Advanced Placement Psychology

Chapter 14: Personality

Personality: The unique pattern of enduring thoughts, feelings and actions that characterize a person

Four Main TheoriesPsychodynamic Theory: Freud’s

theoryTrait Approach: Patterns of

characteristic thoughts, feelings, & actions that form individual personalities

Social-Cognitive Approach: Roles of learning & cognition

Phenomenological Approach: How each person’s unique view of the world shapes personality

Psychodynamic TheoriesOriginated with Freud’s

psychoanalytic theoryFreud said the

unconscious was a source of powerful impulses, instincts, motives, and conflicts that energize personality.

“Free Association”

Psychodynamic ApproachIn the beginning, there was Freud…

Personality is derived from internal conflicts and how they are resolved.

a) Id – Pleasure Principle◦ Present at birthi. Eros (Life Instinct)

Libido Positive, constructive behavior

ii. Thanatos (Death Instinct) Aggression & destructiveness

b) Ego – Reality Principle◦ Evolves from the Id◦ Resolves the Id’s impulses but with respect to the

rules of reality.

c) Superego – Conscience ◦ Developed from internalizing parental & societal

values

Personality Structure

Freud saw human personality as an iceberg with three parts: the Ego, Superego and Id. In this model, the superego and the id were antagonist parts, regulated by the ego.

Id

Superego

Ego Conscious mind

Unconscious mind

The IdThe primitive, unconscious

reservoir that houses the basic motives, drives & instinctive desires that determine our personalities. ◦Always acts on impulse and seeks

immediate pleasure◦The only part of the personality

present at birth

The SuperegoThe “police” of personalityIs responsible for morals &

values learned from societyDevelops as the the child

forms an internal set of rules based on external experiences◦The inner voice of “shoulds”

and “should nots”◦Often conflicts with the id

The Ego

Regulates the conflict between the id & the superego

The conscious, rational part of the mind

The ego must figure out a way to satisfy one’s desires, while not violating one’s moral code.

Upset balance = possible mental disorder

Repression and LibidoRepression

◦The process of pushing the needs and desires that cause guilt into the unconscious

◦Remain as conflicts and anxieties that interfere with daily life

Libido◦People have real (as in, biological) energy

inside, which controls behavior◦Seeks some kind of discharge◦Causes tension if tension is not released,

desires appear as dreams or fantasies

Psychosexual StagesFreud believed our early experiences

stayed with us & affected us throughout our development

Should something happen in the early years, people will have problems to overcome later:

Oedipus complex: boy in love with their mother Identification: boys love their mom/identify

with their dad Penis envy: girls desire to have a penis-

attracted to males Fixation: occurs when development is stopped

at a particular stage

Freud’s Psychosexual StagesPersonality develops depending on how we resolve the conflicts at each stage

Stage Theory: Implies that personality develops in discrete stages in a particular order.

a) Oral Stage [Source of pleasure = Mouth because the mouth is used to eat and explore the world]

◦ Fixation occurs from weaning too early or too late (overeating, alcoholism, child-like dependence)

b) Anal Stage [Source of pleasure = Anal area because the main conflict is toilet training]

◦ Fixation occurs when it is too harsh or occurs too early or too late.

◦ Anal Retentive: Overly concerned with neatness (withholding feces)

◦ Anal Expulsive: Impulsive and disorganized (expelling feces at will)

c) Phallic Stage [Source of pleasure = Genital area]◦ Oedipus Complex: Boy experiences sexual desire for the

mother and a desire to eliminate the father, but the ego represses these thoughts & the boy seeks to identify with the father.

◦ Electra Complex: Girl experiences penis envy and transfers her love to her father, but the ego represses these thoughts.

