Advance Management Assignment

8/3/2019 Advance Management Assignment

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1. The Hawthorn study:

1.1 Who conducted the study:

The Hawthorne Studies (also knowns as the Hawthorne Experiments) were conducted

from 1924 to early1932 at the Hawthorn plant of the Western Electric Company in Cicero,

Illinois (a suburb of Chicago) was sponsored by the General Electric.

The study comducted by Harvard Business School professor (joined the Harvard Business

School faculty in 1926 ) Elton Mayo(1880-1949) and Fritz Roethlisberger. Mayo was born

in Australia, trained in psychology.

Elton Mayo started these experiments by examining the physical and environmental

influences of the workplace (e.g. brightness of lights, humidity) and later, moved into the

psychological aspects (e.g. breaks, group pressure, working hours, managerial leadership)

and their impact on employee motivation as it applies to productivity.

1.2 Aim of the Study:

To study attitudes and reactions of groups under varying conditions

To study the work setting affected worker fatigue and performance in production.

To identify factors other than fatigue that would diminish worker productivity

Specifically, Elton Mayo wanted to find out what effect fatigue and monotony had on job

productivity and how to control them through such variables as rest breaks, work hours,

temperature and humidity. In the process, he stumbled upon a principle of humanmotivation that would help to revolutionize the theory and practice of management.

1.3 Hawthorne Studies, a series of studies as follows :

1.3.1 Part I Illumination Experiments (1924-27):

Aim: These experiments were performed to find out the effect of different levels of

illumination (lighting) on productivity of labor.

Experiment Process: Study involved manipulating illumination for one group of workers

(Test group) and comparing their subsequent productivity with the productivity of another

group of worker (Control group) whose illumination was not changed.

Findings: When illumination was increased for the experimental group productivity went

up in both groups. Productivity continues to increase in both groups, even when the

lighting for the experimental group was decreased. Not till the lighting was reduced to the

level of moonlight did productivity begin to decline.

Result: The result were attributed to the fact that both groups received especial attention

and sympathetic supervision for perhaps the first time. Experiments showed an increase in

worker productivity was produced by the psychological stimulus of being singled out,

involved, and made to feel important.

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Conclution: No correlation was found between changes in lighting conditions and

individual work performance. It was concluded that factors other than light were also

important.

1.3.2 Part II Relay Assembly Test Room Experiment (1927-1929):

Aim: These experiments were performed to find out the effect of working comdition on

productivity of worker.

Experiment Process: Under these test small groups of six female telephone relay

assemblers were selected. Each group was kept in special test room where they were

observed. From time to time, changes were made in working hours, rest periods, lunch

breaks, wage incentive etc. They were allowed to choose their own rest periods and to give

suggestions.

Findings: Output increased.

Result: No matter what change they introduced, it always seemed no effect, rather

improved productivity, even when working condition returned into original state because

of the added attention they receive from the researchers.

Conclution: People work better when they are part of a clear social structure. Social

relationship among workers, participation decision-making, etc. had a greater effect on

productivity than purely material gains, even material goods or physical events or wages

or work hours etc.

1.3.3 Part III Terminal Bank Room of Telephone Exchange Experiment:

Aim: These experiments were performed to find out the effect of piece work pay plan on

productivity of a group worker.

Experiment Process: A piece work incentive pay plan for a group of nine people.

Scientific management would have predicted that each man would try to maximize his pay

by producing as many units as possible.

Findings: Researchers found that group itself informally established an acceptable level

of output for its members and produced at the acceptable level and slacked off to avoid

over producing.

Result: The incentive pay plans did not work because wage incentives were less important

to the individual workers than was social acceptance to determining output.

Conclution: Induividual and social process played a majore role in shaping worker

attitude and behaviour.

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1.3.4 Part IV - Bank Wiring Room Experiment (1932)

Aim: The experiments were designed to investigate group production norms and

individual motivation on productivity.

Experiment Process: A group of 14 male workers in the bank wiring room were placed

under observation. A worker's pay depended on the performance of the group as a whole.

The researchers thought that the efficient workers would put pressure on the less efficient

workers to complete the work.

