2011

Based on Lecture Notes created at KCCMP

COMM3501: Administrative Communication

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Table of Contents

Course Outline as at Planning Meeting September, 2009

UNIT ONE- Managing in Modern Organizations

The Role of Communication in Contemporary Organizations…………………………………………4

The Managerial Communication Process………………………………………………………………………10

Technologically Mediated Communication…………………………………………………………………..16

UNIT TWO- Managerial Writing Strategies

Contemporary Managerial Writing Style………………………………………………………………………20

The Writing Process……………………………………………………………………………………………………..22

Routine Documents……………………………………………………………………………………………………..29

Writing Management Reports and Proposals……………………………………………………………….33

UNIT THREE- Strategies for Receiving and Interpreting Messages

Managerial Listening…………………………………………………………………………………………………….36

Non-verbal Communication in Management…………………………………………………………………43

UNIT FOUR- Interpersonal Communications Strategies

Conflict Management…………………………………………………………………………………………………..46

Managerial Negotiation………………………………………………………………………………………………..51

Intercultural Managerial Communication……………………………………………………………………..54

UNIT FIVE – Voice and Speech

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UNIT SIX – Managing Business Meetings

Types of meetings

Conventions of formal meetings

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COUNCIL OF COMMUNITY COLLEGES OF JAMAICA Course: Administrative Communication Credit Hours: 3 Credits Course Code: COMM3501 Contact Hours: 45 hours Pre-requisites: Communication I (COMM1101) Communication II (COMM1202)

COURSE RATIONALE: Administrative communication is critical to any organization and students must be equipped with the requisite knowledge and skills to function effectively in the workplace. It is also imperative that students understand how to apply contemporary managerial communication techniques in a global society.

COURSE DESCRIPTION: This course is designed to introduce students to the managerial communication strategies used in contemporary organizations through discussions, simulation exercises and oral presentations. Students will be exposed to the appropriate writing, speech and listening skills in varying contexts of a culturally modern diverse business environment.

GENERAL OBJECTIVES: Upon successful completion of this course, students should: 1. demonstrate an understanding of the importance of communication in the modern business environment 2. demonstrate an understanding of the concepts associated with the use of technology in business settings 3. understand the writing process 4. develop appropriate managerial writing and oral presentation skills 5. know the strategies used for receiving and interpreting messages 6. develop appropriate interpersonal communication strategies 7. understand the concepts associated with business meetings

UNIT I – Managing in Modern Organizations (4 hours)

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Specific Objectives: Upon successful completion of this unit, students should be able to: 1. explain the importance of communication in contemporary business organizations 2. describe the stages in managerial communication process 3. use the relevant technology for specific business communication scenarios Content: 1. The roles of communication in contemporary organizations 2. The managerial communication process (communication climate, culture, sender, purpose, message, channel, feedback) 3. Factors to consider when sending and receiving technologically mediated communication (bandwidth, perceived personal closeness) UNIT II – Managerial Writing Strategies (9 hours) Specific Objectives: Upon successful completion of this unit, students should be able to: 1. apply the writing process to formulate business documents, for example reports, proposals 2. distinguish between solicited and unsolicited proposals 3. use the appropriate contemporary writing styles to create routine business documents a. letters b. memos c. email d. reports Content: 1. The Writing Process: a. Planning b. Composing c. Revising 2. Contemporary Managerial Writing Styles used in creating Routine Documents: a. You Attitude b. Direct strategy c. Indirect strategy 3. Writing Reports: a. Incident reports b. Progress reports

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c. Investigative reports* 4. Writing Business Proposals a. Solicited b. Unsolicited UNIT III – Strategies for Receiving and Interpreting Messages (6 hours)

Specific Objectives: Upon successful completion of this unit, students should be able to: 1. outline the stages in the listening process 2. differentiate the different types of learning 3. discuss the barriers to listening 4. create an effective listening environment 5. explain the different types of communication 6. discuss the importance of communication in business contexts

Content: 1. The Listening Process a. Receiving b. Interpreting c. Remembering d. Evaluating e. Responding 2. Types of listening a. Casual b. Empathic c. Critical d. Passive e. Dialogue f. Sensitive g. Active listening 3. Barriers to Listening 4. Creating a listening environment: a. Micro listening environment b. Macro listening environment 5. Types of communication a. Kinesics b. Proxemics c. Chronemics

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d. Haptics e. Paralanguage f. Eye contact 6. Importance of non-verbal communication a. Complementing b. Accenting c. Contradicting d. Repeating e. Regulating f. Repeating

UNIT IV- Interpersonal Communication Strategies (8 hours)

Specific Objectives: Upon successful completion of this unit, students should be able to: 1. define conflict 2. discuss the benefits and consequences of conflict 3. describe the types and levels of conflict 4. compare and contrast the approaches to managing conflict 5. apply the techniques used to resolve conflict 6. define negotiation 7. distinguish between negotiation, arbitration and mediation 8. apply the different negotiation strategies 9. explain the concept of interpersonal communication 10. discuss the factors affecting intercultural communication

Content: 1. Definition of conflict 2. The benefits and consequences of conflict 3. Types of levels of conflict 4. Approaches to conflict management a. Compromising b. Collaboration c. Accommodating d. Competing e. Avoiding 5. Conflict Resolution Techniques: a. Collective bargaining b. Conciliation

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6. Definitions: a. Negotiation b. Arbitration c. Mediation 7. Factors influencing managerial negotiation: a. Culture b. Channel c. Receiver d. Sender e. Purpose f. Time g. Language 8. Negotiation strategies: a. Bluff b. Surprise c. Stacking d. Fait accompli e. Take it or leave it f. Screen

UNIT V – Voice and Speech (9 hours)

Specific Objectives: Upon successful completion of this unit, students should be able to: 1. define public speaking 2. distinguish among vowels, consonants and their blends 3. demonstrate how vowels, consonants and their blends impact speech and writing 4. examine the correlation between language, structure and context 5. critique in oral presentation 6. present a speech demonstrating correct pronunciation and effective enunciation clarity, tone and modulation Content 1. Definition and importance of public speaking in business communication 2. Vowels versus consonants and their blends 3. Impact of language, structure, and context on public speaking 4. Introduction to voice and speech: a. Improving the voice b. Developing clarity

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c. Enunciation d. Pronunciation e. Tone f. Modulation 5. Making formal presentations UNIT VI – Managing Business Meetings (6 hours)

Specific Objectives: Upon successful completion of this unit, students should be able to: 1. plan a formal business meeting 2. conduct a formal business meeting observing standard meeting protocols Content 1. Types of meetings 2. Conventions of formal meetings

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UNIT ONE: Managing in Modern Organizations Communication permeates every single aspect of our lives – both professionally and

personally. It is the key to having positive interactions and building and maintaining favourable relationships, including those necessary for business. One’s ability to communicate and to have his/her message understood is vital in today’s world. In a world of ever-improving technology, it is important to realise that the core principles of communicating still apply, regardless of how complex or advanced technology should become.

The Importance of Communicating Effectively Communication is one of the most important skills you can develop. Your ability to read,

listen, speak, and write well will have a tremendous impact on the quality of your personal relationships and will help determine the progress you make in your career:

Ø Getting jobs you want. Effective communication will make it possible for you design a powerful resume, compose a persuasive application letter, interview with poise and confidence, and get the job you want.

Ø Gaining promotions. Moving ahead in your career depends on communicating your technical competence to others and maintaining effective relationships with them.

Ø Providing leadership. Your ability to motivate and help others achieve rests on your understanding of human nature and on mastering communication skills.

Ø Being productive on the job. Work performance is enhanced by your ability to listen effectively, speak clearly, and write competently.

Ø Relating positively to others. Successful business and personal relationships depend on mutual trust and respect; communicating ethically, with concern and compassion, is essential.

Ø Assuring the success of your organization. Your organisation will succeed only if it has the support of its constituencies – support that comes from effectively communicating with customers or clients about the organisation’s products or services.

In order for businesses to succeed, there must be effective internal and external communication. Internal operations depend on the daily exchange of information among employees. The range of internal communication exchanged in the course of doing business may include job descriptions, performance objectives, financial data, customer orders, inventory data, production problems and solutions, as well as employee production reports. Long-term planning and strategic decision-making may rely on research, reports, proposals, conferences, evaluations, and projections.

For businesses, external communication builds goodwill, brings in orders, and ensures continued existence and growth. Day-to-day external communications include sales calls, product advertisements, news releases, employment notices, bank transactions, and periodic reports to environmental or statutory agencies. External communication that has a long-range

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impact includes new product announcements, plans for expansion, contributions to community activities, and annual reports.

Source:

Krizan, A.C., Merrier, P., Logan, J., and Williams, K. (2008). Business communication. 7th ed. Mason, OH: Thomson.

http://books.google.com.jm/books?id=Pw3jAn3Ko0kC&pg=PA58&lpg=PA58&dq=business+communication+collaborative+writing&source=bl&ots=6SivAtCael&sig=bq3siC8xj6lSsKhvIeeb4f3_vM4&hl=en&ei=uS2eTN7YC8G78gapwcH-DQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=business%20communication%20collaborative%20writing&f=false

The Role of Communication in Contemporary Organizations As was mentioned above, the success of any business depends on effective

communication. Communication is effective when it produces the desired action or results. Effective communication is essential for the survival and progress of any business, since no organization can build a reputation or win customers without it. The public has to be provided with adequate information to help them make better decisions and identify opportunities that could help them to improve their quality of life.

In the twenty-first century, management communication is both challenging and exciting. It is challenging because organizations are becoming much more complex, and many new forces confront the manager. Some of the pressures that are now increasing the complexity of the manager’s jobs include: increased competition, shorter product life cycles, greater demands for quality and service, increased regulatory constraints, increased concerns for cost containment, greater awareness of environmental concerns, and renewed emphasis on human rights. The twenty-first century manager is now more able than ever to make a significant difference in the success of the organization and to impact the quality of work life for colleagues and subordinates; however, this requires having effective managerial communication skills, which are becoming more complex, making them more difficult to master.

The workplace of today is much more diverse and complex than the workplace of a few decades ago, so it requires more sophisticated management communication skills. A hundred years ago, heavy manufacturing was the industrial base of Western countries, and products

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changed little from year to year. Today, however, products and entire systems change rapidly and employees must adapt quickly or they will find themselves left behind. In addition, work teams are extremely diverse. At a company such as Digicel, for example, it would not be strange to have a design engineer from Ireland working with a marketing manager from Trinidad and an accountant from Junction, St. Elizabeth. This means the manager must have the sophisticated skills required to communicate to a diverse work group in a rapidly changing environment.

While technology provides great help with this communication challenge, it also adds new requirements. Advances in telecommunications have increased our communication capabilities, but we must learn how to best use these capabilities. Furthermore, the fact that communication systems are improved means we have greater abilities to interact with many different cultures, which in turn requires us to become better intercultural communicators. In addition, as technical products and services become more complex, we must be able to communicate about more complicated concepts than in the past.

This week’s reading task: Managerial Communication: Strategies and Applications. (4-13).

Contemporary Dynamics Affecting Communication Contingencies There are certain contingencies that should be taken into consideration when one is

developing a strategy for managerial communication. It is important to remember that every manager will face unique situations, so it would be impossible to review all the contingencies; however, it is possible to prepare for the major current events that are likely to affect a manager’s environment. Diversity, competition and product quality, and ethics are three major social and business influences that affect managerial communication contingencies.

