Adult Learning: Theories, Adult Learning: Theories, Assumptions, and Assumptions, and

PerspectivesPerspectives

““The art and science of helping The art and science of helping adults learn”adults learn”

Malcolm KnowlesMalcolm Knowles

Adult Learning: Theories, Adult Learning: Theories, Assumptions, and PerspectivesAssumptions, and Perspectives

Survey (Jean)Survey (Jean) Overview of Andragogy (Wade)Overview of Andragogy (Wade) Different Views of Adult LearningDifferent Views of Adult Learning

Transformative Learning (Jo)Transformative Learning (Jo) Self-directed Learning (Sabrina)Self-directed Learning (Sabrina) Foreign-Born (Sheryl)Foreign-Born (Sheryl) Afro centric (Jean)Afro centric (Jean)

Survey (Jean)Survey (Jean)

History of Adult Learning Theory:History of Adult Learning Theory:From “From “Whatagogy?”Whatagogy?” to to AndragogyAndragogy

The Meaning of Adult EducationThe Meaning of Adult Education by Eduard by Eduard Lindeman in 1926 marked the beginning of adult Lindeman in 1926 marked the beginning of adult education as a fieldeducation as a field

Adult educators began to look for a unique adult Adult educators began to look for a unique adult education knowledge baseeducation knowledge base

European adult educators began to use the term European adult educators began to use the term andragogyandragogy in the 1950s in the 1950s

Andragogy Andragogy finally surfaced and became part of finally surfaced and became part of the educational language in 1967 with Malcolm the educational language in 1967 with Malcolm Knowles, a prominent scholar in the field of adult Knowles, a prominent scholar in the field of adult education. He writes:education. He writes:

……in 1967 I had an experience that made it all in 1967 I had an experience that made it all come together. A Yugoslavian adult educator, come together. A Yugoslavian adult educator, Dusan Savicevi, participated in a summer Dusan Savicevi, participated in a summer session I was conducting at Boston University. session I was conducting at Boston University. At the end of it he came up to me with his eyes At the end of it he came up to me with his eyes sparkling and said , “Malcolm, you are preaching sparkling and said , “Malcolm, you are preaching and practicingand practicing andragogy andragogy.” I replied .” I replied ““WhatagogyWhatagogy?” because I had never heard the ?” because I had never heard the term before. He explained that the term had term before. He explained that the term had been coined by a teacher in a German grammar been coined by a teacher in a German grammar school, Alexander Kapp, in 1833… The term lay school, Alexander Kapp, in 1833… The term lay fallow until it was once more introduced by a fallow until it was once more introduced by a German social scientist, Eugene Rosenstock, in German social scientist, Eugene Rosenstock, in 1921, but it did not receive general recognition. 1921, but it did not receive general recognition. Then in 1957 a German teacher, Franz Then in 1957 a German teacher, Franz Poggeler, published a booPoggeler, published a book Introduction Into k Introduction Into Andragogy: Basic Issues in Adult Education...Andragogy: Basic Issues in Adult Education...

Andragogy DefinedAndragogy Defined The term The term andragogyandragogy is based on the Greek work is based on the Greek work

aner (with the stem andr-) aner (with the stem andr-) meaning ‘man not meaning ‘man not boy’ (Plato’s idea that adults continue to learnboy’ (Plato’s idea that adults continue to learn

The Modern Practice of Adult Education: The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Andragogy versus Pedagogy Andragogy versus Pedagogy (1970) Malcolm (1970) Malcolm KnowlesKnowles

Knowles defines Knowles defines andragogyandragogy as the art and as the art and science of helping adults learn in contrast with science of helping adults learn in contrast with pedagogy,pedagogy, which concerns helping children learn which concerns helping children learn

Is Is AndragogyAndragogy a learning theory or set of a learning theory or set of assumptions?assumptions?