Findings: it found that tests of intelligence, manual dexterity, and physical health were

unrelated to productivity. This means that social factors like norms of productivityoverwhelmed any differences in ability among the workers.

Work Condition change and Productivity Results:

Conditions Results

Put on piece-work for eight weeks. Output increased

Give two five minute rest pauses, morning and

afternoon, were introduced for a period of five

weeks.

Output went up once more

The breaks were each lengthened to ten minutes. Output rose sharplySix five minute pauses were introduced. The girls complained that their work

rhythm was broken by the frequent

pauses

And output fell only slightly

Return to the two rest pauses with a complimentary

hot meal during the morning break supplied by the

Company free of charge.

Output increased further still

The workday was shortened to end at 4.30 p.m.

instead of 5.00 p.m.

Output went up

The workday was shortened to end at 4.00 p.m. Output remained the same

Finally, all the improvements were taken away, and

the girls went back to the physical conditions of the

beginning of the experiment: work on Saturday, 48

hour week, no rest pauses, no piece work and no

free meal. This state of affairs lasted for a period of

12 weeks.

Output was the highest ever recorded

averaging 3000 relays a week. Where

under normal conditions with a forty

eight hour week, including Saturdays,

and no rest pauses. The girls produced

2,400 relays a week each.

Findings: The major finding of the study was that almost regardless of the experimental

manipulation employed, the production of the workers seemed to improve.

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Result: Individual and social process played a major role in shaping worker attitudes and

behavior

1.4 Outcome of Hawthorn study:

Group feeling:

Individuals became a team and the team gave itself wholeheartedly and spontaneously to

co-operation to each other as a result production increased.

Felt less pressure than ever before:

Gettig free movment and talking opportunity, decision taken workers felt less pressure

than ever before as a result production increased.

The experimenter effect:The experimenter effect was that making changes was interpreted by workers as a sign

that management cared, and more generally, it was just provided some mental stimulation

that was good for morale and productivity

A social effect:

The social effect was that it seemed that by being separated from the rest and being given

special treatment, the experimentee developed a certain bond and increased productivity.

Opportunity to use self techniques and intelligence:

Each girl had her own technique of putting the component parts of the relay together.

sometimes she varied this technique in order to avoid monotony and it was found that the

more intelligent the girl, the greater was the number of variations means prosuction.

Sense of responsibility:

Group had considerable freedom of movement. They were not pushed around or bossed by

anyone. Under these conditions they developed an increased sense of responsibility so

production increased.

1.5 Conclusions:

General conclusions were drawn from the Hawthorne studies:

Although they give some indication of the physical and mental potential of theindividual, the amount produced is strongly influenced by social factors.

The studies also showed that the relations that supervisors develop with workers

tend to influence the manner in which the workers carry out directives.

These experimentations led Mayo to conclude that logical factors were far less

important than emotional factors in determining productive efficiency.

Of all the human factors influencing employee behavior the most powerful were

the workers participation in social groups.

Effective management must recognize that, the work performed by individuals

must satisfy their personal, subjective requirement of social satisfaction, as well as the

companys requirement of productive output.

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The social and psychological factors are responsible for workers' productivity and job

satisfaction. Only good physical working conditions are not enough to increase

productivity.

The informal relations among workers influence the workers' behavior and

performance more than the formal relations in the organization. Employees will perform better if they are allowed to participate in decision-making

affecting their interests.

Employees will also work more efficiently, when they believe that the management is

interested in their welfare. When employees are treated with respect and dignity, their

performance will improve.

Financial incentives alone cannot increase the performance. Social and Psychological

needs must also be satisfied in order to increase productivity.

Good communication between the superiors and subordinates can improve the

relations and the productivity of the subordinates.

Special attention and freedom to express their views will improve the performance ofthe workers.

1.6 Criticism of Hawthorne Studies / Experiments:

The Hawthorne Experiments are mainly criticized on the following grounds:-

Lacks of Validity :

The Hawthorne experiments were conducted under controlled situations. These findings

will not work in real setting. The workers under observation knew about the experiments.

Therefore, they may have improved their performance only for the experiments.