Diversity Today, everyone works with more diverse populations than just a few decades ago. It is

important that managers not only strive to communicate with a greater variety of audiences, they must also help their employees to see diversity as a corporate asset, and not a liability.

The contemporary manager should be particularly aware of the four types of diversity that are becoming more predominant: gender, culture, age and education.

• Gender Diversity: Within cultural groups, societal expectations affect how men and women interact with one another. For example, in some parts of the Middle East, holding hands in public is considered proper behaviour between friends of the same sex, but not between

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individuals of the opposite sex. Cultural attitudes toward the appropriate roles of men and women vary greatly across the world.

Although it is not a hard-and-fast rule, it is generally accepted that men and women communicate in different ways. Over the past twenty years, a lot has been written about the different ways in which men and women communicate: Are men more assertive than women? Do women show more social support and sympathy to colleagues? Do men and women provide different types of feedback? Do their leadership styles differ? Do men use space differently with other men than with women? Do they use different persuasive strategies?

Historically, in some parts of the Western world, society has expected men to be decisive and to use language to assert their decisiveness and independence and to maintain their position within a group. Women have been expected to be nurturing and to use language to create connections and enhance relationships. These are usually cultural tendencies, but they tend to spill over into the world of work. Women may therefore be more likely to discuss a problem with others and seek input before making decision; men may make decisions without consulting anyone else because they believe it is their role to do so. If they do not consider why this happens, men may consider a woman’s need for input as an inability to make a final decision. Similarly, women may assume that men who make decisions unilaterally are power-seekers who do not value the opinion of others, especially women.

While perspectives about role categories are changing, relatively few women are represented in upper-level management. Resistance to women entering higher levels of management may stem from inaccurate perceptions that women are not assertive enough to manage effectively.

It is said that in professional communication, women use conversation to achieve or maintain interconnectedness and increase morale while men use conversation to instruct, delegate and demonstrate control. Women also tend to focus on the emotional tone of the messages while men focus on the content. Being aware of the influence that society’s expectations have on behaviour patterns and beliefs can help individuals to learn to collaborate effectively within gender-diverse work teams. Effective managers must be sensitive to gender differences and make special efforts to adjust their communication.

• Cultural Diversity: Culture refers to the customary beliefs, social norms, values, and behaviour patterns transmitted from generation to generation that distinguish groups of people. Cultural background affects how individuals view the world, what they value, and how they interact with others. It also affects how individuals communicate and how they interpret messages received from others.

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The contemporary workplace includes employees and customers with a wide range of needs, abilities, interests, and cultural backgrounds. If cultural diversity is not understood and valued, misunderstandings may occur, and these may negatively affect business success. Managers must be able to communicate with diverse cultures both within their own organizations and from other organizations. Communication with employees and managers from other cultures will increase as transportation and telecommunications improve.

• Age diversity: Individuals’ ages and stages of life affect how they perceive the world around them, what they value, and how others perceive them. Different societies associate different ages with different roles in society. Differences in age and experiences may result in even greater communication difficulties than are normally caused by cultural differences. From a business perspective, stereotypes about age can damage organizational productivity in two ways:

1. When organizations restructure the labour force, older workers sometimes find themselves fazed out of their jobs and replaced by younger, cheaper workers. When organizations realize how valuable experienced workers had been, they have to hire them back as consultants at double their original pay.

2. Younger workers can be blocked from contributing to their full potential because they are not taken seriously or because older subordinates or co-workers resent their authority.

• Education Diversity: The education level of the workforce is also changing. Greater education levels mean employees will readily question managers, and as a manager, it is important that you anticipate this, and that you are able to answer such questions competently.

Competition and the Drive for Quality

Contemporary managers in many parts of the world are beginning to understand that business is now a globally competitive game and quality is the mainstay of any successful business.

Competition may be considered to be the effort of two or more parties acting independently to secure the business of a third party by offering the most attractive terms. In a competitive environment, a business must produce a product or service in a more efficient and effective manner than its competitors. The service or product must also offer a better value at the same or lower price. Little room exists for errors; defective parts must be minimal, few

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product repairs can be tolerated and delivery cycles must be short. Continuous efforts are required to find new ways to improve the product or service while reducing costs.

Some of the characteristics an organization needs to gain competitive advantage in today’s market include the ability to do the following:

• Access resources

• Add value

• Develop a good skills base among the workforce

• Attract investment

• Be price competitive

• Be efficient

• Use technology

• Be innovative

Today’s managers must be able to gather information and ideas, share data and promote and persuade to ensure continuous process improvement. They must be efficient communicators in an environment that is fast paced and highly competitive.

To enhance their competitiveness, many organizations use cross-functional work teams in which employees learn a variety of tasks and work together. When cross-functional work teams are used, managers must understand and coordinate a variety of activities and they must therefore possess the ability to communicate from a variety of perspectives.

In many organizations, entire organizational cultures must be changed from one in which quality is of little importance to a culture that says: “Quality is the number one concern.” This means managers must be willing to listen to employees about quality improvements.

Ethics

Recent events on the local political and corporate scenes have brought into clear view the importance of operating ethically, especially since serious repercussions may follow those who do not. It is therefore important to examine ethics as another contemporary dynamic that must be considered.

Although we are usually made more aware of ethics when breaches are committed by business and political leaders, ethical dilemmas and temptations will face managers at all levels.

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Unfortunately, there is no single, concrete set of rules governing the area of ethics, and there are no specific laws to follow. Some companies therefore try to make matters of ethics easier by providing assistance with training programs and codes of ethics.

Managers who communicate with others within or outside the organization typically face ethical issues. The manager who is asked to keep vital information confidential or not to share data with customers or suppliers because of trade secrets may face an ethical issue if he or she considers leaking the information.

There are, however, three standards that should guide ethical communication within and outside an organization:

• Honesty. Truthful communication should entail not only reporting facts and figures accurately and precisely but also providing people with information regarding expectations, decisions, processes and judgments that affect their work and careers. Additionally, honesty should be modeled and clearly expected as a basic standard of upward and lateral communication.

• Refraining from doing harm. Organizations that do not communicate information about the potential dangers of their products are violating this rule.

• Fairness and justice to internal and external stakeholders. The organization’s communication must attempt to be fair to its constituents.

Below are typical examples of unethical communication of which a manager may be found guilty:

Unethical Communication Description and examples

Managers knowingly provide inaccurate information to employees.

Unclear performance expectations; false restructuring and layoff information; recruiting with false information

Dishonest information about the organization is given to outsiders

Hiding information about harmful products or illegal activities; deceptive advertising; overpricing; altering records

Managers use inappropriate influence and control.

Price fixing; bribery; stock manipulation

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A Question of Ethics

Consider the following cases:

Academic Rigor vs. Head Count

At the Rural Evening School, teachers are told that it is necessary to maintain a minimum head count in all classes in order to justify their existence. As a teacher strives to maintain quality instruction and academic rigor, many students drop out, resulting in low enrollment. The temptation for the teacher is to lighten up on the student workload and academic requirements in order to retain some of the students who are performing poorly. School administrators tell teachers that this is their problem; they need to work harder to help the struggling students. Increased effort on the part of the teachers seems to work only to a point. There are often a number of students who seem unreachable or unwilling to increase any effort on their part.

1. Do the teachers simply ignore poor performance in order to maintain numbers, or do they cut their own throats and drop the poor performers?

2. What about other issues if poor performers are kept and indeed eventually graduate?

(Adapted from the Utah Valley University Center for the Study of Ethics http://www.uvu.edu/ethics/other/ethicscasestudies/headcount.html)

The Case of the Lost Coupon

Joe, Ellen and three others were riding in the hotel elevator from the twelfth floor to the casino, and overheard the following conversation: "Just tell them that you lost the coupon."

"We could, but that's what we told them last time and it was hard to convince them."

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"Well, make-up a believable story, like you opened the outside deck door to your room and the wind just blew it out."

"We really want to save that $82.00, and we can't do it unless you get us a coupon to."

At this particular hotel if one stays an additional night as a registered guest, one can request an additional night coupon for half price. The cost of the room is normally $164.00. It appears that the second couple wanted to check in for one night only, but wanted to use the discount coupon for their first night. By having the friend get the additional second night coupon, they could save $82.00 for their first night. It was hotel policy that the coupon could be used for an additional night or on a return visit.

From overhearing the conversation, the couple had made it clear that they were going directly to the front desk to negotiate the small scam and that is where Joe was going also. He realized he would be standing directly behind the person as they lied about their situation. Interestingly, Joe and Ellen are investors in the corporation that owns the hotel.

1. Should Joe say anything? To whom, the couple or the hotel registration clerk? 2. Does it matter that Joe and Ellen are investors in the corporation and that the scheme

will steal directly from them, or would your answer be the same regardless of the investment?

3. Is it just a business decision come-on anyway and who cares whether the coupon is earned or not? After all, if the person had stayed themselves, they would get the coupon anyway.

4. Would you have spoken up or just pretended to not hear it and wait for another time to approach the front desk?

(The Utah Valley University Center for the Study of Ethics

http://www.uvu.edu/ethics/other/ethicscasestudies/coupon.html)

Are you allowed to tell?

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You are the manager of a large department in an organization that is restructuring. Your boss gives you a list of employees that will be laid off in the next month and specifically tells you not to share the information with them until the layoff time arrives. You know many of your employees will be hard hit and you would like to warn them. Should you communicate the confidential information to them? Is it ethical for you to do so? What are the consequences of your decision?

Is your office private?

Your boss uses her master key to enter your office when you are out to find a report she needs. While she is looking for the reports, she finds a copy of a job application you have sent to another company and confronts you. What should you do? Did she act ethically? Explain.

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The Managerial Communication Process

“Today, communication itself is the problem. We have become the world’s first overcommunicated society. Each year we send more and receive less.”

- Al Ries, Chairman, Trout & Ries Advertising, Inc.

Regardless of the type of organization in which he or she works, a manager will spend the lion’s share of his or her time communicating. This is understandable, because most managers will have responsibility for a huge amount of information.

Effective communication is the key to planning, leading, organizing and controlling the resources of an organization in order to achieve its stated objective. In the communication process, symbols like words or gestures comprise messages, and understanding depends on a common meaning or frame of reference for those symbols. When sending a message, a manager may have the meaning of the symbols clearly in mind, but if someone receiving the message attributes a different meaning, the message is misunderstood. The process is made even more complicated because the symbols’ meanings differ not only between people but also change as the experiences of the people involved change.

Levels of Managerial Communication

Managerial communication usually occurs at one of five different levels: intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, organizational and intercultural. No level is more important than the other, and communication takes place at any or all of the levels at the same time.

1. Intrapersonal: this involves the internal processing of messages. Individuals generate, send, and receive messages. Critical thinking and reasoning, decision-making and message design are skills that you develop and use by self-communicating. Intrapersonal communication activities include reading, listening and observing.

2. Interpersonal: this happens when two or more people exchange thoughts. Activities include sharing information, providing feedback, or simply maintaining a social relationship.

3. Group communication: The most common form of group communication is the meeting, which maybe either formal or informal.

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4. The organizational level of communication operates within networks that link members of a company or other organizations. Organizational communication is also concerned with how a group of tasks is linked to a complete job.