TheoryTheory

““A theory is a set of interrelated concepts A theory is a set of interrelated concepts that explain some aspect of the field in a that explain some aspect of the field in a parsimonious manner” (Merriam and parsimonious manner” (Merriam and Caffarella, 1989) Caffarella, 1989)

Learning Theory: Four Major Learning Theory: Four Major LensesLenses

Behaviorist – People’s behavior is a Behaviorist – People’s behavior is a collection of habits. Individuals learn collection of habits. Individuals learn through positive reinforcement and through positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. (Thorndike, negative reinforcement. (Thorndike, Watson, & Skinner)Watson, & Skinner)

Subject-Centered – Primary teaching Subject-Centered – Primary teaching function is the selection of “lesson plans” function is the selection of “lesson plans” containing the content and “right” answers. containing the content and “right” answers. (Locke, Herbart & Hirsch)(Locke, Herbart & Hirsch)

Learning Theory: Four Major Learning Theory: Four Major LensesLenses

Constructivist – Knowledge is not simply Constructivist – Knowledge is not simply “out there” to be attained; it is constructed “out there” to be attained; it is constructed by the learner.by the learner.

Student Centered – students’ interest and Student Centered – students’ interest and needs must be integrated with subject needs must be integrated with subject demands – meaningful learning takes demands – meaningful learning takes place as the abstract world of concepts place as the abstract world of concepts connects to the real world of personal connects to the real world of personal experience (Dewey)experience (Dewey)

Five Assumptions of Andragogy Five Assumptions of Andragogy according to Knowles (1973)according to Knowles (1973)

Self-ConceptSelf-Concept: Adult learners are directing their : Adult learners are directing their own plan. (teacher directed vs. self directed)own plan. (teacher directed vs. self directed)

ExperienceExperience: Adult learners bring an ever : Adult learners bring an ever growing reservoir of experience and knowledge growing reservoir of experience and knowledge to the table. The traditional concept of the to the table. The traditional concept of the “tabla rasa” or blank slate does not apply to the “tabla rasa” or blank slate does not apply to the adult learner.adult learner.

Readiness to learnReadiness to learn: Adults are focused and : Adults are focused and ready in a highly pragmatic way. Adults want to ready in a highly pragmatic way. Adults want to learn those things that will have a direct impact learn those things that will have a direct impact on themselves, their family, and/or work. on themselves, their family, and/or work.

Five Assumptions of Andragogy Five Assumptions of Andragogy according to Knowles (1973)according to Knowles (1973)

Orientation to learningOrientation to learning: Problem centered : Problem centered rather than subject centered. rather than subject centered.

MotivationMotivation: Adult learners are learning for : Adult learners are learning for a reason, and they push themselves a reason, and they push themselves from within. They are sparked by an from within. They are sparked by an inner source and have a sense of inner source and have a sense of urgency about their learning. (internal vs. urgency about their learning. (internal vs. external motivation)external motivation)

Four Supporting Assumptions Four Supporting Assumptions according to Dirkx, Lavin, and according to Dirkx, Lavin, and

Pelavin (1995)Pelavin (1995) Diverse, active learnersDiverse, active learners: wealth of experiences: wealth of experiences Problem-orientedProblem-oriented: pragmatic learners, seeking to : pragmatic learners, seeking to

improve their performanceimprove their performance Control of their own learningControl of their own learning: voluntary learners : voluntary learners

who take seriously their decision to return to who take seriously their decision to return to school.school.

Strong sense of selfStrong sense of self: varying degrees of self-: varying degrees of self-efficacy, but sense of self plays a major role in efficacy, but sense of self plays a major role in their learningtheir learning

Andragogy: Theory or Set of Andragogy: Theory or Set of Assumptions?Assumptions?

Defining questions:Defining questions: What is andragogy and to whom does it What is andragogy and to whom does it

apply?apply? Do some or all of the assumptions apply to Do some or all of the assumptions apply to

children?children? Are its assumptions to simplistic?Are its assumptions to simplistic? Does andragogy ignore the learning context?Does andragogy ignore the learning context? Is it a teaching theory or learning theory? Is it a teaching theory or learning theory?

Andragogy: Theory or Set of Andragogy: Theory or Set of Assumptions?Assumptions?

As the scholarly debate over Andragogy raged in As the scholarly debate over Andragogy raged in the 1970s and 1980s Knowles become more the 1970s and 1980s Knowles become more open to criticism.open to criticism.

In 1980 Knowles stated: “I don’t see andragogy In 1980 Knowles stated: “I don’t see andragogy as an ideology at all, but a set of assumptions as an ideology at all, but a set of assumptions about learners that needs to be tested for about learners that needs to be tested for different learners in different situations”. (The different learners in different situations”. (The Modern Practice of Adult Education, 1980)Modern Practice of Adult Education, 1980)

He also stated that pedagogy (teacher centered He also stated that pedagogy (teacher centered learning) and andragogy (learner-centered learning) and andragogy (learner-centered learning) existed on a continuum. learning) existed on a continuum.

