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Adolescence
Chapter 4
Section 1Physical and Sexual Development
Theories of Adolescence
1904 – G. Stanley HallPioneering theory of adolescenceRepresents transitional stageSomething like an animal in a cage
Sees freedomDoesn’t know when freedom will occur or how
Existing in a state of great “storm and stress”Marginal beingConfused, troubled, and highly frustrated
Other theorists say that adolescence is a period of growth that is in no way discontinuous with childhood or young adulthood
Margaret Mead’s anthropological studies show:
In some cultures – adolescents enjoy this time of lifeStorm and stress is a by-product of industrial societyProposed that culture might play a role in development
Psychologist Robert HavigburstGreat physical, mental, and emotional changes are
taking placeFacing challenges – developmental tasks that must
be mastered1) Accept physical makeup and acquire masculine or
feminine gender roll2) Develop appropriate relations with age-mates of both
sexes3) Become emotionally independent of parents/adults4) Achieve assurance of becoming economically independent5) Decide on, prepare for, enter a vocation6) Develop cognitive skills/concepts for social competence7) Understand & achieve socially responsible behavior8) Prepare for marriage and family9) Acquire values that are harmonious and appropriate
Pattern of development depends upon many factors.
Most important Individual’s adjustment in childhoodLevel of adjustment of his/her parents & peersChanges that occur during adolescence
Marked by major changesPhysicalSocialEmotionalIntellectual
Physical DevelopmentPuberty (sexual maturation) marks end of
childhood – varies widelyHormones trigger internal/external changes
Girls b/t 8 and 10 / boys 9-16Just before puberty, both experience growth spurt
(rapid increase in weight & height)Girls peak at 12, boys at 14Most societies consider menarche the beginning of
womanhood.Even though boys are 2 years behind, their growth spurt
lasts about 3 years longer. They get broader shoulders, thicker trunk, more muscle tissue & larger heart & lungs than girls, voices deepen, and facial hair begins to grow.
Asynchrony is common – uneven growth of body parts
Reactions to GrowthRather sudden bodily changes make an
adolescent self-conscious.Particularly if they are early or late
developers.There is a strong correlation between having
a negative body image and depression.It is very important to measure up to ideal
standards.Most tend to evaluate themselves in terms of
their culture’s body ideal.
Individual differences in growth significantly affect the personality of young adolescents.
Boys who develop early have an advantage – sports heroes, leaders
Other boys look up to them, girls have crushes, adults treat them as more mature.
As a result, they are generally more self-confident and independent.
Correlation found in adulthood throughout 30s – earlier matured males tend to have higher occupational and social status (weakens as they enter their 40s.
Girls are different for early maturationEarly teens - some feel embarrassed, some date older boys,
some become bossy with people their own ageLate bloomers – less quarrelsome, may get along with peers betterIn their late teens, early matured girls may be more popular and
have a more favorable imageWhy such powerful psychological effects?
Self-fulfilling prophecy (boy doesn’t meet culture’s physical ideal/thinks less of himself/doesn’t pursue success as doggedly/bring about failure he feared.
Sexual DevelopmentPhysical changes are accompanied by
changes in behavior.Adolescence is also a time when a person
develops attitudes about the sex and gender roles her or she will fill.
Sexual AttitudesAffect way we feel about sex and the way we
respond sexually.Around the world – wide variations in what
children are told about appropriate sexual behavior and how they respond.Some societies – kept in the dark until marriageOthers – preadolescents encouraged to engage in
sexual play, which will foster mature developmentU.S. – behavior has not changed since 1970s,
but attitudes haveIncrease of sexual awareness and activityAbout 1 million teen pregnancies occur each year3 million teen sexually transmitted diseases each yearFear of AIDS has also impacted sexual attitudesMany teens today choosing abstinence
Discussion
Think back over the stages of your life from childhood to the present.
1.Which were the best and worst years of your life and why?
2.Do you think adolescence is a time of “storm and stress”?
Section 2
Personal Development
The transition from childhood to adulthood involves changes in patterns of reasoning and moral thinking, and adjustments in personality and sexual behavior.