5. The intercultural level of communication concerns the interactions among people of different cultures. This is becoming more commonplace as technology breaks down the barriers that have previously caused separation.

Many of us, including those who work as managers, never analyze our communicative behaviours, although we engage in communication at every stage of development. It is important that managers participate in strategic decision-making to avoid communication problems that could befall them.

A Strategic Approach to the Managerial Communication Process

A strategic approach to communication may involve separate elements. It is important to note, however, that these elements do not occur independently of one another, and they should therefore be analyzed together in the managerial context.

The strategic approach may be compared to an onion. The strategy is at the very core of the onion, but one must peel away the different layers to get to the core. The outer layer of the onion can be compared to the cultural context of the people involved in the communication event.

The First Layer

The first layer consists of communication climate and culture:

• Communication Climate: It is important to be aware that past communication has a cumulative effect. A trusting, open climate makes it easier to communicate in an organization. Effective communication results in trust and openness, which generally improve job performance.

• Cultural Context: All communication occurs within a culture. Culture is the social glue that binds members of nations and organizations together through shared values, symbols and social ideas. Organisational culture affects how managers communicate. In some businesses, a communication value may be to use email for every request or suggestion, whereas in another organisation oral communication is the norm. To a large extent, organizational culture is impacted by national culture, and languages need to be

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aware of many subtle conventions. Autocratic management is acceptable in India in businesses, while a more participative approach is expected in the United States.

Performing a cultural analysis may not necessarily provide definitive answers, but it gives an understanding of generally accepted values related to communication. For example, if independence is valued, a persuasive approach rather than a demanding approach may be required. If formality is valued, a formally typed memo rather than a telephone call may be necessary.

Since organizational climate and culture provide generally accepted patterns of communication, they are presented as the outer layer of the analysis.

Source: Hynes, G. E. (2008). Managerial Communications: Strategies and Applications. 4th ed. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 30.

The Second Layer In addition to reviewing the climate and cultural aspects of the communication context, managers should consider the sender, receiver, and the purpose of the communication. These constitute the second layer of the onion. It is important to remember that none of these comes before the other; they affect one another concurrently.

• The sender (encoder): The manager (encoder) transforms ideas into symbols to design communication messages. The message’s meaning is dependent on his or her

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personality and experiences. Managers must analyze their own frames of reference and communication preferences to determine how they affect the outcome of the communication. By analyzing his or her strengths and weaknesses, a manager can tailor communication to meet various needs. This kind of strategic self-analysis is very useful for managers at all levels.

• The receiver (decoder): The decoder perceives, translates and interprets information received in a message. In order for a manager to ensure that communication is effective, he or she should continually adapt communication to different receivers. Several characteristics of the receiver require analysis: personal relationship of the receiver to the sender, status, interests in the message, feelings toward the message and the communication skills of the sender. Together these characteristics may cause distortions to the intended message. They are sometimes referred to as “internal noise”. Managers should strive to make strategic communication decisions based on these six characteristics of the receiver.

1. Relationship: Participants in a friendly relationship tolerate error and initial misunderstanding more than those in a neutral or hostile relationship. Friendly participants need less time and concentration when communicating than is required in a hostile relationship.

2. Status Difference: Status differences between senders and receivers deserve attention. Status may require that certain customers or traditions be integrated into the communication. For example, the manager may need to refer to certain people as sir, Mr., Ms., doctor or chief in some organizations to avoid offending the receiver. Also, the manager may need to remain standing when addressing a person of higher status, but it may be appropriate to sit down with a person of equal or lower status. People at different status levels may easily interpret words and gestures differently.

3. Receiver’s Interest: The audience’s interest level may affect both the objective and the outcome of communication. If the receiver has low interest, some persuasive elements maybe appropriate to get the person’s attention even when the ultimate goal of the message is to inform. Managers must adapt the nature of the message to fit the interests of the receiver rather than just the manager’s personal interest.

4. Receiver’s Emotional State: The receiver’s emotional state at the time of communication may affect how the message is received. A receiver who is upset about something requires a different communication strategy from that used with a relaxed person. When a receiver is upset, the sender needs to deal first

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with the person’s feelings and attempt to make him or her feel relaxed so that he or she is more receptive to the main message. Furthermore, strategic analysis of the possible emotional reaction to a message makes it possible to be on guard without getting caught up in the emotion.

5. Receiver’s Knowledge: It is important to ascertain a receiver’s level of knowledge before attempting to communicate. This may be done quickly by asking questions and getting feedback. One good way of knowing a receiver’s knowledge is to ask an open-ended question on a specific topic. Incorrectly assuming that the receiver has considerable knowledge may result in a communication breakdown, while assuming too low a level of knowledge may waste time and insult the receiver.

6. Receiver’s Communication Skills: The receiver as well as the sender must be a competent communicator. If the receiver cannot express concepts clearly, or if he or she gets nervous when communicating, a manager needs to be prepared to exercise patience and to assist or even try to relax the person as much as possible.

• Purpose of the Message: Unless managers analyze their goals, the resulting communication may waste both time and effort. Before reviewing the purpose of a communication, managers should first determine whether it is best to verbalize a message at all. A manager has four reasons for choosing to communicate:

i. The simple act of communicating with a fellow worker may be enjoyable. Although work is not a social engagement, managers who socialize with their employees can significantly boost employee morale by doing so.

ii. Managers communicate to present information. iii. Managers communicate to gain information. Those who are doing this should

be careful not to do all the talking. iv. Managers communicate to persuade. Those who intend to do this should try to

develop an appropriate persuasive strategy.

The communication goal or purpose often defines the strategy appropriate for a given situation, and it is important to know that the goals may be combined. When this happens, managers need to identify goals clearly and develop the appropriate strategies for accomplishing them; otherwise, they may achieve none of the various goals.

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Source: Hynes, G. E. (2008). Managerial Communications: Strategies and Applications. 4th ed. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 31.

The Third Layer

Managers must consider four more elements in determining an effective communication strategy.

• Message content: Classifying the content of a message according to four factors can simplify our discussion:

o First, will the receiver perceive the message as positive, negative or neutral? When the message is positive, the best strategy is to present the good news immediately; however, with a negative message it is best to present neutral information before the negative news. To determine if the message is positive or negative, consider the receiver’s perspective. What may appear to be positive to the manager may be negative to the receiver.

o Secondly, does the message deal with fact or opinion? A fact may be established with concrete information, but opinion is largely based on assumption. The manager should critically analyze the objective basis of his message because he may feel so sure about his opinion that he will present it as fact. When the manager presents opinions as facts, the receivers may be deceived.

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o Thirdly, to what extent is the message important to the receiver? If the message is important to the manager, but not to the receiver, the manager has to emphasize attention-getting techniques. He should structure such a message according to the needs of the receiver rather than those of the sender.

o Fourthly, to what extent is the message controversial? A controversial message calls for neutral words that can reduce the emotional response. Managers should try to avoid words that can make the receiver defensive or create conflict.

These factors should be considered at the same time as the sender, receiver and purpose, because they all affect one another when developing strategic managerial communication.

• Channel of the Message: Correct channel choice is far from simple. A channel is a medium that carries messages within and between people. Now that telecommunication is becoming more and more common-place, the question of how a message is to be sent becomes increasingly complicated. Managers need to determine exactly which channel is appropriate for which message, and they also have to ensure that costs are minimised while effectiveness is maximised. Time is another key factor that will have to be taken into consideration.

Written communication (memos, letters, reports) provide the opportunity for permanent records and may be precise and clear; however, it usually does not provide the opportunity for the receiver to give immediate feedback. Email is less permanent and is sometimes hastily written, but it is fast. Oral communication is often more persuasive than a written message, but it generally provides no permanent record of the conversation.

Managers also need to decide on whether individual communication is better than a group presentation. In some situations, it may be easier to persuade a group of people, while in other contexts, one-to-one communication might be preferable.

Managers have to strategically analyse all the factors to decide on which is best in a given situation.

• Physical environment: The environment in which one communication occurs has a clear effect. Just as receiver characteristics may cause “internal noise,” so elements of the physical environment may cause external noise resulting in message distortion. Four questions should be asked when analysing the environment factors in strategic communication:

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1. Is it a public or private situation? A congratulatory comment may be best in a public forum, while a sensitive question is best asked in a private setting. Some choices between public and private settings are obvious, while others are more difficult.

2. Does it involve a formal or informal setting? The formality of the setting affects the wording of the message as well as the opportunity for feedback. Thus, while official titles may be appropriate when presenting a formal report, they may restrict communication in an informal discussion. Feedback is also more difficult to obtain in a formal setting because questions may seem inappropriate or the one asking the question may be shy. Finally, people are generally more reserved in their Non-verbal behaviour in a formal setting, so their feedback is more difficult to read.

3. What is the distance between the sender and the receiver? Physical distance between the sender and the receiver should also be taken into consideration. In oral communication, a large physical distance negates certain nuances like variations in one’s tone of voice and loudness, as well as non-verbal cues such as gestures and posture. It is therefore less effective to use these strategies for emphasis when the physical distance is great.

In written communication, distance also affects feedback and time. The quality of feedback tends to decrease as time goes by, so a manager can expect less comprehensive feedback as distances increase. Distance also makes persuasion more difficult because opposing arguments cannot be answered immediately. Sometimes a manager has to decide to wait until face-to-face communication is possible or if, for the sake of timeliness, the interaction has to take place over a great distance.

4. Is it a familiar or unfamiliar environment? The concept of the familiarity with one’s environment has to be considered from the perspective of both the manager and the audience. Being in a familiar environment allows participants to feel more relaxed, and this is important when controversies or emotions are involved. Distractions may occur in an unfamiliar environment, and the manager should anticipate that these may affect communication.

• Time: In a world where “time is money”, time affects all elements of management and has an inescapable effect on communication. Managers need to consider the amount of time spent in preparing to communicate and the amount of time spent in the process. Consider the time of both managers and receivers to obtain cost efficiency. Thus, while a meeting may at first seem advisable because it allows for questions and feedback, it may not be efficient because of the time required to assemble people. Consequently, an

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email may be more efficient in certain situations. This effort is the type of strategic time decision a manager must make.

In addition to being considered as important as money, time is also equated with power and with status. Those who are among the “higher echelons” of an organisation can drop in on subordinates at any time without making an appointment, while those wishing to speak with a superior has to do so at the latter person’s convenience.

Furthermore, the actual timing of a communication event needs to be considered. Reports delivered late on Friday are not likely to get the desired attention and response.

Source: Hynes, G. E. (2008). Managerial Communications: Strategies and Applications. 4th ed. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 34.

The figure above presents the complete strategic managerial communication model as proposed by Hynes. The four elements mentioned above (message content, channel, physical environment and time of communication) appear on the innermost layer because they depend on the sender, receiver and purpose of the message, as well as the culture and climate. Although they have been reviewed separately, a manager needs to be careful to consider all interrelationships when developing a communication strategy. Neglecting one area while analyzing a critical situation may result in a communication failure.

Feedback Feedback cannot be separated from any of the elements included in the “onion model”. Feedback is a special type of message designed as a response to a received message. Feedback

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is important because it allows us to gauge how the messages we sent were interpreted and aids in the design of future transmissions.

