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Affective Assessment

Affective Assessment

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Page 1: Affective Assessment

Affective

Assessment

Page 2: Affective Assessment

• In the affective domain, and in particular, when we consider

learning competencies, we also consider the following focal

concepts:

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Attitudes are defined as a mental predisposition to act that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor. Individuals generally have attitudes that focus on objects, people or institutions. Attitudes are also attached to mental categories. Mental orientations towards concept are generally referred to as values. Attitudes are comprised of four components:

Attitude

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A. Cognitions• Cognitions are our beliefs, theories,

expectancies, cause-and-effect beliefs, and perceptions relative to the focal object. This concept is not the same as “feelings” but just a statement of beliefs and expectations which vary from one individual to the next.

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• The affective component refers to our feeling with respect to the focal object such as fear, liking, or anger. For instance, the color “blue” evokes different feelings for different individuals: some like the color blue but others do not. Some associate the color blue with “loneliness” while others associate it with “calm and peace”.

B. Affect

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• Behavioral intentions are our goals, aspirations, and our expected responses to the attitude object.

C. Behavioral Intentions

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• Evaluations are often considered the central component of attitudes. Evaluations consist of the imputation of some degree of goodness or badness to an attitude object. When we speak of a positive or negative attitude toward an object, we are referring to the evaluative component.

D. Evaluation

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• Evaluations are a function of cognitive, affect and behavioral intentions of the object. It is most often the evaluation that is stored in the memory, often without the corresponding cognitions and affect that were responsible for its formation.

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Why

Study

Attitudes?

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• Obviously, attitudes can influence the way we act and think in the social communities we belong. They can function as a framework and references for forming an individual; individuals, a concept or an idea.

• For instance, think about your attitudes toward “drinking alcoholic beverages” or “gambling” or “going on an all-night bar hopping spree every night”. Or perhaps, think about your attitude toward “mathematics and mathematical equations”.

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• Do this attitudes shape the way you think and correspondingly act? • What is your response? • How is your response informed by

each of these attitudes?

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• Several studies in the past, for instance, concluded that poor performance in school mathematics cannot be strictly attributable to differential mental abilities but to the students’ attitudes toward the subject. When mathematics classes are recited, students with negative attitude towards mathematics tend to pay less attention and occupy their minds with something else. Thus, attitudes may influence behavior. People will behave in ways consistent with their attitudes.

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Motivation is a reason or set or reasons for engaging in a particular behavior, especially human behavior as studied in psychology and neuropsychology. The reasons may include basic needs or an object, goal, state of being, or ideal that is desirable, which may or may not be viewed as “positive”, such as seeking a state of being in which pain is absent. The motivation for a behavior may also be attributed to less-apparent reasons such as altruism or morality.

Motivation

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• According to Geen, motivation refers to the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of human behavior. There are many theories that explain human motivation. The need theory is one of these theories. Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs theory is the most widely discussed theory of motivation.

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*The needs, listed from basic(lowest, earliest) to most complex (highest, latest) are as follows:

Physiological: food, clothing, shelterSafety and security: home and familySocial: being in a communitySelf- esteemSelf- actualization

Hierarchy of Needs

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• Herzberg’s two factor theory is another need theory of motivation. Frederick Herzberg’s two factor theory, concludes that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction, while others do not, but if absent lead to dissatisfaction. He distinguished between:

Two- Factor Theory

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• Motivators; (challenging work, recognition, responsibility) which give positive satisfaction, and• Hygiene Factors; (status, job security,

salary and fringe benefits) which do not motivate if present, but if absent will result in demotivation.

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• The name Hygiene Factors is used because, like hygiene, the presence will make you healthier, but the absence can cause health deterioration.

• The theory is sometimes called “Motivator-Hygiene Theory”. From a practical point of view (vs academic) Herzberg’s two-factor theory has proven more powerful than Maslow since its concept are simpler to understand. Steve Bicknell did considerable research into Employee Engagement Data.

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• In particular, the analysis of verbatim comments over 50 companies found there was a common theme between low hygiene-high motivator and low Employee Engagement.

• Employees consistently recorded low scores against management/leadership- Employees were optimistic about success but unhappy to complain about leadership since their hygiene factors had not been addressed. Message – sort the hygiene, then drive the motivation.