Cognitive DevelopmentDuring adolescence, thinking patterns
characteristic of adults emerge.Jean Piaget – formal operations – abstractExpands problem-solving capacityCan deal with abstractions in own life
Ethics, conformity, and phoninessAllows for introspection (own motives and thoughts)
Deal with overpowering emotions through rationalization (explain an unpleasant emotion or behavior in a way that will preserve self-esteem)
Changes in thinking – changes in personality and social interactionsBecome idealistic – imagine the hypotheticalCan grow rebelliousCan develop a “messiah complex” (save the
world from evil)Impatient with adult world’s failures – unrealistic
about realities of lifeIdealism can keep older adults thinking about
how the world needs to change
Dr. David Elkind - identified problems developed because of immaturity and abstract thought processes:
Finding fault with authority figuresArgumentativeness (build own viewpoints)Indecisiveness (aware of many choices)Apparent hypocrisy (living up to their ideals)Self-consciousness (think everybody is thinking
about them)Invulnerability (causes risk-taking)
Feel specialExperiences are uniqueNot subject to same rules as everyone else
Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg – develops in stagesStage 1 – right or wrong depends on if punishedStage 2 – positive or negative effects on themStage 3 – whether or not socially approvedStage 4 – sanctioned by established authorityStage 5 – whether law is fair or justStage 6 – concerned with making fair/just decisions
Absolute ethical principles that cannot be brokenMore important than laws
Higher levels involve abstract thinking – seeing things from another’s point of view
Adolescence is time when formal operations begin
Only about 1 in 10 adolescents reach levels 5 and 6 of moral thinking.
Does not progress much during high school – more when in college (away from home)
Psychologists agree that moral development depends on many factors – most important is relationship with parents/significant others
Identity Development
Erikson’s Theory of Identity CrisisEstablishing identity is key to adolescent development
Adolescents Identity crisis (inner conflict, worry about identities)Begin to see future as a reality, not a gameBegin to think about themselvesOnly by resolving conflict do they achieve integrated sense of
self
Children do not fret about who they are or
where going
James Marcia’s view of the identify crisis – 4 attempts to achieve a sense of identityIdentity moratorium adolescents
(seriously considering issues, but no commitment)
Identity foreclosure adolescents (firm commitment on suggestion of others not themselves)
Identity confused or diffused adolescents (no thought to making decisions, no real sense of identity)
Identity achievement adolescents (considered many possible identities, freely committed to occupations and other important life matters.
Criticisms of Erikson and Marcia“Crisis” implies overwhelming stressImplies transition required radical break with
childhood experienceErikson’s view may have been because he
focused study on disturbed adolescents who sought clinical treatment.
Adolescents at school picked randomly show no sign of crisis and appear to progress smoothly
Social Learning View – Albert BanduraOne continuous processIndividuals develop by interacting with othersCalled social learning theory of development
Personality development in adolescents is a complex phenomenon.Sense of self (identity)How relationships developedSocial interaction skillsNeed to call upon all viewpoints
Section 3
Social Development
The Role of the FamilyA principal developmental task of adolescent
is to become independent of familyMixed feelings on both sides
Some parents reluctant to let children goCan the child cope with realities of life – child
shares the worry alsoYoung people long to get out on their own – try
their skills (worry about failing)Internal struggle often mirrored in unpredictable
behavior (rebellion)
The Role of PeersCan trust friends not to treat
them like childrenNeed friends to define
themselvesHigh school fairly rigid hierarchy
Everyone knows who belongs to which group
Usually form along class linesMany adopt distinct styles to
express themselvesStudies show personal
characteristics importantPopularity based on good looks and
personalityAthletic ability is important factor
Belonging to clique is importantFulfills need for closeness with othersGives means of establishing an identity
Defines who he is and who he is notHelps achieve self-confidenceHelps develop sense of independenceHelps clarify valuesHelps in experimenting with new rolesLeads to conformity (acting in accordance with
some specified authority)
Both parents and peers exercise considerable influence in shaping adolescent behaviorPeers set standards on
fashion and music and give advice on school-related issues
Parents are more influential on matters of marriage, religion, education plansPeer groups do not pose a threat to parental
authority.
Adolescents tend to pick friends with same
values. Makes them immensely helpful in making
the transition from dependent child to independent adult.