Critical Errors in Communication Despite their best efforts to consider all the elements mentioned above, managers will make communication errors. The communication process depends on the personalities of those involved and the environment in which they operate. As a result, communication is dynamic and imperfect. People use their own mental filters to receive messages, and there is often a disconnect between what is real and what is reality that exists only in the mind of the communicators. It is impossible to perfectly communicate the real events of the world using the mental filters we have at our disposal. The following errors are therefore critical and common:

• Assumption-Observation Error: An assumption occurs when people accept something as valid without requiring proof. Although we make assumptions every day of our lives, it is important to know when an assumption is safe and when it is a risk. Strategic communication continually addresses this dilemma. Strategic communicators must avoid assumptions that may be incorrect and unreliable and that result in miscommunication.

To avoid this kind of error, a manager should always ask “What are the facts?” Upon separating fact from assumption, the manager should be sure to word his or her communication so that the receiver can be clear, too. “I see that the contract has been signed” is different from “It appears to me as if the contract has been signed.”

• Failure to Discriminate: This is the failure to notice and communicate significant differences among individuals or changes in situations. This failure can result in the neglect of differences and the overemphasis of similarities. It may cause people to stereotype others and apply inappropriate labels to them. It is usually very difficult for someone to overcome this tendency.

William Haney provides two suggestions for overcoming this. The first is to internalise the concept of uniqueness, that is, to develop a sensitivity to all the differences in the world. The second technique is what he refers to as “indexing evaluations”, which means thinking of each person, thing or situation in terms of what is unique about it. This can soon lead to the conclusion that everything and everyone is unique and, in turn, provides sensitivity to differences.

It is also important to remember that all things change; a manager cannot afford to disregard possible changes in persons, places, or things.

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• Allness and the Process of Abstraction: People commit this error when they structure communications as if all there is to know about a subject is being stated. The astute person knows that reality is too complex for anyone to know all there is to know about something. Haney suggests that allness is the result of two false beliefs: (1) it is possible to know and say everything about something, and (2) what I am communicating includes all that is important about the subject.

Normal communication patterns contribute to allness because people abstract as they speak. Abstracting is the process of focusing on some detail and omitting others. One way of overcoming this challenge is to be aware of the level of abstraction that is taking place. This often results in a change of message phrasing: “As far as I know …”, “According to the information I have …”, “This is what I consider to be critical information.” While listening to others, we should also ask ourselves “What has been omitted?” or “What else?”

Technology-Mediated Communication Technology has moved beyond the typewriter or simple telephone with the development of the silicon chip, microprocessor and satellite. The electric typewriter has given way to the word processor with its sophisticated software graphics packages. Furthermore, hardware development allows the word processor to be networked for electronic mail systems and to make use of huge databases. The simple telephone was first enhanced with the answering machine, but now call forwarding, pictures, conference calls and voice mail are common features of telephone systems. The telephone and computer integrate to send messages around the world in an economical fashion. All of these systems are part of technologically-mediated communication.

A framework for using technologically-mediated communication The decision to use a telephone, e-mail, or teleconference can be complicated because of the many variables involved. With technologically-mediated communication, the communication is transmitted by a technological channel. Thus, the main difference is the channel. However, every other variable is also affected by the technology. Four concepts help us understand the use of communication that is mediated by technology: bandwidth, perceived personal closeness, feedback and the symbolic interactionist perspective.

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Bandwidth Communication occurs along five sensory channels: visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory and olfactory. Bandwidth is the information transmission capacity of the available sensory channels. Face to face communication between two people within an arm’s length of each other has a wide bandwidth because it can use all five channels. When a manager first meets a job applicant, the two people usually shake hands. They are concurrently sharing visual, auditory, tactile and olfactory cues, so this communication has a wide bandwidth. Mediated communication generally omits one or more of the channels. For instance, a videoconference does not involve tactile and olfactory channels or cues. The telephone omits tactile, olfactory and visual cues.

How many cues from different sources can be processed simultaneously? This is an issue that has plagued researchers for hundreds of years, but it continues to be relevant as one thinks about technologically-mediated communication. The figure below will help make the situation clearer. Assume that each communication message is a ball that approaches our brain (the base of the Y) along the arm of the Y. The arms of the Y are different communication channels. What happens if two balls approach the intersection of the Y at the same time, when there is room for only one ball? Information jamming is inevitable. The receiver only pays attention to one of the messages while ignoring the others. In other words, the mind decides which ball can proceed to the base of the Y.

Hynes, G. E. (2008). Managerial Communications: Strategies and Applications. 4th ed. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 50.

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The goal in communicating, especially as it relates to cues from different sources, is to ensure that as much information as possible is processed in the Central Nervous System without jamming.

This leads to the concept of between channel redundancy (BCR). BCR occurs during multichannel communication when information is shared among auditory, olfactory, tactile, gustatory or visual channels. Consider meeting a job applicant. When auditory and visual channels transmit identical information, BCR is complete. This would occur when the person dresses neatly and speaks in an articulate, precise manner. Both of these cues are complementary because they signal that the person is a professional. BCR is incomplete or mixed when different channels transmit conflicting or incongruous information. Imagine that the job applicant speaks very well, but is unkempt and has body odour. In this case, BCR would be mixed or incomplete, because the impression one gets from listening to him or her is different than the impression one gets looking at or smelling him or her.

BCR is zero when each channel transmits completely different or contradictory information. Theoretically speaking, all other things being equal, information transfer is most effective when BCR is complete. Interference is highest when BCR is zero.

Information theory has not been able to totally determine what information humans process or how they process it. However, several conclusions can be stated. First, we can process only a limited amount of information. Second, certain types of information overpower other types of information.

Both of these conclusions have powerful implications for strategic managerial communication. Managers must determine how much information can be valuable in various situations. Only valuable information – cues – should be provided so that a person’s information processing capabilities are not overpowered with useless cues.

The choice between teleconferencing and videoconferencing indicates why this is important for technologically-mediated communication. Management may be tempted to use videoconferencing because it provides visual cues in addition to audio cues, but the cost for videoconferencing may be much higher and it may not be justifiable. The visual cues may be of little value or even distract from the critical audio message that can be provided with the audio- only teleconference.

Perceived Personal Closeness Participants in the communication process can either feel attached or removed from each other. Two people in the same room may feel miles apart, while those on different continents may feel close to each other. Many factors, such as the history of the two people as communication partners, can affect this feeling of closeness. Of particular concern here is how media affect the

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feeling of closeness, or propinquity. Much research indicates that electronic media affect the extent to which people feel close to each other. For instance, some people are much more apprehensive about using automatic telephone answerers than others and feel uncomfortable when making a simple call. When this apprehension exists, telephone conversations would not help a person feel psychologically close to another; psychological distance could be increased because of the accompanying apprehension. Some suggest it is the inability of the communicator to read non-verbal communication that causes the apprehension.

Others may prefer and enjoy some form of technology over face-to-face communication; some people actually warm up to the technology. An example is young people’s reliance on the cell phone for friendly interactions. When a person feels warm to the technology, psychological distance may be decreased.

Telecommunications may actually increase a person’s sense of closeness. One study found that participants in certain situations enjoyed group meetings more when they were mediated by technology than when everyone was physically present. Another example of preference for technology as an interpersonal communication tool is the use of text messaging. Text messaging and instant messaging have become the long distance communication medium of choice for young adults.

Managers need to determine the extent to which perceived personal closeness is important in different situations. Also, to what extent do various types of technology affect this closeness between the sender and the receiver? If this question is not addressed, inappropriately used technology designed to enhance managerial communication may be destructive rather than constructive.

Feedback This binds the sender and receiver together so they truly communicate with each other. Communication mediated by technology may reduce channels for obtaining feedback. When using the telephone, we do not see the facial expression of our communication partner, so feedback is reduced. Also, when managers are not totally comfortable with a particular medium, they may ignore potential feedback cues.

Consider a conference call involving five people at five locations. Such a call requires a different set of skills than a normal conversation and the manager may not be totally comfortable with the situation. Not only are different skills required to monitor feedback, but the manager’s anxiety may also reduce attention to feedback.

Time is also related to feedback. The feedback cycle can be dramatically shortened with technology. Videoconferencing affects feedback in several ways. First, although visual feedback is present, it is reduced. Also, it is not possible to make eye-to-eye contact; however, the time

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spent to arrange for the communication is greatly reduced. The major advantage and one reason that many companies use videoconferencing, is that travel time for meetings is reduced.

At the same time, the reduced time for feedback can cause problems because we have limited capabilities to process information. Managers may be pressured to decipher information and respond quickly just because the technology allows it.

Imagine a manager who receives an email. It is likely that this medium would have been used by the person sending the email, because of the speed of transmission, and this suggests that the receiving manager should respond quickly. Stress may result, as the manager may not necessarily be prepared to respond immediately.

The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective Symbolic interactionism is a theoretical framework that can be used to explain sociological and psychological phenomena. In the imagery of symbolic interactionism, we view society as a dynamic web of communication. Thus, society and every organization in which managers function is an interaction. An interaction is symbolic because, through their interactions, people assign meaning to things and events. Over time, many symbols evolve within the organisation and take on an agreed upon meaning.

The media chosen by managers for communication may be based partially on symbolical reasons. Some argue that managerial communication behaviour represents ritualistic responses to the need to appear competent, intelligent, legitimate, and rational. For example, a face-to-face medium may symbolise concern or caring. Conversely, the manager who congratulates a subordinate on 25 years of service with an email may unintentionally communicate a lack of personal concern. A handwritten note or a special card would symbolise more personal warmth to some persons.

Studies of managers and their communication media have shown that channel choice is highly symbolic. Face-to-face media are chosen to show a desire for teamwork, to build trust or goodwill, or to convey informality. Both face-to-face and telephone communication are preferred when managers want to convey a sense of urgency and/or personal concern, and to signal deference to the receiver who prefers to use that medium. Written media, however, are thought to show authority, make a strong impression, and be legitimate and official. These are also used to get attention and to follow rules of protocol.

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UNIT TWO: Ma nagerial Writing Strategies

Contemporary Managerial Writing

If writing must be a precise form of communication, it should be treated like a precision instrument. It should be sharpened, and it should not be used carelessly.

-Theodore M. Bernstein, editor, New York Times

Managers generally spend upwards of 75% of their time communicating. While a considerable amount of communication is accomplished through face-to-face conversation, some will require written communication such as letters, memos, reports, proposals and emails, and the strategic manager will be aware that all of these play a hugely important role in the success of both the organisation and the manager himself.

Most business communication is transactional: it involves a give-and-take relationship between the sender and the receiver(s) in order to establish a common understanding. This interaction is the primary feature that distinguishes business writing from journalistic or creative writing.

Written managerial communications offer several strategic advantages: economy, efficiency, accuracy and official permanence:

v Writing is usually more economical than long distance phone calls and much more economical than long distance travel. Furthermore, it provides immediacy, in that the manager can write the message whether or not the receiver is immediately available to receive it.

v Writing is efficient because the manager can work independently and use words selectively. Additionally, email allows receivers to read messages at their convenience and thus avoids the time wasted playing telephone tag.

v Accuracy is another advantage of writing; writing permits greater control of words and message organization than oral communication. Accuracy, in turn, often eliminates confusion, assures clarity and further contributes to economy and efficiency.

v Finally, writing provides official permanence; when one writes, an official record can be retained for recall and review. In a society in which lawsuits are becoming increasingly popular, the importance of documentation cannot be overstressed. More and more often, the difference between a legal judgement for or against organizations and their managers is becoming a matter of adequate documentation.