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• Finally, created by Clayton Alderfer, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs was expanded, leading to his ERG theory (existence, relatedness and growth). Physiological and safety, the lower order needs, are placed in the existence category, Love and self-esteem needs in the relatedness category. The growth category contained the self-actualization and self-esteem needs.

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• Motivation is of particular interest to educational psychologists because of the crucial role it plays in student learning. However, the specific kind of motivation that is studied in the specialized setting of education differs qualitatively from the more general forms of motivation studied by psychologists in other fields. Motivation in education can have several effects on how students learn and their behavior towards subject matter. It can:

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1. Direct behavior toward particular goals.2. Lead to increased effort and energy3. Increase initiation of, and persistence in,

activities.4. Enhance cognitive processing.5. Determine what consequences are

reinforcing.6. Lead to improve performance.

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• Because students are not always internally motivated, they sometimes need situated motivation, which is found in environmental conditions that the teacher creates. There are two kinds of motivation:

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• Intrinsic Motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do something because it either brings them pleasure, they think it is important, or they feel that what they are learning is morally significant.

• Extrinsic Motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do something or act a certain way because of factors external to him of her (like money of good grades).

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• Finally, the last concept relates to self- efficacy. Self-efficacy is an impression that one is capable of performing in a certain manner or attaining certain goals. It is a belief that one has the capabilities to execute the courses of actions required to manage prospective situations. Unlike efficacy, which is the power to produce an effect (in essence, competence), self-efficacy is the belief (whether or not accurate) that one has power to produce that effect.

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Methods of AssessingAffective Targets

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• There are three feasible methods of assessing affective targets in the classroom: teacher observation, student self-report, and peer ratings. Teacher observation can be structured or unstructured. Several observations should be made; recording of behavior should occur as soon as possible after the observation. Inferences are made from what was observed.

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Peer Appraisal - is the least common method of assessing affect due to the relatively inefficient nature of conducting, scoring, and interpreting peer ratings.

The two common approaches to obtain peer ratings are the guess-who and sociometric techniques. These can be used in conjunction with teacher observation and self-reports to strengthen assessment of interpersonal and classroom environmental targets.

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• In the guess-who approach, students are asked to list the students they believe best correspond to behavior descriptions. The descriptions may be positive or negative, though usually these are positive to avoid highlighting undesirable traits. Scoring is done by simply counting the number of times each student is listed.

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One disadvantage is that some shy and withdrawn students may be overlooked, resulting in lack of information about them. While in a sociometric techniques, students are asked to nominate students they would like to work or play with and reflect this in a sociogram (a diagram that shows the social structure of the group).

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• Most common measurement tool in the affective domain• Requires an individual to provide an account of his attitude

or feelings toward a concept or idea or people.• Sometimes called “written reflections”• In using this measurement tool, the teacher requires the

students to write his/her thoughts on a subject matter, like, “Why I like or dislike Mathematics”.

• The teacher ensure that the students write somethings which would demonstrate the various levels of the texonomy.

Student Self-Reports:

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Self-reports include the following:

1. Interviews – allow teachers to probe and clarify in order to avoid ambiguity, though this is time consuming.

2. Questionnaires –time efficient and can be anonymous unlike the interview.

*However, proper student motivation to take the questions seriously is essential. Selected-response format, such as the Likert Scale, are efficient to score and can be anonymous when assessing group.

3. Survey

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• It is often unrealistic to attempt to capture the full picture with one overall attitude-scale question, thus a set of statements to describe the object is most preferable.

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Different Attitude

Scales

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require a rater to indicate a degree of disagreement to a variety of statements related to student’s attitude.

are also called summated scales, because the scores on the individual items are summed up to produce a total score for the student.[Alternative is to get the mean value of each item.]

A. Likert Scales

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• Item Part – a statement about an attitude to a particular issue or event.

• Evaluative Part – a list or response categories ranging from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree”.

Two Parts of Likert Scale:

The Likert Scale may consist of 5 to 20 statements, each of which is unidimensional.

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Table 1. Illustration of a Likert ScaleNote: In this example, a student is assigned a score between

strongly disagree on different qualities associated with delivering a speech.

Name of Student _________________________Section _________________________________

5 = Strongly Agree 4 = Agree 3 = Uncertain 2 = Disagree 1 = Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 1. The speech is well organized.1 2 3 4 5 2. The student shows persuasiveness in delivering the speech.1 2 3 4 5 3. The student uses appropriate diction in the delivery of the speech.1 2 3 4 5 4. The student shows proper posture.1 2 3 4 5 5. The student establishes initial interest in the first few minutes during the speech.