◦ Fixation causes problems with authority figures and an inability to maintain stable love relationships

d) Latency Stage [Period of relative peace]◦ Nothing happens!

e) Genital Stage [Source of pleasure = Genital area (again)]

◦ When sexual impulses begin during adolescence◦ Lasts until death

Stages in Personality DevelopmentFreud’s Psychosexual Stages

Freud’s Psychosexual StagesFreud’s Psychosexual Stages

Stage Focus

Oral Pleasure centers on the mouth--(0-18 months) sucking, biting, chewing

Anal Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder (18-36 months) elimination; coping with demands for

control

Phallic Pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with (3-6 years) incestuous sexual feelings

Latency Dormant sexual feelings(6 to puberty)

Genital Maturation of sexual interests(puberty on)

Psychodynamic Defense MechanismsDeflecting anxiety and guilt for short-term gain

a) Repression◦ Unconsciously pushing

threatening memories, urges, or ideas from conscious awareness

◦ Forgetting unpleasant things

b) Rationalization◦ Attempts to make actions

or mistakes more reasonable

◦ Things that sound reasonable, but are not the real reasons for behavior (e.g., “I spank my child because it is good for them.”

c) Projection◦ Unconsciously attributing

one’s own unacceptable thoughts or impulses to another person.

◦ Instead of recognizing that you hate someone, you might think that they hate you

d) Reaction Formation◦ Defending against

unacceptable impulses by acting opposite to them.

◦ Feeling attracted to a married friend might turn into strong dislike instead

Psychodynamic Defense MechanismsDeflecting anxiety and guilt for short-term gain

e) Sublimation◦ Converting unacceptable

impulses into socially acceptable actions, and perhaps symbolically representing them.

◦ Aggressive desires may appear as devotion to athletic excellence

f) Displacement◦ Deflecting an impulse from its

original target to a less threatening one.

g) Denial◦ Simply discounting the

existence of threatening impulses.

h) Compensation◦ Striving to make up for

unconscious impulses or fears.

◦ Strong competitiveness might be compensating for a feeling of inferiority

Criticism of FreudMany Freudian concepts (libido,

repression) are vagueFocus is on retrospective

explanation◦Only looks back – doesn’t give credit

to present or futureNo thought given to womenThe unconscious mind is not as

smart/purposeful as Freud would like us to believe

Evaluation: The Psychodynamic ApproachEvidence based on a few case studies

Culturally taboo to talk about sexual abuse, so Freud attributed his patients’ stories to fantasies.

Unscientific because it is not measurable.◦Id, Ego, and Superego ignores that much

of human behavior is not instinctive.

Neo-FreudiansFreud’s colleagues broke away from his

view, but still maintained a psychodynamic aspect

Alfred Adler◦ importance of childhood social tension

Karen Horney◦sought to balance Freud’s masculine biases

Carl Jung◦emphasized the collective unconscious

concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history

Variations on Freud’s TheoryRevenge of the Neo-Freudians

1. Carl Jung [yoong]◦ Argued the libido wasn’t just sexual instinct, but a

general life force◦ We develop differing degrees of introversion &

extraversion

a) Introversion – Tendency to reflect on one’s own experiences

b) Extraversion – Tendency to focus on the outside world

Collective Unconscious◦ Memories that we inherit

from our ancestors◦ Not actually backed up by empirical

evidence, but was still widely accepted.

Jung continued…Personas

◦ Jung’s term for a “mask” people wear to hide what they really are or feel

Personality shows two characteristics:◦Personal tendencies

Unique likes and dislikes that set us apart from others

◦“Collective” aspects Cultural aspects that are shared by the group

+

Other Neo-Freudian TheoristsThe Rebel Alliance of psychology2. Alfred Adler [Striving for

Superiority]◦ Personality Theory: People try to feel

important & worthwhilea) Superiorityb) Inferiority

a) Example: Bullies

3. Karen Horney [HORN-eye]◦ Denied Penis Envy & argued that men

envied women because men can’t bear children. [Womb Envy]

◦ Personality Theory: It’s all about love <3

Trait TheoriesPersonality Traits = the

prominent characteristics each of us has

Trait Approach = views personality as stable internal characteristics that people display consistently over time & across situations

Assumptions of the Trait Theory

1. Personality traits are relatively stable, and therefore predictable over time

2. Personality traits are relatively stable across situations

3. People differ with regard to how much of a particular personality trait they possess

Get out a piece of paper…Describe yourself using as many

adjectives as you can. Just keep writing. The more the merrier.