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Once a manager has decided to capitalize on the benefits of writing as a communication channel, the manager should consider two unique characteristics of writing in a business context: collaboration and the uniqueness of managerial writing.

Collaborative Writing As the name suggests, ‘collaborative writing’ is writing that is done by team or group

members working in collaboration with one another to accomplish a single goal. The emergence of collaborative writing is a major development in the modern business world. Writing in teams is becoming more prevalent because of the increased emphasis on teamwork. Also, teams often consist of people with unique specialties that they can contribute to the successful completion of major projects.

Collaborative writing may take place in a number of different ways. Sometimes a supervisor instructs a staff member to conduct research and write a document, after which the supervisor edits it. Sometimes the collaboration comes in the planning of the document, which is composed and revised by an individual. On other occasions, an individual does the planning and composing of the work, and this is then revised by the team. Peers often critique one another’s work and there are times when the collaboration characterises the entire writing process from start to finish. Recent research indicates that a typical document cycles through three to five revisions before it is sent to the intended readers.

Advantages of Collaborative Writing The advantages of collaborative writing are linked with the fact that it is built on group decision-making.

• Decision making – additional minds and perspectives are being applied to the making of a document.

• Time – when the task is too complex or lengthy for one person to accomplish efficiently, or there are time limits, having more collaborators gets the done job in the specific time needed.

• Socialisation – helps to acculturate new members by teaching writers about the company’s capabilities and history and by modelling the corporation’s values and attitudes in the actions of the experienced members.

• Personal interest – when a person has been part of the group that created a particular document, he or she is more likely to take a personal interest in ensuring that its mandate is fulfilled.

• Improvement of writing quality – different people on the team can respond to a writer’s work in a targeted and useful way that helps to improve the writing of the person who originally created (or helped to create) the document.

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Disadvantages of Collaborative Writing Interestingly enough, like the advantages, several of the disadvantages of collaborative writing are also based on its dependence on group decision-making.

• Some members do not do their fair share. This may be because tasks were not divided evenly to begin with, or some persons simply fail to do their part.

• Personality conflicts can stall progress.

• It may be difficult to schedule meeting times. In addition, the need to meet sometimes results in team members having to do additional work.

• Though one person may do a poor job on their part of the project, everyone is held responsible for the entire end result.

• There may be a lack of personal responsibility for the project, as well as a loss of personal satisfaction, ownership and a sense of creativity.

Guidelines for Effective Collaborative Writing In describing effective collaborative writers, Hynes cites Ede and Lunsford (1990) thus:

They are flexible; respectful of others; attentive and analytical listeners; able to speak and write clearly and articulately; dependable and able to meet deadlines; able to designate and share responsibility; to lead and to follow; open to criticism but confident in their own abilities; ready to engage in creative conflict.

In other words, effective collaborative writers need to work well with others. In addition to those guidelines for effective writing that can be distilled from the quotation above, there are other ways of being successful in collaborative writing:

• Work should be divided equitably among group members. This will prevent one or two persons from feeling overworked.

• Teams should use electronic technology for collaboration; technological media appear to buffer emotions while increasing efficiency.

• Every team should be assigned a team leader that can be trusted to coordinate the team’s collaborative efforts, shape the team’s vision and resolve conflicts among individuals. This requires good interpersonal skills, especially if the person chosen has no formal authority over the others.

The Managerial Writing Process Argenti (2002) states thus:

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Managerial writing differs from other types of writing in terms of its focus on brevity, its emphasis on the direct approach, and the severe time pressure associated with its production. While style is part of managerial writing, it is much less important than in other kinds of writing, such as fiction or journalism. Given the emphasis on efficiency in business, managerial writers need to produce the material quickly for an audience that is interested in getting to the core idea as soon as possible. Perhaps the easiest way to understand managerial writing is to think of it in terms of the process as well as the final product. (30)

Argenti, P. A. (2002). The Fast Forward MBA Pocket Reference. New York: Wiley.

Different persons suggest different ways of approaching managerial writing tasks. Some suggest that the writing process involves eight steps, but others divide it into just three stages: planning, composing and revising.

Stage One: Planning

It is recommended that managerial writers should spend approximately a third of the time allotted to preparing a written product on planning and organising. The better one’s ideas are when (s)he starts, the fewer drafts (s)he will need to produce.

The planning process for a managerial writer includes determining the five W’s: what, why, who, when, where – and how.

• What? - This deals with the nature of the message. A manager should have a fairly clear idea of what needs to be communicated early in the planning stages. Does he need certain information? Is she granting or rejecting a request? Whenever readers have to ask themselves “what is this writer trying to say?”, it is safe to assume that the writer did not know exactly what (s)he was trying to accomplish.

• Why? – Many miscommunications occur because the sender is not aware why a message is being sent or fails to share with the reader the purpose of the message. This is unfortunate, because in reality, the answer to the question of “why?” is just as important as the answer to the question of “what?”. Many corporate policies, procedures and rules, for example, are imposed on employees without any accompanying justification. Personnel would probably be much more receptive to these directives if they understood why the directives were necessary. Humans like dealing with cause and effect; when an effect is imposed and the cause is withheld, one likely result is resistance.

• Who? – One of the most important elements of the planning that should precede any managerial communication is the answer to the “who?” question – who is receiving the message? Demographic characteristics such as age, sex, education, political affiliations and job title may provide some indication as to how the reader will interpret the message.

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Within the organisational context, it is also important to take into consideration the relationship between the reader and the writer, as well as those characteristics of the department or organisation that may affect successful message transmission. To engage in a truly thorough reader analysis and to be fully attuned to the reader’s likely reception of a message, a writer should consider the following points:

1. The relative power position between the writer and the reader. 2. The communication requirements the organisation exerts on the reader and the

writer. 3. The business functions the reader and the writer work in. 4. The frequency of the communication between the writer and the reader. 5. The reader’s reaction to past messages from the writer. 6. The relative sensitivity of the message.

• When? – The importance of the answer to the “when” question may vary with the routineness and/ or importance of the information being conveyed. Many routine messages, such as sales reports, are distributed periodically. No actual decision has to be made as to when they are sent because dates have already been set. Likewise, trivial information is likely to be received in the same way regardless of timing. For a non-routine message, however, the decision on when to send it may directly affect how the message is received. For example, the manager of a textile mill had to tell employees they were not going to get a pay raise even though the company had shown a profit the preceding quarter. Management chose to convey this message in a letter form just before the employees went on vacation. The timing of this message ruined the vacations of many employees, and some actually spent their vacations looking for new jobs. Managers should be careful not to send messages too early or too late.

• Where? – The where question sometimes has to be addressed at both ends of the communication spectrum: where should the message come from? Where should it be directed?

• How? – The “how?” question has to do with the media selection. Even when managers know that something has to be put into writing, sometimes they have to choose among email, letter, memorandum, report, newsletter, brochure, notice on the bulletin board and other options. The choice of medium is determined by how personal the message needs to be, how widespread its distribution has to be, and how quickly it needs to reach its audience.

Stage Two: Composin g After carrying out the planning stage in a satisfactory manner, the manager needs to begin building the message that will accomplish the purpose that needs to be served. The manager needs to compose a message. Selecting words is an important component of composing messages; words need to be chosen with care, and they also need to be organised in a clear, comprehensive, coherent manner.

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Selecting Words Words are symbols that define the content of the message, thus, words should be carefully selected so the overall content will accomplish the communication’s goal. The following principles will help writers accomplish their goals:

1. Choose words precisely 2. Use short, rather than long words 3. Use concrete rather than abstract words 4. Economise on words 5. Avoid clichés and jargon 6. Use positive words that convey courtesy 7. Use a conversational style

Organising Words for Effect The next four principles discuss organizational guidelines for putting words together to convey a message. Comprehension is largely determined by the extent to which the writer uses these principles.

8. Keep sentences short 9. Prefer the active to the passive voice 10. Organise paragraphs logically 11. Be coherent

Principle One: Choose words precisely - As managers strive for precision , they should remember that words can have both connotative and denotative meanings. Denotative meanings are objective; they point to; they describe. For example can you pick out the correct word in each of the following sentences?

o The advertising agency that we just bought should profitably (compliment, complement) our manufacturing and distribution interests.

o The managers assured us that he had (apprised, appraised) his superior of the shipping problem.

o To persuade upper management to take this action, we will need the testimony of an expert who is completely (uninterested, disinterested).

Along the same lines, consider the following excerpts from letters written to a government agency.

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o “I am very mush annoyed that you have branded my son as illiterate. This is a dirty lie as I was married a week before he was born.”

o “Unless I get my husband’s money pretty soon, I will be forced to lead an immortal life.”

Connotative meanings, on the other hand, are subjective. They can be different for different people because they are determined largely by a person’s previous experiences or associations with a word and its referent.

Principle Two: Use Short Rather than Long Words Short words are usually less confusing than long words. Long words, especially when strung out with several other long words, can produce a communication barrier between reader and writer. Written business communication should be economical and efficient. The following list provides alternatives for some of the many longer words used and abused in business writing.

Instead of using Use

Advise tell

Ameliorate improve

Approbation approval

Explicate explain

Perspicacity sense

Principle Three: Use Concrete Rather than Abstract Words Concrete words tend to be specific because they create clear pictures in the reader’s mind. Abstract words are less specific and produce wider, more general interpretations and meanings.

Abstract Concrete

She was a good student She earned the highest semester total in a

class of 68 students.

In the near future by Friday, June 19

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Concrete writing takes less time to read, produces better message comprehension and is less likely to need rereading than abstract writing.

Principle Four: Economize on Words The scientist Pascal wrote a 20 page letter to a friend in 1656. In a postscript, he apologized for the letter’s length, saying, “I hope you will pardon me for writing such a long letter, but I did not have time to write you a shorter one.” Pascal was testifying to the fact that conciseness, or economy of word choice, takes time and effort.

Wordiness costs companies money. Unnecessary words take valuable time to compose and read; they waste paper and resources. Consider the following two versions of a business message.

• Enclosed please find a cheque in the amount of $5000.00. In the event that you find the amount to be neither correct nor valid, subsequent to an examination of your records, please inform us of our findings at your earliest convenience.

• Enclosed is a cheque for $5000.00. If this amount is incorrect, please let us know.

The second version takes 15 words to say the same thing by the first version in 41 words - a reduction of over 63 percent. Note in the examples below how the wordy/ redundant expressions on the left can be replaced by the more economical alternatives on the right.

______________________________________________________________

Wordy/ redundant phrases Alternatives

Due to the fact that because

In order to to

Pursuant to your request as requested

Look forward with anticipation anticipate

In the event that if

Not withstanding the fact that although

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Principle Five: Avoid Clichés and Jargons Trite expressions or clichés have an accepted meaning; however, these words yield dull messages that lack creativity. Readers may understand what is written, but the message appears impersonal since the writer has injected nothing original into it.

_________________________________________________________

Overused Phrases Alternatives

Smart as a whip intelligent

Get it all together get organized, resolve the problem

Stretches the truth exaggerates, lies

Rock of Gibraltar reliable, dependable

Really down to earth realistic, honest, and sincere

_________________________________________________________

Two other clichés some readers interpret as presumptuous are

“Thanking you in advance…” and “Permit me to say…”

Besides being timeworn, mechanical and impersonal, the first expression seems to say, “I expect you to comply with my request, but I don’t want to have to take the time to thank you later, so I’ll do it now.” The second expression seems to seek permission, but the writer says what he or she wants to say before getting that permission. The second expression should be dropped and the first might be replaced by:

“I appreciate any help you can give me in the matter.”

