

MpuiChunya

Mpanda

Kasulu

Ujiji

KibondoKahama

Ngara

Buoen

GeitaMWANZA

Babati

Kondoa

Nzega Same

Manyoni

Mkomazi

Korogwe

Handeni Pangani

WetePemba

ZanzibarSadani

Kibaha

TundumaTukuyu

Tunduru

MasasiNewala

KilwaKivinje

Nachingwea

Mohoro

Utete

Mpwapwa

MafiaI.

DEM. REP.OF THECONGO

UGANDA

LakeNatron

Lake Eyasi

MaraL. Rushwa

BiharamuluGame Res.

KAGERA

LakeVictoria

MaswaGameRes.

NgorongoroConservation

Area

SerengetiNational

Park

LakeManyara

LakeKitangiri

MasaiSteppe

TarangireNat.Park

Kilimanjaro5895m.

Mt. Kilimanjaro Nat.Park

Pangani

MkomaziGame Res.

Ukara I.Ukerewe I.

Maisome I.Rubondo I.

Moyo

wo

si

Gombe

Igombe

La

ke

T

an

ga

ny

ik

a

La

ke

M

al

aw

i

Lake Rukwa

Rungwa

ShamaLim

ba

Wala

Mha

wara

Ug

alla

INDIAN

OCEAN

W

ami

Lupa

Njom

be

Kisigo

Great

Ruaha

Great

Ruaha

Luwegu

RuahaNat. Park

SelousGame Reserve

UgallaRiver

Game Res.

Katavi Nat.

ParkRungwaGame

Reserve MikumiNat. Park

Rufiji

Rufiji

Matandu

Mba

rang

andu

Mbemkuru

Ruvuma

Kipengere Range

Kilombero

Iwem

bere

Step

pe

Kaliua

National capitalProvincial capitalTown, villageAirportInternational boudaryProvincial boundaryRoadRailway

Simiyu

UnitedRepublic of Tanzania

map 1. Contemporary map of Tanzania.