Jo will now take a look at Adult Learning through Jo will now take a look at Adult Learning through the lense of Transformative Learning. the lense of Transformative Learning.

Transformative LearningTransformative Learning

Transformation vs. Learning for Transformation vs. Learning for InformationInformation

Philosophical Approaches:Philosophical Approaches: Daloz: developmental approachDaloz: developmental approach Freiere: emancipatory perspectiveFreiere: emancipatory perspective Boyd: extrarational approachBoyd: extrarational approach Mezirow: cognitive/rational lensMezirow: cognitive/rational lens

Mezirow’s 10-step processMezirow’s 10-step process

1.1. the disorienting dilemmathe disorienting dilemma

2.2. fear, anger, guilt or shamefear, anger, guilt or shame

3.3. critical assessment of assumptions about the worldcritical assessment of assumptions about the world

4.4. realization that others have gone through what they are feelingrealization that others have gone through what they are feeling

5.5. exploration of new roles, relationships and actionsexploration of new roles, relationships and actions

6.6. planning a course of actionplanning a course of action

7.7. gaining knowledge and skills for implementing the plan of actiongaining knowledge and skills for implementing the plan of action

8.8. trying on a new roletrying on a new role

9.9. becoming competent in the new rolebecoming competent in the new role

10.10. the new perspective becomes a part of the person.the new perspective becomes a part of the person.

The LynchpinsThe Lynchpins

ExperienceExperience Critical ReflectionCritical Reflection Reflective DiscourseReflective Discourse

Fostering Transformative LearningFostering Transformative Learning

Ideal conditions and practicesIdeal conditions and practices Psychological TypePsychological Type ExamplesExamples

Self-Directed LearningSelf-Directed LearningL. Baumgartner (2003)L. Baumgartner (2003)

Example – TomExample – TomMerriam and Caffarella (1999) have three Merriam and Caffarella (1999) have three definitions of self-directed learning:definitions of self-directed learning:

Goals Goals a process a process a personal attribute a personal attribute

Yale, 1828Yale, 1828Graduates should develop “...the skills necessary Graduates should develop “...the skills necessary to continue learning throughout life”to continue learning throughout life”

Models of Self-directed LearningModels of Self-directed Learning

Sequential (Tough, 1991)Sequential (Tough, 1991) What, where, how, set deadlines, get proper What, where, how, set deadlines, get proper

resources, find time, increase motivationresources, find time, increase motivation Interwoven (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991)Interwoven (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991)

Self-directed learning occurs when need is Self-directed learning occurs when need is matched with opportunitymatched with opportunity

Instructional (Grow, 1991)Instructional (Grow, 1991) Describes 4 stagesDescribes 4 stages

• From relying heavily on the teacher for guidance to From relying heavily on the teacher for guidance to taking full responsibility for learningtaking full responsibility for learning

Three Goals of SDLThree Goals of SDL

To help learning become more self-To help learning become more self-directeddirected

To foster transformative learningTo foster transformative learning To promote emancipatory learning and To promote emancipatory learning and

social actionsocial action

Self-Directed LearningSelf-Directed Learning

Donald Roberson (2002)Donald Roberson (2002) Ten older adults (at least 70) in South GeorgiaTen older adults (at least 70) in South Georgia Two interviews over a two day period Two interviews over a two day period (4-5 hours)(4-5 hours)

QuestionsQuestions What is the nature of learning?What is the nature of learning? What is the process of learning?What is the process of learning? What are the late life adjustment?What are the late life adjustment? What is the impact of living in a rural environment?What is the impact of living in a rural environment?

Findings:Findings: Learning is exciting, funLearning is exciting, fun It begins with an interestIt begins with an interest Various learning activities happen Various learning activities happen

simultaneouslysimultaneously Rural : community of fellow learners, simple& Rural : community of fellow learners, simple&

peaceful lifestyle; predominately positive to peaceful lifestyle; predominately positive to SDLSDL

Older adults have extra time for SDLOlder adults have extra time for SDL

Andragogy and Self-Directed LearningAndragogy and Self-Directed LearningS.B. Merriam (2001)S.B. Merriam (2001)

How does Merriam compare andragogy and How does Merriam compare andragogy and self-directed learning?self-directed learning?

Does an adult learner need to be motivated to Does an adult learner need to be motivated to learn?learn?