Cross out the words that only describe you in certain special situations.

Group your adjectives together in whatever categories you think are appropriate.◦ i.e. putting together all of the words that mean

“happy” or all the words that mean “outgoing”

Gordon AllportGrouped adjectives into 2

categories of personality traits:◦Central Traits

Apparent to others and hold true in different situations

Ex: Reliable, humorous, etc.

◦Secondary Traits Applies to only specific situations Less control over behavior Ex: Dislikes crowds

Hans EysenckThree major dimensions of

personality:◦Extraversion-Introversion

Personality dimension of being outgoing and sociable, or quiet and reserved

◦Emotionality-stability Personality dimension that concerns how much

a person is affected by feelings Ex: calm or anxious, depressed or upbeat, etc.

◦Psychoticism Personality dimension that concerns attributes

such as cruelty, coldness, and oddness, or none of these attributes

Hans Eysenck’s Major Personality Dimensions

Raymond CattellDivided personality traits into two

major categories◦Surface Traits

Characteristics that can be easily and directly observed by others on a regular basis

Ex: give in to others, won’t have an opinion

◦Source Traits Underline surface behavior – cluster of

surface traits Ex: source trait is being submissive in the

above example

Examining Personality TraitsThe Five-Factor Model

Extraversion how sociable or outgoing a person is

Agreeableness how well a person gets along with others

Consciousness the degree to which people have self-discipline and the will to achieve

Emotional Stability how stable and comfortable a person is with their emotions

Openness to Experience a person’s curiosity or willingness to consider other opinions

The Five-Factor Model

The “Big Five” Personality FactorsTrait Dimension DescriptionEmotional Stability Calm versus anxious

Secure versus insecure

Self-satisfied versus self-pityingExtraversion Sociable versus retiring

Fun-loving versus sober

Affectionate versus reservedOpenness Imaginative versus practical

Preference for variety versus

preference for routine Independent

versus conforming

Agreeableness Soft-hearted versus ruthless Trusting versus

suspicious Helpful versus

uncooperativeConscientiousness Organized versus disorganized

Careful versus careless

Disciplined versus impulsive

Evaluation of the Trait ApproachBetter at describing people than at

understanding them◦They say how people behave, but not why

Don’t say much about how traits are related to the thoughts and feelings that precede, accompany, & follow behavior◦Do introverts and extraverts decide to act

as they do?Situations & interactions with others

also affect behavior!

Social Cognitive TheoryDerives from experimentsBased on the idea that personality is

a result of learning, perception & social interaction

Emphasizes:◦The role of learned patterns of thought

in guiding our actions◦The fact that much of personality is

learned in social situations through interaction with & observation of other people

Prominent Social-Cognitive TheoriesRotter’s Expectancy Theory

◦Behavior is determined by cognitive expectations What we expect to happen after the

behavior The value we place on the outcome

People learn how life’s rewards and punishments are controlled.◦Internal Locus of Control◦External Locus of Control

Albert Bandura & Reciprocal DeterminismA potentially vicious cycle

Behavior tends to affect the environment, which in turn may affect cognitions, which then may affect behavior, and so on…

Cognitions

Behaviors

Environment

a

b

dc

d

e

a) Hostile thinking leads to hostile behavior

b) Hostile behavior creates a hostile environment

c) Hostile behavior produces hostile thoughts

d) Being in a hostile environment causes more hostile behaviors and thoughts

e) Thoughts can alter perceptions of the environment, making it seem more hostile

Albert BanduraSelf-Efficacy & Psychological Well-Beinga) Self-Efficacy – The learned expectations of success.