xiii






010

2030

4050

60 k

m

010

515

2030

2535

40 m

iles

CH

IKU

ND

I

CH

ILA

N-

LI

SE

KE

SE

NA

KO

PI

NA

NY

UM

BU

NA

NY

UM

BU

NA

ND

ET

E

MA

SA

SI

CH

IUN

GU

TW

A

MC

HA

UR

U

LULI

ND

I

NEW

ALA

LIT

EH

U

NEW

ALA

KIT

AN

GA

RI

TAN

DA

HIM

BA

NA

MIK

UPA

MA

HU

TA

NA

NY

AM

BA

DIH

IMB

AM

TW

AR

A

KI

TA

YAZ

IW

AN

I

MP

AP

UR

AM

TWA

RA

MJI

NI

LI

ND

I

RE

GI

ON

MO

ZA

MB

IQ

UE

IND

IAN

OC

EA

N

GA

LA

NA

KO

PI

Nan

gan

ga

Mw

ena

Luku

led

i

Nam

atu

twe

Lise

kese

Liko

kon

a

Lum

esu

le

Nap

ach

o

Nan

yum

bu

Mas

ug

uru

Mar

atan

i

Mik

ang

aula

Nan

go

mb

a

Lip

um

bu

ru

Ch

igu

gu

Ch

iwat

a

Mp

ind

imb

i

Mku

nd

i

Mku

lulu

Mar

ika

Sin

dan

oM

chau

ruM

nav

ira

Mb

uyu

ni

Lulin

di

Nam

iyo

ng

a

Nan

jota

Ch

iun

gu

twa

Mko

ma

IIN

gu

njaMkw

iti

Luag

ala

Ch

ilan

gal

aM

apu

ti

Mal

atu

Mn

yam

be

Ch

itek

ete

Mch

emo

Ch

aum

e

Lyen

je

Mko

njo

wan

o

Milo

ng

od

i

Md

imb

a

Mkw

edu

Ch

ing

ing

we

Mak

ukw

e

Nan

yan

ga

Tan

dah

imb

a

Mak

ote

Nam

alen

ga

Luch

ing

uM

aun

do

Mko

reh

a

Mih

amb

we

Nap

uta

Nam

iku

pa

Luko

kod

a

Mn

yaw

a

Mch

oli

II

Mn

ima

Nje

ng

wa

Nit

ekel

aKit

ere

Dih

imb

a

Mad

imb

a

May

ang

a Ch

awi

Nan

gu

ruw

e

Mah

uru

ng

a

Kit

aya

Kir

om

ba

Mti

nik

o

Nam

tum

bu

ka

Nan

yam

ba

Ziw

ani

Nau

mb

u

Nd

um

bw

e

Mko

no

na

Nan

det

e

Kit

ang

ari

Mto

pw

a

Mah

uta

Mkundi

Mcholi I

Mkunya

MAYANG

A

No

po

cho

Mas

asi

Man

gak

a

Tan

dah

imb

a

Mtw

ara

New

ala

Kita

m

a

Ch

iku

nd

i

Nak

op

i

Nan

yum

bu

Mku

mb

ulu

lu

Lulin

di

Ch

iun

gu

twa

Lite

hu

Kit

ang

ari

Nam

iku

pa

Md

amb

iM

ayan

ga

Msa

kala

Kit

aya

Mik

um

bl

Dih

imb

a

Reg

ion

al/D

istr

ict

cap

ital

Maj

or

villa

ge

Vill

age

Div

isio

n n

ame

War

d n

ame

Tarm

ac r

oad

Loo

se s

urf

ace

trac

k

Oth

er r

oad

Mai

n r

iver

Inte

rnat

ion

al b

ou

nd

ary

Reg

ion

al b

ou

nd

ary

Dis

tric

t b

ou

nd

ary

Div

isio

n b

ou

nd

ary

War

d b

ou

nd

ary

Mko

reh

a

Nan

gan

ga

Mw

ena

Luku

led

i

Nam

atu

twe

Liko

kon

aLu

mes

ule

Mas

ug

uru

Mko

no

na

Ch

igu

gu

Ch

iwat

a

Mp

ind

imb

i Mku

lulu

Mku

tiW

apiw

api

Luat

ala

Mn

avir

a

Mb

uyu

ni

Nam

bu

ng

a

Nan

jota

Mn

yam

be

Ch

iwo

ng

a

Mko

ma

Soko

ni

Mkw

iti

Ch

ini

Ng

un

ja

Mal

atu

Ju

uC

hit

eket

e

Kad

eng

wa

Mto

pw

aLy

enjeM

kon

jow

ano

Kit

ama

Milo

ng

od

i

Mam

bam

ba

Ch

ing

ing

we

Mak

ukw

eN

anya

ng

aMal

op

oke

lo

Nan

gu

luw

eMku

nya

Msi

lili

Mch

oli

Go

do

wn

Mik

un

da

Mah

uta

Mah

eha

Mau

nd

o J

uu

Mih

amb

weM

ich

enje

le

Ju

u

Nap

uta

Luko

kod

a

Ch

ekel

eni

Nje

ng

wa

Nit

ekel

a

Mad

imb

a

Ch

awi

Nan

gu

ruw

e

Mah

uru

ng

a

Kir

om

ba

J

uu

Nam

tum

bu

ka

Nan

yam

ba

Nau

mb

u

Mik

ind

ami

Mag

um

eni

Mit

eng

u

Ch

aum

e A

Nan

det

e

Mar

atan

i

Mka

ng

aula

Nam

iyo

ng

a

Mkw

edu

Lip

um

bu

ru

Mik

ang

aula

Nam

om

bw

e

Mak

ote

Mn

ima

Mti

nik

o

Mar

ika

Mch

emo

B

Chiwonga

Nan

gulu

we

map

2.C

onte

mpo

rary

map

ofM

twar

aR

egio

n.

xiv






05

1015

2025

km

010

515

mile

s

Mai

li K

um

i

Nam

ayak

ata

Nam

ayak

ata

Bar

abar

ani

Dih

imb

a

Mp

on

do

mo

Nam

anje

le

Nju

mb

uli

Miu

ta

Mar

anje

Nan

gu

ruw

e

Mb

awal

aMd

ui

Nac

hen

jele

Ch

imb

ind

uM

ako

me

A

Mak

om

e B Kilo

mb

ero

Mak

om

e B

Ch

awi

Nav

iko

le

Mah

uru

ng

aKit

un

gu

liKih

imik

a

Mag

om

eni

Kila

mb

o

Tan

gaz

o

Lite

mb

e

May

aya

Mit

amb

oM

adim

ba

Hyu

vi

Mn

go

ji

Mih

uru

Din

g’w

ida

Min

yem

be

Mo

ma

Nal

ien

del

e

Mka

ng

ala

Nan

yati

Kaw

awa

Nye

ng

edi

Mb

awal

aC

hin

i

Man

amaw

a

Lyo

wa

Mu

un

gan

oM

wem

bet

og

wa

Mkw

aju

ni

Liko

nd

eG

od

aun

i

Mku

nw

a

Liko

nd

eN

ang

um

i

Rw

elu

Nan

yan

iNd

um

bw

e

Ch

ang

araw

e Mw

ateh

i

Mb

uo

Hiy

ari

Mn

yun

do

Mn

anji

Kab

iser

a

Msi

jute

May

ang

a

Kit

op

eN

aum

bu

Pem

ba

Mik

ind

ani

Mb

ae

Ufu

ken

i

Mit

eng

o

Mis

eti

Lig

ula

Mag

om

eni

Man

gam

baM

san

gam

kuu

Sin

de

Mtw

ara

Mta

wan

ya

Msa

kala

Nal

ing

u

Mn

awen

e

Mn

ete

Mn

ete

II

Mte

nd

ach

i

Nam

ind

on

di

Ru

vula

Mku

bir

u

IND

IAN

OC

EAN

Nd

um

bw

e

Dih

imb

a

Na

ng

uru

we

Ch

aw

i

Ma

hu

run

ga

Ziw

an

i

Mad

imb

a

Ma

ya

ng

a

MA

YA

NG

A

ZIW

AN

I

KI

TA

YA

MO

ZAM

BIQ

UE

LIN

DI R

EGIO

N(L

IND

I DIS

TRIC

T)

MTW

AR

A U

RB

AN

map

3.C

onte

mpo

rary

map

ofM

twar

aD

istr

ict,

loca

ting

the

villa

ges

exam

ined

inth

isst

udy

–N

angu

ruw

e,M

dui,

and

Rw

elu

–an

dth

eco

asta

lcit

yof

Mtw

ara.

xv






Documents

African Socialism in Postcolonial Tanzania - Assetsassets.cambridge.org/97811071/04525/frontmatter/9781107104525_front... · African Socialism in Postcolonial Tanzania Between the