Jargon is a technical language or specified terms that become part of the everyday vocabulary of an organization or discipline. Insiders know what the words mean, but outsiders/ customers may not. When writing to readers outside the organization, managers should avoid using jargon. Rather they should use the layperson’s version whenever possible to reduce the likelihood that the reader will misunderstand the message.

_____________________________________________________________________

Jargon Layperson’s Version

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TQM Total Quality Management

Amounts receivable firms or people owing money to the company

Amounts payable amounts owed by the company

Per diem daily

CRM Customer Relations Management

With only one exception, the descriptions on the right are wordier than the jargon on the left. If these wordier versions assure understanding and prevent inquiries aimed at clarification, then the extra effort and words used would have been worthwhile.

Principle Six: Use Positive Words that Convey Courtesy

Whether a manager is dealing with subordinates, superiors, peers, customers, suppliers or others, he or she is likely to want the message to be well received. The positive wording of a request, of information, or even of bad news should increase the probability of a positive or at least neutral reaction by the receiver. The sender of an effective communication must establish credibility and goodwill with the receiver, and positiveness and courtesy aid the manager in developing these aspects. The following examples illustrate the different impacts that can be generated by positive and negative wordings of messages.

• I cannot have the report ready by tomorrow morning.

• I can have the report completed by 3:30 p.m. Wednesday.

Being positive and conveying courtesy in word choice also involves using gender-neutral language. Pronouns and nouns that refer to one sex when both are being described are unacceptable.

Principle Seven: Use a Conversat ional Style Sentences communicate effectively when they use everyday language, that is, when the words are those that would be used in face-to- face communication. A conversational style involves writing with words from a person’s speaking vocabulary. Usually, the words should not include colloquialisms, slang, or jargon; they should be the language most people would use in conducting everyday business.

Organising Words for Effect

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Principle Eight: Keep Sentences Short

Principle Nine: Prefer the Active to the Passive Voice

Principle Ten: Organise Paragraphs Logically

Principle Eleven: Be Coherent

STAGE THREE: Revising The third stage involves revising and editing, and is an extremely important step that should not be overlooked. Because of the writing principles, approaches and grammatical rules involved in writing, all writers need to check their work. Revising is a service to the reader, and the writer should try to change perspective by distancing himself from the writing and assuming the role of the reader in order to objectively examine the message from the reader’s viewpoint. These questions can help to systemise the revision process:

• What is my purpose?

• Have I included all the information that the reader wants or needs to know in order to understand my message?

• Does my message answer all the reader’s questions?

• Is there any information non-essential to the reader that I can delete?

• Have I included reader benefits?

Revising also involves (i) reading what has been written for clarity, concreteness, and conversational tone; (2) determining factual accuracy; (3) organising to ensure coherence; (4) re-wording awkward sentences and phrases; (5) rearranging content and adding illustrations and transitions. Writers should avoid assuming their writing is satisfactory after only one or two drafts. Few people have the level of competence required to write only one (or two or three) versions of a text.

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The final step in this stage is to edit the document for correctness. Spell- and grammar-checkers are helpful, but they should not be the only tools used for editing one’s work. Below is a popular case where punctuation significantly changes the meaning of a sentence:

A woman, without her man, is nothing.

A woman: without her, man is nothing.

It might be useful to have someone else read your work before it is final. At the very least, set the piece aside for some time before looking at it so that the wording becomes less familiar to you.

Though revising and editing may seem time-consuming and tedious, the results are definitely worth the effort put into the activity. By making the message clearer and easier to understand, revising benefits the reader and reduces the likelihood of requests for clarification later. In the long run, therefore, revising and editing save time and money while enhancing the writer’s image.

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5. Contemporary Managerial Writing Styles used in creating Routine Documents: d. You attitude e. Direct strategy f. Indirect strategy

Routine Documents As has been mentioned before, written communication is an important part of a manager’s job. Routine documents used in communication include email, letters and memoranda. It is important not to take these documents for granted just because they are routine. Perhaps because they are sent so often, that they often become impersonal and convey information in a lifeless manner. Rather than being responses to a specific communication situation, many messages merely respond to types of situations. Thus, some managers write stock responses to queries and discount the factors making the query unique and calling for specific adaptation.

In addition, because these three types of written communication are so common and relatively informal, managers often become lax regarding the quality of their messages. As such, many of these messages involve punctuation, word usage and sentence construction errors. Managers should strive to eliminate errors in all their communication, including those considered unique.

As with other aspects of communication, managers should consider taking a strategic approach to the production of emails, letters and memoranda.

Audience Adaptation When creating documents, whether or not they are routine, adaptation is the process of creating a message that suits your audience. Whether the writer knows the receiver of a message or not, (s)he can employ certain writing strategies that suit most correspondence situations.

You attitude The “you” attitude, which is reader-oriented, grew out of an awareness that most people, especially when they are involved in business matters, are likely to be looking after their own interests. In reading a message they want to know how they gain, or at least how they can minimize loss. Thus when communicating in a positive situation, writers seek to increase the positive impact of the news. In a negative situation, writers seek to reduce negative impact while stressing reader benefits. Employing the you attitude is essential to the promotion of audience benefits in one’s writing.

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Writers using this strategy prepare messages matching their readers’ interests. They do this by putting themselves in the reader’s place and asking him/herself “How would I feel if I were this person in this situation? What would I want to read in this message?” They emphasize second-person pronouns (you, your) instead of first-person pronouns (I, we, us, our). Whether one is trying to persuade, inform, or promote goodwill, for example, the catchiest words that can be used are you and your. Compare these examples:

Focus on “I/We”

• “I’m asking all employees to respond to the attached survey about working conditions.”

Focus on “You”

• “Because your ideas count, please complete the attached survey about working conditions.”

Focus on “I/We”

• “I have granted you permission to attend the communication seminar.”

Focus on “You”

• “You may attend the seminar to improve your communication skills.”

Focus on “I/We”

• “We have shipped your order by UPS, and we are sure it will arrive in time for your sales promotion December 1.”

Focus on “You”

• “Your order will be delivered by UPS in time for your sales promotion December 1.”

Be careful not to over-use the pronoun you. While readers and listeners appreciate genuine interest, they resent obvious attempts at manipulation. Some sales messages, for example, are guilty of overkill when they include you dozens of times in a direct-mail promotion. Furthermore, the word can sometimes create the wrong impression. Consider this statement:

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“You cannot return merchandise until you receive written approval.” The word you appears twice, but in this case, the reader feels like (s)he is being singled out for criticism. In the following version, the message is less personal and more positive: “Customers may return merchandise with written approval.”

Anticipating Questions To be effective, writers should anticipate the questions a reader might have. Thus, as they write, they ask themselves just what the reader might be uncertain about and then answer the uncertainties so no additional correspondence is needed. Managers should strive to remember the five Ws: who, what, when, where, and why.

Stressing Reader B enefits With the you attitude, the writer always strives to show the reader how (s)he benefits. The writer designs a message either to capitalize on or overcome the reader’s attitude about the writer as well as the issue at hand. Thus a business person trying to collect on a past-due account might stress that the reader needs to pay the account balance to retain credit privileges at the store as well as an overall good credit rating. The potential for success in this case is far greater than if the credit manager had stressed only the company’s interest by writing of its need for payment.

Avoiding Negatives Avoid negatives and words with negative connotations, especially in negative situations. Watch especially words such as claim, allege, problem, damage, and regret. A negative word can affect a reader’s perceptions so much that he won’t be able to read the rest of the message objectively.

Non-verbal Elements and the You Attitude The you attitude shows itself in a variety of ways, some more obvious than others. One of these ways is metacommunication. Without reading a word, an individual receiving a message can tell a lot about the sender and the sender’s attitude toward the reader.

Managers should choose stationery with the reader in mind, as choosing the correct stationery can send a positive message to readers. A positive letter marred by smeared or pale print, typos, stains, or hand corrections or a cheap grade of paper creates static in the communication channel. While the written message says the writer cares the physical elements of the medium suggest indifference at best. On the other hand, error-free letters with crisp

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black print on white, high-rag content bond paper suggest professionalism and concern for the reader’s feelings.

In the same way, the non-verbal elements of email can make a positive or negative impression on the reader. A writer using the you attitude will send concise emails. This may include:

v ensuring that all the information fits on one screen (so that readers don’t have to scroll down);

v improving readability by using brief paragraphs with spaces between them; v deleting all but the most recent message being responded to (if the email is a reply or

the latest in a series), and v limiting the use of tabs and other design and formatting elements, since formatting is

often lost when a reader opens an external email.

Diction The you attitude also influences a message’s wording. If the reader’s interest is of central concern, show this by making the reader central as well. If the reader is saying, “What’s in it for me?” (s)he will have a hard time determining that if you write in the first person with I, me, mine, or we, us, our, ours. A better focus is you, yours, your. Thus, rather than saying “we are sending the samples of the ads we worked up for Reality Industry’s new pumps,” a writer should substitute, “You will soon receive three samples of the magazine ads for your new pumps.” The revision makes the reader rather than the writer the focus of attention.

Strategies The suggestions given earlier will be most effective if messages are organised in a manner that anticipates the reader’s reaction. The two basic strategies discussed below can appropriately address reader reaction. They deliver the message while promoting a positive image of the writer which, one will agree, is rather important for managers.

The Direct Strategy The direct strategy is used for messages conveying good news or neutral information. Someone receiving good news is pleased after reading it and appreciates having the good news as quickly as possible. However, if the message’s main idea is buried in the middle or is located near the end, the reader, who probably began with enthusiasm, loses interest and becomes frustrated at wasting vulnerable time searching for the main point. This frustration can affect the reader’s attitude toward the writer: “Why can’t he come right to the point?” Thus, such a message in a positive situation with lots of potential for building goodwill can, instead, weaken and even destroy the positive impact.

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Ø Opening: A better strategy is to put the main point first. A brief introduction might be needed to orient the reader, but this introduction should not delay the presentation of the main point.

Ø Body: A message using the direct strategy next provides the necessary details: the reasons for the decision or the procedures the reader needs to follow. These details promote the writer of the company (s)he represents, especially when the message grants a favour.

Ø Close: A direct message has a positive ending. Among the choices can be an offer to help, a statement of gratitude, or a repetition of any further action the reader needs to take.

The Indirect Strategy The effective bad news message conveys information while creating as little resentment as possible. If it is at all possible, it should help build goodwill for the company since the reader may be desirable as a customer, client, or future employee.

A good strategy for negative messages is an indirect one. Using this strategy, a writer leads the reader logically to the bad news. Successfully developed, the message minimizes the reader’s negative reactions and builds goodwill. However, not all indirect messages convey bad news.

Ø Opening: The indirect messages begin with a buffer, some neutral or positive statement that clearly relates to the purpose that both reader and writer agree on. The beginning might be agreement with the reader; it might express appreciation for the reader’s candour in writing; or it might be a compliment. A good opening begins to let the reader down gently. Ideally, it would subtly set up the explanation that follows in the body of the message. The reader starts out reading a letter expecting things to go his/her way, and when the indirect beginning fails to reinforce this, the state is set for the denial or bad news that will follow.