◦ Overt behavior is controlled by expectations◦ Results of behavior shape an individual’s psychological

well-being

Social ActivismProtest

Grievance

Assured opportune

action

ResignationApathy

Self-devaluation

Despondency

Outcome Expectation

Self

-Effi

cacy J

ud

gm

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t

Mischel and Cognitive ProcessesEach person has a

unique personality, which is learned at some point.

a) Cognitive Person Variables

◦ Beliefs and expectancies that characterize each person as a unique individual

◦ Five main categories of variables.

b) Situation Variables

i. Competencies◦ Thoughts & actions

ii. Perceptions◦ How person perceives

environment

iii. Expectations◦ What person expects to

follow from various behaviors

iv. Subjective Values◦ Person’s ideals & goals

v. Self-Regulation and Plans

◦ Person’s standards for self-reward & plans for reaching goals

Evaluation: Social-Cognitive ApproachPros

◦ Objective & experimentally oriented◦ Uses empirical data & operationally defined

concepts◦ Results & principles treatment methods

Cons◦ Human personality is more than a set of learned

responses derived from relationships with the environment

◦ Fails to consider unconscious processes◦ Neglects contributions of emotion to personality◦ Excludes genetics & physiology

Prominent Phenomenological TheoriesRogers’ Self Theory

Personality is the expression of each individual’s actualizing tendency as it unfolds in that individual’s uniquely perceived reality.◦ Actualizing Tendency – Innate inclination toward growth &

fulfillment that motivates all human behavior.◦ Personality is a factor of actualizing tendency &

other’s evaluation

Self [The “I” or “me” of experience]◦ Positive Regard – Approval from others◦ Self-Concept – The way one thinks of oneself◦ Congruence – Occurs when evaluations match the child’s

own evaluation of self◦ Incongruence – Occurs when evaluations don’t match the

child’s own evaluation of self ◦ Conditions of Worth – Created when the person is

evaluated instead of their behavior

Maslow’s Humanistic PsychologyTrying to be all that you can be

Self-Actualization isn’t just a human capacity, but a need.

Deficiency Orientation◦ A preoccupation with perceived needs for material

things◦ People who are deficiency-oriented come to see

life as meaningless, disappointing, & boring.Growth Orientation

◦ Not focusing on what isn’t but drawing satisfaction from what is.

◦ Peak Experiences – Being joyous for just being human, alive, & having utilized their full potential.

Evaluation: Phenomenological ApproachPros

◦ Central focus is on each person’s immediate experience & on the uniqueness of each individual

◦ Produced client-centered therapy

Cons◦ People may not be all inherently good and driven

by an innate growth potential◦ Ignores:

Genetics Learning Situation Unconscious

◦ Culturally limiting: Defines “healthy” people as independent and autonomous individuals (very Western)

Assessment: Objective TestsMinnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

1. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory [MMPI & MMPI-2]

◦ 566 true-false test developed by the University of Minnesota in the 1930’s

◦ Clinical Scales Ten Scales Groups of items that, in earlier research, had elicited a

characteristic pattern of responses only from people who displayed particular psychological disorders or personality characteristics

◦ Validity Scales Four Scales Groups of items designed to detect whether respondents

distorted their answers, misunderstood the items, or were uncooperative

“I never get angry” If someone replies “True” then they might be lying for the other questions too

Assessment: Objective TestsNeuroticism Extraversion Openness Personality Inventory, Revised

2. Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Personality Inventory, Revised [NEO-PI-R]

◦Based on the “Big-Five” Personality traits◦Private Version

Self-Assessment

◦Public Version Asks a person who knows the respondent to rate

him or her

Results are often very similar between versions, but discrepancies may indicate potential problems

Assessment: Projective TestsWe do not see the world as it is, we see it as we are

1. Thematic Apperception Test [TAT]◦ Subjects asked to interpret an ambiguous image and tell

a story about it◦ The way a person tells the story reveals what they are

really like on the inside (distrusting, anxious, curious, etc.)

2. Rorschach Inkblot Test◦ Asks subjects what they see in a series of symmetrical

but ambiguous inkblots◦ Analysis is similar to the TAT

Ambiguous stimuli make it difficult to detect what is being measured

Difficult to score & tend to be less valid & reliable than objective tests