Difficulties During AdolescenceMajority adjust very quickly to changesHowever, teenage suicide has nearly tripled
over the last 50 yearsMay be underestimated (unreported)
Illusion of invulnerability part of egocentrismDo things with peers would not do aloneActs of juvenile delinquency typical in some
areasTroubled teens do not outgrow problems
Adults should be concerned with troubled teens
Teenage Depression and SuicideMore widespread than most parents or
educators suspectTriggers
Loss of loved one (death, divorce, relocation)Communication is necessary
Eating DisordersAnorexia nervosa
Refusal to eatMay represent a female’s refusal
to grow up or an attempt to assert control over their lives when so much seems out of their control
Treatment – encourage eating and deal with psychological problems
Bulimia nervosaBinge eating and then purgingMay result from person’s
feelings of alienation or a need to feel approval from others
Treatment involves antidepressant drugs and therapy
Section 4
Gender Roles and Differences
Gender IdentityOne’s physical and biological makeup.Your awareness of being male or female.Includes genetic traits we have inherited and
may include some gender-linked behaviors as well.
By age 2 or 3, kids have labeled themselves boy or girl.
By age 5, have learned thoughts, expectations, and behaviors that accompany their gender role.
Gender RolesDefined partly by genetic makeup but mainly
by the society and culture in which the individual lives.
A standard of how a person with a given gender identity is supposed to behave and includes the traditional behaviors that society expects of people because they are male or female.
Vary from one society to another and can change over time within a given society.
Give social meaning to gender identity.
Oversimplified or prejudiced opinions and attitudes concerning the way men or women should behave.
Have their roots deep in a time in our history when a division of labor was necessary for survival.
Sharp gender roles are no longer necessary or appropriate, esp. in the labor force.
Many young people now accept new androgynous roles.Roles that involve a flexible combination
of traditionally male and female characteristics.
Older people tend to be more traditional.
Gender Stereotypes
Exists more in groupsMales are more confident than females (esp. in math &
science).Women perceive themselves as less competent than males (even if
same grades).Aggression (hostile or destructive behavior) is one area
with the most significant differences.Males are more physically aggressive.
Encouraged to be competitive and settle conflicts.Studies show lower levels of seratonin in males (associated with
aggression).Females are more verbally aggressive and indirectly aggressive
(rejection).Another difference is communication styles.
Men actually talk more than women and interrupt women more while they talk.
Women talk more when they have power in the situation.Women hedge more (“kind of” and “you know”)Women use more disclaimers (“I may be wrong.”)Women use more tag questions at the end (“Okay?”
Gender Differences in Personality
Gender Differences in Cognitive Abilities
Research shows no measurable difference between genders:At spatial and mathematical skillsAt verbal skills
Did find some differences in specific topics and age trends.Perform about the same in problem solving until high
school – then males do better on tests of spatial ability / women do better at tracking objects.
Origins of differencesBiological TheoryPsychoanalytical TheorySocial Learning TheoryCognitive-Developmental Theory
Biological Theory
Emphasizes role of anatomy, hormones, and brain organization.
Regardless of what parents do, boys prefer trucks, girls dolls.
Said that differences in behavior are the result of behaviors that evolved from early men and women (attempt to survive).
Men – find a mate and reproduce – be dominant & aggressive .
Women – raising children – be concerned, warm, sensitive.
Psychoanalytical TheoryLittle boys identify with their fathers / girls
with mothers.Gender identity results.Happens between 3 – 5 years old.Critics argue – this identification is the result,
rather than the cause, of gender typing.
Social Learning TheoryEmphasizes the role of social and cognitive
processes on how we perceive, organize, and use information.
Children learn gender roles by observing and imitating models (parents, friends, peers, etc.).
Models respond to and reward certain behaviors for boys and different behaviors for girls that match their views of traditional male and female gender roles.
Cognitive-Developmental TheoryProposes that children acquire gender roles
by interacting with their environment and thinking about those experiences.
This way they learn different sets of standards for male and female behavior.
To learn a gender, child must see himself or herself as male or female.
Then, organizes behavior around this concept.
May acquire preferences consistent with perceived gender.Watch football, play rough with other boys.Eventually form gender schema.
Gender schema – mental representation of behavior that helps child organize and categorize behavior.Develop schemas of how we should act –
then behave accordingly
Changing Gender Roles
Roles of women and men in society are changing.
Women now in the workforce, but:Studies show there is inequality
Lower levels of leadership positionsDo not advance as quicklyCompanies may discriminate
Some women interrupt careers to rear children – lose opportunity for promotions and salary increases.
Men and women may differ in ambition.Women may be taught by society to set
different goals.