Ø Body: Next, the message analyzes the circumstances or provides details about the facts that led to the bad news being conveyed. The challenge here is to be convincing. The tone of this part is cooperative. The writer does not have to say, “Let’s look at the facts,” but the reader should have that feeling. A writer can improve the reader’s response to bad news by offering a reason for the outcome and providing an alternative or compromise if at all possible. Next, one implies or directly expresses the negative information using a positive tone. Naturally, a writer should not be so subtle in implying the negative news that the reader is left hanging, but any direct statement should be tactile and not blunt. The best approach is to subordinate the actual point where the bad news is stated in the middle of the paragraph, rather than allow it to come at the beginning or the end.

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Ø Close: At the end, strive to rebuild goodwill. One is to suggest another course of action open to the reader. In response to claims for goods, suggest others that are durable, or appropriate for the reader’s use. A letter rejecting a proposal, for example, might give another outlet for the idea. Close the indirect message on a positive, friendly note. Often, the effort of building goodwill is enough.

Handling negatives

Since an indirect message conveys bad news, it is potentially very negative. To minimise the damage to a company’s goodwill, good writers generally avoid negative words. The following three rules hold the key:

• Place negative information at points of low emphasis.

• Avoid no or not when possible.

• Avoid word with negative connotations.

Compare the following two short paragraphs telling a job applicant that the company has no job openings in his area.

We do not anticipate any openings in the Baytown Company anytime soon since we have been laying off people in your field. You might want to apply at the Rumfield and Company or Bennington, Inc., since they are adding to their staff.

The writer could easily have softened the negatives by placing them in a less prominent position.

I suggest you apply for one of the engineering positions now open at Rumfield and Company or at Bennington, Inc., rather than at Baytown Company. Currently Baytown’s personnel needs are in other areas.

Avoiding negative writing involves the writer emphasising what (s)he can do, not what (s)he cannot do:

We cannot fill your order until you tell us what size grill your restaurant currently uses.

Compare the following possibilities:

We can fill your order as soon as you let us have your restaurant’s grill size.

Please specify your grill size so that we may fill your order as quickly as possible.

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Words with negative connotations include allege, argue, broken, careless, claim, damage, error, failure, mistake, regret. Try to avoid using these in your writing.

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Writing Management Reports and Proposals A report is an oral presentation or a written document that provides information, requests funding or approval, analyzes company or market data, or makes recommendations for innovation and change. Effective business reports solve problems and answer questions systematically.

Reports are among an organisation’s most important communication tools. They appear in various forms, carry out a number of functions, and ensure the efficient transfer of data (both within an organisation and between an organisation and its stakeholders).

Report audiences can be both internal and external. Internal reports provide a medium for managers to carry out the essential tasks involved in planning, organising, executing, evaluating and improving. Some internal reports depict current status or progress towards a goal, while some convey the results of previous management decisions; others relay a manager’s evaluation of results and performance and give suggestions (or perhaps orders) for changes in current policies and procedures that will engender greater effectiveness and efficiency.

Managers also write reports to external audiences. Corporate annual reports, for example, are read by shareholders and other stakeholders. Government regulatory agencies may also require companies to file reports on a periodic basis. It is important that managers have the know-how to approach problems, solve them, and communicate the findings to both internal and external readers.

What are the differences between proposals and reports? Reports provide information, analysis, or recommendations that can be used to solve problems; monitor or document progress; clarify or implement policies or procedures; and guide change, direction or decisions. While proposals are a type of report, the difference is that they request funding or acceptance in exchange for work to be performed. Proposals specifically ask that the business idea, project or product be accepted. A proposal is also a promise that can be legally binding, depending on the terms outlined and if the funding source or business accepts the proposal.

Functions of Reports In terms of what they do, most reports can be placed in two broad categories: informational reports and analytical reports. Informational reports present data without analysis or recommendations. Analytical Reports provide data, analyses, conclusions, and if requested, recommendations.

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Types of Business Reports ð Periodic Operating Reports: The most common reports in many organizations are

written at intervals to monitor operations. These operations – such as weekly activity reports from sales reps – answer questions about what employees are doing and how effectively the organization is achieving its mission. They monitor and control operations including production, sales, shipping and customer service.

ð Situational Reports: They describe non-recurring activities. This broad category includes trip, conference and seminar reports, as well as progress reports for unusual activities, such as sponsorship.

ð Investigative/ Informational Reports: Reports that examine situations or problems and supply facts – with little in the way of interpretation or recommendations – are investigative.

ð Compliance Reports: These reports comply with laws and regulations that protect employees, investors and customers. Such reports respond to government agencies.

ð Justification/ Recommendation Reports: When managers and employees must justify or recommend something (such as purchases, changes in operations, new programmes or personnel), they write a justification or recommendation reports. These analytical reports usually travel upward to management, where the recommendations are approved or refused.

ð Yardstick Report: When a problem has two or more solutions, a helpful way to evaluate the alternatives is to establish consistent criteria – a yardstick – by which to measure the alternatives. For example, let’s say that a company must decide whether to (1) continue using mainframe computers, (2) purchase networked personal computers, or (3) hire an outside agency to handle some of its computing needs. A yardstick report assesses the alternatives by applying the same criteria to each, such as cost, service, security, and reliability. Each alternative is measured against the criteria to find the best option.

ð Feasibility Report: They use analysis to predict whether project alternatives are practical or advisable. This report examines the benefits and problems connected with a project, as well as its cost and schedule for implementation. The emphasis is on whether to proceed with the venture.

ð Research Studies: Researchers analyse a problem, suggest ways to solve it (called hypotheses), collect data about each possible solution, analyze that data, draw conclusions; and if requested, make recommendations.

ð Proposals: These reports offer to solve problems, investigate ideas, or sell products and services. Another form of proposal is the business plan, a persuasive report that seeks to convince investors to fund a new company.

Formats of reports The format of a report is governed by the length, topic, audience and purpose.

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• Letter Format: Use the letter format for short (ten or fewer pages) informal reports addressed outside an organization. A letter report contains a date, inside address, salutation, and complimentary close. Although they may carry information similar to that found in correspondence, letter reports usually are longer and show more careful organization than most letters. They also include headings.

• Memo format: For short informal reports that stay within organizations, the memorandum format is appropriate. Like all other memoranda, memo reports begin with DATE, TO, FROM and SUBJECT. Like letter reports, memo reports differ from regular memos in length, use of headings and deliberate organization.

• Manuscript format: For longer, more formal reports use the manuscript format. These reports are usually printed on plain paper instead of letterhead stationery or memo forms.

• Printed forms: Prepared forms are often used for repetitive data, such as monthly sales reports, performance appraisals, merchandise inventories, and personnel and financial reports.

The Report-Writing Process Usually, managers write reports for one of three reasons:

1. because a more senior person has instructed them to; 2. because the particular report is a periodic part of the company’s regular

schedule/business, or 3. on an as-needed basis to fill a gap that has been found, to share information or propose

changes.

Groundwork Most managers do not spend all their timing writing one report after another. Typically, they must lay the groundwork for the report. The pre-writing process is identical to that explained earlier (“Stage One: Planning” of “The Managerial Writing Process”). This preliminary effort might take more time than actually writing the report. Managers should try not to be intimidated by the pre-writing stage.

• Defining the Problem or Objective: In order to save time and money, the manager should ensure that valuable hours are not wasted following blind leads and doing pointless research. The report writer must first determine the problem under study or the objective: What does the reader want from the report (information, data, analysis)? The reader’s needs will determine the problem or objective for writing the report.

• Developing Recommendations: As soon as the writer has determined the problem and purpose of the report, the next step before gathering data is to develop solutions or action items. The manager must analyse the need for change and determine the best

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plan for improvement, taking constraints such as resources and time frames into consideration.

• Seeking Data: As soon as the report writer has done the problem analysis and determined the information needed for the report, (s)he gathers data to support his/her ideas. This data may be:

o primary (collected through surveys, interviews, experiments, observation), or

o secondary (historical information, material already published).

The data will need to be gathered and then analysed. Finally, the report writer will transform the results into a format that will clearly and easily be understood by the reader(s) of the report. Supporting data must be carefully selected and described so that they enhance the writer’s purpose.

Classification of Reports Knowing what form the final report will assume will help the writer to gauge the effort needed to prepare the report; this also helps in the budgeting of time and resources. The maanger will need to choose where the particular report should be on the continuum:

– Most informal reports – these resemble forms; the manager fills in blank spaces and sometimes provide a brief narrative or description. E.g. trip report, expense report, attendance report.

– Less informal – letter or memo report. These may be several pages long.

– More formal – reports that need to be more formal contain front matter; the writer may add a transmittal document, title page, and table of contents. These may also include back matter (appendices, glossaries).

Strategic Considerations

Writing Business Proposals A proposal is a detailed plan of action that a writer submits to a reader or group of readers for approval. The readers are usually in a position of authority over the writer – supervisors, managers, heads of departments, civic leaders – to endorse or reject the writer’s plan. They are among the most important types of job-related writing. Their acceptance may result in better working conditions, better use of technology, a more efficient and economical business, additional jobs and business for a company, or a safer environment.

They are also among the most costly types of occupational writing, since it takes a long time and a lot of personnel energy if they are to be prepared successfully.

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It is important to incorporate a “can-do” attitude when one is preparing a proposal. It is also important to put the reader and his/her company at the centre of the proposal. Those preparing proposals might find it useful to keep the slogan of Yates Engineering in mind: “On time ... within budget ... to your satisfaction.” These three factors (time, budget, and your reader’s satisfaction) are among the most important ingredients of a winning proposal.

Writing Successful Proposals Proposals are written for many purposes and many different audiences; for example:

• to your boss, seeking authorization to hire staff, change a procedure, or to purchase new equipment for the office;

• to potential customers, offering a product or service;

• to a government agency seeking funds to conduct a research project (for instance, requesting money to discover ways to detect environmental hazards more quickly);

• to foundations to raise funds for a non-profit organisation.

Depending on the job, proposals can vary greatly in size and scope. A proposal to your employer could easily be covered in a memorandum. A proposal to do a research project for a class assignment may also be conveyed in a page or two. A proposal may also take the form of a one- or two-page letter, but for an extremely costly job such as the construction of a ten-storey building, it might be more appropriate to submit a detailed report hundreds of pages long and may include appendices, detailed budgets, and even the résumés of the key personnel who would work on the project.

Proposals are Persuasive Plans Whether they are large or small, proposals must be highly persuasive if they are to be successful, since they are dependent on your audience’s approval. In order to convince readers, you will need more than enthusiasm; you will have to submit hard evidence. Your proposal must convince its readers that your plan will help to improve their businesses, make their jobs easier, save them money, enhance their image, improve customer satisfaction, or a combination of these.

In this fiercely competitive world of work, a persuasive proposal may well determine which company gets a contract, so you should demonstrate to your reader why your plan is better (more efficient, practical and economical) than your competitor’s. In a sense, it is a contract, because if the reader accepts the proposal, (s)he will expect you to do what you had proposed to do.

You cannot write a successful proposal until you

1. Fully understand your audience’s needs/ problems and why solving them is important

2. Formulate a careful, detailed plan of action

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3. Prove beyond doubt that you have the logic, time, equipment, and personnel to solve the problem

4. Can match your timetable and budget with your reader’s

Types of Proposals Proposals are classified according to how they originate and where the finished product is sent. Distinctions are made between solicited and unsolicited proposals based on how they originate and between internal and external based on where they are sent.