More Importance to Human Aspects :

The Hawthorne experiment gives too much importance to human aspects. Human aspects

alone cannot improve production. Production also depends on technological and other

factors.

More Emphasis on Group Decision-making :

The Hawthorne experiments placed too much emphasis on group decision-making. In real

situation, individual decision-making cannot be totally neglected especially when quick

decisions are required and there is no time to consult others.

Over Importance to Freedom of Workers :The Hawthorne experiments give a lot of importance to freedom of the workers. It does

not give importance to the constructive role of the supervisors. In reality too much of

freedom to the workers can lower down their performance or productivity.

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2. Mary Parker Follett

2.1 Mary Parker Follett:

Mary Parker Follett (18681933) was an American social worker, consultant, and author

of books on democracy, human relations, and management. Follett was born into an

affluent Quaker family at Massachusetts in the United States of America and spent much

of her early life there. She studied philosophy, law and political science at Thayer

Academy and Radcliffe College and also studied in Cambridge and Paris. While at

Radcliffe she spent a year at Newnham College, Cambridge. Her research thesis atRadcliffe was published in 1896 as The Speaker of the House of Representatives (and

quickly became a standard work).

2.2 Her works:

1. Mary Parker Follett worked as a management and political theorist, introducing such

Phrases as:

"Conflict resolution,"

"Authority and power," and

"The task of leadership."

2. Follett was considered as a prophet emphasizing for togetherness and group

thinking.

3. Follett was one of the first to integrate the idea of organizational conflict into

management theory, and is sometimes considered the "mother of conflict resolution."

4. She looks at management and leadership holistically, presaging modern systems

approaches; she identifies a leader as "someone who sees the whole rather than the

particular."

5. Mary Parker Follett stressed the interactions of management and workers.

6. She is known for her pioneering ideas introducing human psychology and human

relations into industrial management.7. She published many works, including:

1. The Speaker of the House of Representatives (1896)

2. The New State (1918)

3. Creative Experience (1924)

4. Dynamic Administration (1942) -this collection of speeches and short

articles was published posthumously

2.3 Aim of the Study:

Follett attempted to establish a management philosophy based on the grounds that any

enduring society, any productive society, must be founded upon a recognition of the

motivating desires of the individual and the group.

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2.4 Procedure of the study:

She Suggested:

worker help in analyzing their job and

If worker have relevant knowledge of the task then they should control the task.

2.5 Findings of the study:

He recognizes the human element in the workplace. Her work clearly anticipated the

behavioral management perspective and she appreciated the need to understand the role of

behavior in organization.

1. She emphasis on human relations.

2. People becoming part of groups and important for people to work together and

understand each others roles.

3. The importance of the functioning of groups, not just individuals, in organization. Sheidentified

Group thinks Effect in decision making.

Creativity exercises such as brainstorming and most importantly,

MBO (Management by Objectives); which we know is mutual goal setting.

TQM/CQI (Total Quality Management, Continuous Quality Improvement)

An Integrated effort designed to improve quality performance at every level of the

organization.

4. Follett advocated for the principle of power with rather than Power over inmanagement employee relations. She was an advocate of honor and civility in the

workplace as well as the idea that - power and authority derives from function, not the

privilege of office. Such ideas and her strong belief in grassroots empowerment were

quite revolutionary at the time.

5. She strongly believes in the inherent problem solving ability of people working in

groups which is one assumption of theory Y by Douglas McGregor.

6. Follett asserts power should be cooperatively shared for the purpose of resolving

conflict rather than assuming classical management's strongly hierarchical position of

power in organizations. She argued for somewhat decentralization of power and less

bureaucracy in organization.

7. Follett said Remember that life is fluid she has tried to say situation or the

environment is constantly changing, and continuously interactive. We need to behave in a

certain way to response to the new situation.

8. She is best known for her integration method of conflict resolution as opposed to the

three choices she sites of domination, compromise or voluntary submission by one side

over another. She hypothesized that managers could resolve conflict in one of four ways:

(i) One side giving in,

(ii) One side forcing the other to submit,

(iii) Compromise

(iv) Integration.

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9. She recognized that a new principle of association was needed because people had not

yet learned how to live together in harmony.