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• These scales are used widely to describe a student’s opinion or beliefs on a particular issue or subject. The respondents are asked to rate each indicator on a number of 5 or 7 point rating scale bounded at each by polar adjectives or phrases.

B. Semantic-Differential Scales

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There may be as many as 15 to 25 semantic-differential scales for each attitude object. Each of these items considers the following;

• The pairs of objects or phrases are selected carefully to be meaningful to the issue being rated.

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• The negative or the unfavorable pole is sometimes on the right side and sometimes on the left. This is needed to avoid the halo effect, in which the location of previous judgments on the scale affects subsequent judgments because of rater’s carelessness.

• The category increments are treated as interval scales. As with Likert Scaling, this assumption is controversial, but can be adopted because it permits more powerful methods of score analysis.

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Table 2. Illustration of a Semantic-Differential Scale

[Using the same example earlier, a student’s rating is simply represented by the checked space on different qualities associated with delivering a speech.]

Name of Student __________________________Section __________________________________

Well Organized ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Disorganize Dull ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Very Interesting Poorly Articulated ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Well Articulated Appropriate Bearing ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ No Bearing Expressionless ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Very Expressive

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• These are simplified versions of semantic-differential scales which use only one pole. Students are rated on the issue/object by selecting a numerical category. The higher the positive score the better the adjective describes the issue. The main virtue of this scale is that it is easy to administer and construct because there is no need to provide adjectives or phrases to assure bipolarity.

C. Stapel Scales

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Table 3. Illustration of a Staple Scale

[Using the same example earlier, a student’s rating is simply represented by selecting/encircling a numerical category for each of the qualities associated with delivering a speech]

Name of Student ______________________________Section ______________________________________

Establishes initial interest +3 +2 +1 -1 -2 -3 Sustains interest +3 +2 +1 -1 -2 -3 Organization +3 +2 +1 -1 -2 -3 Persuasiveness +3 +2 +1 -1 -2 -3 Dependency +3 +2 +1 -1 -2 -3 Enunciation +3 +2 +1 -1 -2 -3 Grammar +3 +2 +1 -1 -2 -3 Posture +3 +2 +1 -1 -2 -3 Gestures +3 +2 +1 -1 -2 -3

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General Guidelines For

Developing a SetOf

Items

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1. Determine clearly what it is that you want to Assess

• The scale should be well grounded in theory. The construct to be measured and the scale itself should be specific. The meaning and the definition of the construct should be clearly distinguishable from other constructs.

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2. Generate as many items as possible.

• Items essentially are statements that are relevant to the constructs. The content of each item should reflect primarily the construct of interest. If items are being written anew, they should be written with as much creativity as possible. The greater the number of initial items generated, the better the final scale will be. The items that are developed should not be too long, nor should they6 pose any reading difficulty during the rating of the student.

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3. Ask experts to evaluate the initial pool of items.

• Experts are also teachers who are familiar or have enough experience with the construct where the student is being evaluated. They can also be academics whose expertise include that particular phenomenon. Having experts review the item pool can confirm or invalidate the definition of the construct.

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• Experts can also give inputs on the relevancy, clarity, and conciseness of the items. Based on the expert’s evaluation, the initial pool of items is modified. Some items are dropped while others are added, and a few of the existing ones are changed.

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4.Determine the type of attitudinal scale to be used.

• The next step is to decide on the type of scale to be employed. The various scales such as Likert scale and semantic-differential scale have already been discussed. In fact, the type of attitudinal scale to be used has to be decided quite early, because the wording of the items varies with each scale format.

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5. Evaluate and refine the items of the scale.

• The ultimate quality that is sought in an item is high correlation with the true score of the latent variable that is being measure. The properties that the items of a scale should possess are high intercorrelation, high item scale correlation, high item variances, a mean close to the center of the range of possible scores, and high coefficient alpha. The items in the scale are then evaluated on the basis of these criteria.

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6. Optimize scale length

• The larger the scale, the greater the reliability, but shorter scales are easier for the teacher or rater to use. Hence, a balance has to be struck between brevity and reliability, and the optimal scale length has to be determined. Certain items in the scale are dropped or modified, then the final scale is ready to be used as instrument to evaluate students in the particular construct.