“…“…whereas a dependent learning needs more whereas a dependent learning needs more introductory material and appreciate lecture, drill introductory material and appreciate lecture, drill and immediate correction, a self-directed learner and immediate correction, a self-directed learner can engage in independent projects, student-can engage in independent projects, student-directed discussions, and discovery learning” directed discussions, and discovery learning” (p.10). Do you agree or disagree with this (p.10). Do you agree or disagree with this statement?statement?

Foreign-Born Learners &Foreign-Born Learners &the role of contextthe role of context

Context is defined in terms of the total Context is defined in terms of the total experiences & activities engaged in by members experiences & activities engaged in by members of various social groups.of various social groups.

In addition to geographic space, this includes In addition to geographic space, this includes biographic, interpersonal, political, historical & biographic, interpersonal, political, historical & sociocultural settings in which individuals are sociocultural settings in which individuals are socialized, shaped & situated, and in which they socialized, shaped & situated, and in which they interact.interact.

Includes diverse & intersecting influences of Includes diverse & intersecting influences of race, class, gender, nationality, communities & race, class, gender, nationality, communities & the larger political & sociocultural milieu.the larger political & sociocultural milieu.

Specific QuestionsSpecific Questions How did the specific historic, political, and How did the specific historic, political, and

sociocultural contexts in which Knowles was sociocultural contexts in which Knowles was situated influence his construction of situated influence his construction of andragogy?andragogy?

What are the ways in which contexts impact What are the ways in which contexts impact adult learners & their learning process? adult learners & their learning process?

Being heavily affected by one’s contexts, what Being heavily affected by one’s contexts, what characteristics would adult immigrant learners characteristics would adult immigrant learners demonstrate?demonstrate?

To what extent does andragogy capture the To what extent does andragogy capture the characteristics of adult immigrant learners?characteristics of adult immigrant learners?

Prior Knowledge:Prior Knowledge:AccountantAccountant – – camelcamel - - twisttwist

The The accountantsaccountants will will score the pair higher if score the pair higher if they include a they include a camel camel followed by a followed by a twist.twist.

Official who compiles Official who compiles scores from judges and scores from judges and computes placements.computes placements.

Spin on one leg, while the Spin on one leg, while the other leg is extended in other leg is extended in the air parallel to the ice.the air parallel to the ice.

Male lifts & throws his Male lifts & throws his partner, then catches her partner, then catches her on landing after she has on landing after she has performed a double or performed a double or triple twist in the air.triple twist in the air.

““Class Matters”Class Matters” Prior KnowledgePrior Knowledge Motivation – voluntary or mandatoryMotivation – voluntary or mandatory Available resources/supportsAvailable resources/supports Inter/Intra relationshipsInter/Intra relationships

Group DynamicsGroup Dynamics• Caretaker, Know-It-All, Hitchhiker, Blocker, Omnivore, Inquisitor, Negotiator, Caretaker, Know-It-All, Hitchhiker, Blocker, Omnivore, Inquisitor, Negotiator,

Overachiever, Parliamentarian, SageOverachiever, Parliamentarian, Sage Power strugglePower struggle

Student/TeacherStudent/Teacher• Foreign BornForeign Born

Hmong – need for specific instructional directions, respect & submissive attitude (Hvitfeldt, Hmong – need for specific instructional directions, respect & submissive attitude (Hvitfeldt, 1986).1986).

Chinese – respecting authority, maintaining harmony, valuing study & degrees, and putting Chinese – respecting authority, maintaining harmony, valuing study & degrees, and putting men above women (Pratt, 1991; Lee, 1999).men above women (Pratt, 1991; Lee, 1999).

British – prefer learning through lectures & written assignments (Alfred, 2003)British – prefer learning through lectures & written assignments (Alfred, 2003) Findings:Findings:

• Instead of feeling self-directed, often felt lost when instructors focused too much on Instead of feeling self-directed, often felt lost when instructors focused too much on group discussion or did not lecture. group discussion or did not lecture.

• Had to renegotiate their identity, language, and voice in order to be recognized & heard Had to renegotiate their identity, language, and voice in order to be recognized & heard in the U.S. classroom.in the U.S. classroom.

• Approval & guidance by the instructor sometimes more critical than internal motivation.Approval & guidance by the instructor sometimes more critical than internal motivation.