10.She professed that this principle (i.e., the group concept) will be the basis for the future

industrial system, new approach to politics and new international order.

11.Follett sought to bridge the gap between the mechanistic approach of Taylor and thesubsequent approach of emphasizing human relations

2.6 Conclusions:

Follet maintained that the basic problem of any organization was harmonizing and

coordinating group effort. Coordination was the core of management and called for

attention to the following facets:

Coordination by direct contact

Coordination as a continuous processCoordination as a reciprocal relation in all aspects of a situation

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3. Time And Motion Study3.1 Who conducted the study?

Time study is the work of US industrialengineerFrederick Winslow Taylor(1856-1915).

Motion study is the work of FrankGilbreth (1868-1924) and Dr. Lillian Gilbreth (1878-

1972).

3.2 Time and motion study:

Lillian Gilbreth introduced psychology to management studies and Frank Gilbreth

(husband of Lillian) discovered scientific management while working in the construction

industry, eventually developing motion studies independently of Taylor. These logically

complemented Taylor's time studies, as time and motion are two sides of the efficiency

improvement coin. The two fields eventually became time and motion studywhich is a

businessefficiency technique.

Time study developed in the direction of establishing standard times, while motion study

evolved into a technique for improving work methods. The two techniques became

integrated and refined into a widely accepted method applicable to the improvement and

upgrading of work systems. This integrated approach to work system improvement is

known as methods engineering and it is applied today to industrial as well as service

organizations.

Time and Motion Studies introduced fixed performance standards for time, cost, and

quality of work. Which lead to uniformity of work, as a result the efficiency of theworkers could be compared with each other.

3.2.1 Time Studies

Taylor was born into a wealthy Philadelphia family in 1856 and study law at Harvard

University, He is generally considered the father of scientific management.

Dissatisfied with what he perceived as a lack of efficiency among American workers,

Taylor began a series of time management studies that resulted in his best-known work,

The Principles of Scientific Management(1911), in which he set forth a system of efficient

work that eventually was adopted by managers throughout the United States.

For doing time study need to understand some terminology such as:

Timing: The observer records the actual time taken to do the element or operation.

Rating: To adjust the actual time to a standardized basic time that is appropriate. Rating

is on a scale with 100 as its standard rating, Elements: Several smaller parts (elements)

which, separately, will each be timed and rated. Basic time: This is the standardised time

for carrying out an element of work at standard rating. Allowances: Extra time is allowed

for various conditions Frequency: element 2 only occurs once every eight cycles so its

basic time is one eighth of the element time Standard time: Basic time + allowances

3.2.2 Aim of the Study:

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The aim of time study is to establish a time for a qualified worker to perform specified

work under stated conditions and at a defined rate of working. Time study is tried and

tested method of work measurement for setting basic times and hence standard times for

carrying out specified work.

3.2.3 Procedure of Time study:

Time study means to record the time taken for doing each part of a job. For this need:

The full job is first observed and analyzed.

Then it is divided into different elements (parts).

Later the time taken for doing each part of the job is recorded using a timekeeping

device (e.g., decimal minute stopwatch, computer-assisted electronic stopwatch, and

videotape camera).

Time Calculation Flow:

Time study is often used when:

- There are repetitive work cycles of short to long duration,

- Wide variety of dissimilar work is performed, or

- Process control elements constitute a part of the cycle.

The requirements for taking a time study are quite strict, such as:

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Establishing StandardJob Method

Job Breaking

Job

Study

?

Performance Rating

Avg. Time Computing

Normal Time Computing

Standard Time

Computing

Total minutes ofactiviyies/no. of total

activities

Nt=(t)(RF) or

Normal Time=(elemental

averagetime)x(rating

factor)

Standard time ST=(Nt)(1+AF) or Standard

Time=(Normal cycle time)

x (1+Allowance factor)


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- The observer must be fully qualified to carry out Time Study,

- The person performing the task must be fully trained and experienced in the work,

- The work must be clearly defined and the method of doing the work must be effective

- The working conditions must be clearly defined.

3.2.4 Findings of the study:

Time study helps the management to know exactly how much time it will take to do a

particular job. This helps the management to fix the amount of work to be done by each

worker in one hour or in one day. That is, management can fix a standard output of work

for a certain period of time.

Conclusion: Time study will prevent the workers from passing time, working slowly and

doing less work. Time study helps to increase the productivity of the organization.

Criticism of Time study:

Disguised tool of management

Employee Initiatives inhibited

Individual interpretation

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3.3 Motion study:

Frank and Lillian Gilbreth (Husband and Wife) Motion study is the determination of the

best way of doing a job based on the careful scrutiny of the work performed within the

organization eliminating unnecessary, inefficient and wasteful movements while doing the

job.

Motion study consists of careful analysis of body motions used in doing a job to assist ineliminating and reducing ineffective or wasteful movement and reduce the total time taken

for performing the work.

Frank Gilbreth with his engineering background backed by the knowledge of psychology

of his wife, Lillian Gilbreth stated Motion study as -

Analyzing an activity into its smallest possible elements and from the results

synthesizing a method of performing the activity that shall be more efficient.

3.3.1 Aim of the motion study:

- To find out better ways to perform the action.

- To reorganize each job action to be more efficient.

3.3.2 Procedure of the study: Breaking up each job action into its components:

(1) A complex task is broken into small, simple steps,

(2) The sequence of movements taken by the employee in performing those steps is

carefully observed to detect and eliminate redundant or wasteful motion, and

(3) Precise time taken for each correct movement is measured.

From these measurementsproduction and delivery times andprices can be computed and

incentive schemes can be devised. Generally appropriate only for repetitive tasks.

Steps of Developing Motion Study

Understanding the general nature of existing method of performing work. Studying the existing method in detail analyzing and timing in detail each andevery motion. This involves use of many alternative techniques such as Simple motion

study, Micro motion study, two handed process chart, SIMO, Cycle graph,Chronocyclegraph, and Memo-motion study.

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Record the facts. Develop alternative improved methods. Evaluate and compare alternative method.This step leads to identification of the best method.

Define and document the new improved method.

Install the new method. Where required this involves provision of standard toolsand working environment, it also includes training of the workmen in new methods of

working.

Maintain the new method.

Taylors Bricklaying motion study Experiment:

In 1885,Gilbreth started out as an apprentice bricklayer. There he noticed three

techniques: one, for just a regular day, second was to hurry up to finish a wall, and third,

just to stretch out the job to fill the day and think which should be "The One Best Way.

Frank and Lillian Gilbreth used cameras, they studied workers (masons) doing commonmovement for bricklaying. They found that the workers do many wasted motions while

doing their work such the job had been stooping 125 times per hour for brick and 125

times for mortar that is the traditional method resulted in fatigue and The time-consuming,

So, they asked the workers to stop all unnecessary motions and to do only the motions

which were necessary for doing the job.

By using Gilbreths method, a man could lay more bricks, standing normally and return

home after a full days work not nearly as tired and reduced the motions per brick from 18

to 5 and increased the number of bricks laid per hour from 125 to 350. In folding cotton

cloth, 20 to 30 motions were reduced to 10 or 12, with the result that instead of 150 dozen

pieces of cloth, 400 dozen were folded, with no added fatigue.

Conclusion: The Gilbreth Motion Study reduced tiredness, increased productivity of

workers by eliminating wasted motions.

3.3.3 Some Findings derived from motion Studies:

Motion study helps in determination of the best way of doing a job

Eliminating unnecessary and inefficient processes reduce fatigue and helped in

recognizing the key skills for doing the job effectively.

Motion study helps in simplification and standardization of method by a systematic

approach. This approach ensures that the new methods make work easier as well asmore effective.

Greater motivation improved efficiency in the work which in turn increased the

productivity resulting in better employer-employee relationships.

3.4 Conclusion:

Time and motion study have to be used together in order to achieve rational and

reasonable results. It is particularly important that effort be applied in motion study to

ensure equitable results when time study is used. In fact, much of the difficulty with time

study is a result of applying it without a thorough study of the motion pattern of the job.

Motion study can be considered the foundation for time study. The time study measures

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the time required to perform a given task in accordance with a specified method and is

valid only so long as the method is continued.

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Advance Management Assignment