Guidelines for Cultural DiversityGuidelines for Cultural Diversity Acknowledge individuals bring multiple perspectives to Acknowledge individuals bring multiple perspectives to

any learning situation as a result of their gender, any learning situation as a result of their gender, ethnicity, class, age, sexuality, &/or physical abilities.ethnicity, class, age, sexuality, &/or physical abilities.

Recognize identification w/social group is multiple & Recognize identification w/social group is multiple & complex.complex.

Reflect & value the experiences of learners.Reflect & value the experiences of learners. Pay attention to power relations inherent in knowledge Pay attention to power relations inherent in knowledge

production.production. Be aware participants are positioned differently in Be aware participants are positioned differently in

relationship to each other & to the knowledge being relationship to each other & to the knowledge being acquired.acquired.

Acknowledge the power disparity between the Acknowledge the power disparity between the teacher/facilitator & the students (Tisdell 1995, p. 90).teacher/facilitator & the students (Tisdell 1995, p. 90).

Adult Learner RolesAdult Learner Roles Caretaker: Do we need a break?Caretaker: Do we need a break? Know-it-All: A comment for every idea and is Know-it-All: A comment for every idea and is

willing to sharewilling to share Hitchhiker: Passive learner, along for the rideHitchhiker: Passive learner, along for the ride Blocker (Devil’s Advocate): contrary positions in Blocker (Devil’s Advocate): contrary positions in

the discussionthe discussion Parliamentarian: “Haven’t we extended our rule Parliamentarian: “Haven’t we extended our rule

about time limits for group presentations?”about time limits for group presentations?” Sage: formal and informal power in the groupSage: formal and informal power in the group Clown: brings levity to the scene, humor to Clown: brings levity to the scene, humor to

diffuse mounting conflictdiffuse mounting conflict

Afro centric View of Adult Afro centric View of Adult Learning TheoryLearning Theory

““To what extent are the values and To what extent are the values and assumptions that the concepts of assumptions that the concepts of andragogy and self-directed learning andragogy and self-directed learning espouse culturally relevant in today’s field espouse culturally relevant in today’s field of adult education that values diversity and of adult education that values diversity and different ways of knowing and knowledge different ways of knowing and knowledge construction?” (Alfred, p. 2)construction?” (Alfred, p. 2)

It is necessary to understand the system It is necessary to understand the system of slavery in order to understand the of slavery in order to understand the learning of African Americans. “…slavery learning of African Americans. “…slavery facilitated a transformation within the facilitated a transformation within the African American culture that forced African American culture that forced Africans to think and do differently with not Africans to think and do differently with not only what they knew but what new only what they knew but what new knowledge had developed… . It was in the knowledge had developed… . It was in the struggle of an oppressive society that struggle of an oppressive society that progress in education was made” progress in education was made” (Flowers, p. 36).(Flowers, p. 36).

Afro centricity Theory Afro centricity Theory

Sankoan - return to the sourceSankoan - return to the source Nommoic – the word, the power of the wordNommoic – the word, the power of the word Maatic– truth, justice, harmonyMaatic– truth, justice, harmony Political Intellectual – political/economic or Political Intellectual – political/economic or

scholarly honesty/integrityscholarly honesty/integrity African Collective Memory-Perception – linked African Collective Memory-Perception – linked

eternally eternally Explicit Locational – place relative to ideas, Explicit Locational – place relative to ideas,

myth, history, symbols, etc. myth, history, symbols, etc.

““The concepts of andragogy and self-The concepts of andragogy and self-directed learning tend to ignore the politics directed learning tend to ignore the politics of positionality (power relations, race, of positionality (power relations, race, class, gender, and ethnicity) and their class, gender, and ethnicity) and their influence on the teaching and learning influence on the teaching and learning dynamics in the classroom” (Johnson-dynamics in the classroom” (Johnson-Bailey & Cervero, 1997, in Alfred)Bailey & Cervero, 1997, in Alfred)

The Message The Message “ “To touch one’s sprit requires that the To touch one’s sprit requires that the teacher be grounded in teacher be grounded in understanding the student’s history, understanding the student’s history, language, culture, and lived language, culture, and lived experiences. In order to help the experiences. In order to help the learner reach his or her potential in learner reach his or her potential in the learning environment, the teacher the learning environment, the teacher must make a connection to the must make a connection to the affective and spiritual as well as the affective and spiritual as well as the cognitive domains” (Alfred, p. 45).cognitive domains” (Alfred, p. 45).