Ø Requests for Proposals and Solicited Proposals - When a company has a particular problem to be solved or a job to be done, it will solicit proposals. The company will prepare a Request For Proposal (RFP), which is a set of instructions that specify the exact type of work to be done along with the guidelines on how and when the company wants the work completed.

Some RFPs are rather long and detailed, even telling exactly how the proposal should be prepared, what information is to be included, where it needs to appear, and how many copies should be submitted. Your proposal will be judged on how well it fulfils the requirements of the RFP, so those submitting proposals in response to RFPs should follow the guidelines exactly.

Ø Unsolicited Proposals - With an unsolicited proposal, you make the first move. Unlike a solicited proposal, in which the company to which you are submitting the proposal knows about the problem, your unsolicited proposal has to convince readers that (i) there is a problem, and (ii) you and your firm are the ones to solve it.

Ø Internal and External Proposals - An internal proposal is written to decision makers in your own organisation who have to approve your plan. An internal proposal can deal with a variety of topics, such as changing a policy or procedure, requesting more personnel or purchasing or updating equipment or software.

An external proposal is sent to a decision-maker outside of your company. Such proposals may be sent to a previous client or someone with whom your company has never worked.

Internal Proposals The main purpose of an internal proposal is to offer a realistic and constructive plan to help your company to run its business more efficiently and economically. As you work, you may discover a more economical or effective way of completing a task, and you may believe that your proposed change will save your employer time, money, or trouble. If you choose to prepare an internal proposal, it will usually be informal, and a brief two- to three-page memo might be appropriate.

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ð Refer to photocopy from Kolin.

External Proposals

An external proposal responds to needs outside of your company. For external proposals, consider this format:

ü Front Matter - Include the following: v Transmittal Letter. Express your appreciation for the chance to submit your proposal.

Acknowledge any previous experience with the customer (assuming it was positive), and summarise the recommendations you will make.

v Title Page. Use high-quality paper that’s thicker than the inside pages. If the proposal is for a large project, it’s worthwhile having a graphic artist design a great-looking cover. Remember that first impressions count!

v Table of Contents - Prepare an annotated table of contents that breaks everything out clearly.

v List of illustrations - v Abstract -

ü Introduction – State the problem, scope and purpose of the proposal. Include upbeat information that sells you or your company. Review marketing materials and include what makes your company the one to be selected. Include a graphic, if appropriate.

ü Executive Summary - Give the highlights of the proposal that “sell” you or your company. ü Body - Include from the following what’s relevant to your proposal:

v Background to the problem (if needed) v Methodology v Equipment recommended v Detailed cost analysis v Delivery schedule

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v Summary of advantages/benefits v Statement of responsibilities v Description of vendor v Advertising literature

ü Conclusions ü Back (End) Matter - Include from the following what’s relevant to your proposal:

v Bibliography (if needed) v Qualifications/Resumes v Appendices (if needed) v Glossary of terms

Guidelines for Writing Successful Proposals

1. Approach it as a problem-solving activity

2. Regard your audience as skeptical readers

3. Research your proposal thoroughly

4. Scout out what your competitors are doing

5. Prove that your proposal is workable

6. Be sure your proposal is financially realistic

7. Package your proposal attractively

Managerial Listening

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“To listen is an effort, and just to hear is no merit. A duck hears also.” -Igor Stravinsky, Russian Composer.

While speaking and writing are extremely important skills in business they are not the most often used. We use listening more than virtually any other communication skill, yet we often neglect this important business tool. In most business situations, we listen more than we read, write, or speak. Managers and employees use their listening skills to increase productivity and profit, build employee morale, mainstream business procedures and practices, meet changing consumer needs, and improve customer relations. Listening is so important that many contemporary organizations offer extensive listening training programmes for employees. While listening is critical for all employees, the time spent listening increases significantly as a person ascends up the corporate ladder into the executive ranks.

Hearing is the involuntary physiological process of receiving sound waves through receptors in the ear that transmit them to the brain. People automatically sense and receive various sounds, but are not consciously aware that they are hearing them. For example, one may hear the hum of a printer or air conditioning unit without actually listening to it. So, unlike hearing, listening requires intrapersonal focus and message decoding to attach meaning to the messages we hear.

Listening is an active process of selecting, attending to, interpreting and remembering sounds. Selecting essentially refers to becoming aware of and choosing a given sound among many competing sounds. Attending involves consciously focusing on sounds because they are interesting, expected, or surprising. Interpreting is the process of decoding sounds to gain understanding and assigning meaning to messages in the context in which they are received. Associating messages with your personal experience or prior knowledge can help you to interpret them. Remembering involves the storage of received information in short- and long-term memory. We remember information for the purpose of later retrieval and use.

The Listening Process Listening is defined as “the process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken and/or non-verbal messages.” The process of listening is an active, rather than a passive one. It involves a series of steps, each of which must be correctly completed if listening is to be effective:

1. Receiving – This is the physical process of receiving the message. This involves using the sense of hearing (words, vocal tones, noises), as well as the sense of sight (actions, facial gestures, body language, environment) to access messages from the environment.

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2. Interpreting – This takes place when listeners make sense of the message they have received by supplying a meaning to it. During communication, it is important for the participants to remember that words and Non-verbal cues may have different meanings to different people, and this can lead to an unclear message.

3. Remembering – This stage involves recalling and retaining information. This is useful because it facilitates evaluation and response.

4. Evaluating – Critically evaluating information is the process of interpreting what you have understood in order to determine how truthful, authentic, or believable you judge the meaning to be.

5. Responding – this is the process of reacting to what has been heard while listening and after listening. Skilful listeners give outward signs that they are interested and involved. They respond not only when others finish speaking, but throughout interaction. This is what makes listening such an active process. There are different types of response: direct verbal responses (spoken or written); responses that seek clarification; responses that paraphrase, and Non-verbal response.

Types of Listening

• Active Listening – This is an intrapersonal and interactive process in which we actively focus on, interpret and respond verbally and Non-verbally to messages. The most significant aspect of active listening is vigorous participation by the listener, demonstrated by his or her full concentration on the message and thoughtful and appropriate feedback to the speaker. Active listening provides the foundation for other types of listening such as learning, critiquing what is heard, providing sensitivity or assistance, and participating in open group dialogues.

• Critical Listening – This involves making assessments and decisions about what you hear. Assume that one of your job responsibilities is to hire new employees for the company. To accomplish this task, you will need to review numerous resumes and select certain applicants to interview. During the interview process, you will need to seek information and critically evaluate the responses you receive. Your critical listening skills will help you determine the suitability of each applicant’s professional experience and his/her ability to work well with other employees in your company.

• Sensitive Listening – This kind of listening is supportive. It demonstrates care toward others when they share their thoughts and feelings. In a wide variety of situations, you may need to listen sensitively to everything from co-workers’ or subordinates’ problems to customers’ criticisms and complaints to managers’ concerns about troubled initiatives and procedural deficiencies. To listen sensitively, you need to take the time and offer supportive paraphrasing and Non-verbal listening cues that reassure, approve, or soothe.

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• Empathic Listening – This kind of listening involves trying to understand another person from his/her own frame of reference. The empathic listener tries to get inside the speaker’s thoughts and feelings. The listener expresses empathy when (s)he verbally and Non-verbally communicates such messages as “I follow you”, “I get what you’re saying”, or “I understand”. This type of listening is not easy to achieve because we naturally tend to advise, tell, agree or disagree based on our own view. It is important to go against one’s natural tendency and try to practise empathic listening, because an employee who sees that a manager is really trying to understand his meaning will trust the manager and be more willing to talk. Even when it is only partially successful, empathic listening can be very useful by opening communication between the speaker and listener.

• Dialogue Listening – This type of listening is used to identify, share and explore other people’s meaning and perspectives in an open group dialogue. This type of listening is not self-focused or other-focused. It is us-focused communication because it is co- created and collaboratively developed by all the participants. Dialogue listening is like a brainstorming session in that the ideas of all the participants are encouraged. It is also like sensitive listening in that those ideas are not judged or negated. However (unlike sensitive listening), dialogue listening includes and focuses on all the people in the interaction. Dialogue listening is an especially effective tool for business professionals since it combines active listening skills such as learning and sensitivity. Situations that involve conflict or problem identification, idea generation, change initiatives and strategy sessions can all be enhanced through dialogue listening.

• Passive Listening – This is the absorption of sounds without the personal involvement necessary for active attention, interpretation, or feedback. The difference between passive listening and not listening is that when you listen passively, you listen for enjoyment.

• Casual Listening – Informal casual listening involves both conversational interaction and polite acknowledgement of the speaker’s social message. Conversational casual listening is interpersonal listening that occurs among two or more people in a social setting. However, conversational listening does not necessarily require effective listening because listeners may elect not to concentrate on or respond to all the messages they hear while in social groups. Polite casual listening is passive because the listener may not be interested in the topic and does not participate in the interaction.

Benefits of Listening Several essential managerial skills involve listening:

• Much of the data necessary for decision making comes through listening to employees, and poor listeners miss important information.

• Listening makes a person more dependable. People who listen well follow directions better, make fewer errors, say foolish things less often and generally become the kinds of people others will ask for advice or direction.

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• Good listeners are more respected and liked by those they work with. Managers who listen compliment those they listen to, in effect telling them they are worthy people. This trait can lead to harmonious work relationships since employees generally trust and support managers who listen to them.

• Better listening enables a manager to be better informed overall. It is important to note that we learn about the world in which we live by listening, not by talking.

• Good listening spares a person many embarrassments. In many situations, people may miss a name because of poor listening, or they may need to have critical information repeated because of daydreaming. Worse yet, a direct question may be unanswered because of incompetent listening. Such embarrassing situations can quickly label a manager as unconcerned or even apathetic.

Barriers to Listening • Listening-speaking differential – This relates to human beings’ own physical limitations.

People speak approximately 25% as fast as they think; in other words, someone might think at a rate of about four times faster than they can speak. This barrier is known as the “25-75 problem”. As a result, instead of listening carefully, some people think about other things and devote only a fraction of their capacity to taking in what is said. They become impatient with the slow rate of the spoken word and begin to think about topics other than the words being spoken; consequently, our inability to speak more rapidly becomes a physical barrier in listening situations. The listening-speaking differential, or the 25-75 problem, is listed first because our wandering attention partially causes many of the other listening barriers.

• A lack of motivation is also another barrier to listening. Many people find maintaining the continuous motivation required for listening to be a challenge. Managers who should be listening may be daydreaming, making private plans, or even focusing on an emotional problem. During that 75% void, many things can overpower the 25% listening.

• A lack of willingness is another barrier, and it is related to motivation. A manager may not want to listen. If a person consciously or unconsciously decides not to listen, listening skills are of no advantage. Why would a manager lack the willingness to listen?

1. People would rather talk than listen; and even when they ask a question, they often interrupt the first sentence of the response.

2. The listener may quickly stereotype the speaker as one who has little to contribute and is not worth listening to.

3. A listener may lack willingness because she may not want to receive negative information. For the speaker who brings ‘bad tidings’, what incentive is there to listen?

4. Defensive behaviour works against listening. Some managers consider the slightest attack on one of their opinions as an attack on them personally; consequently, they

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will rise to the defence. This defence often involves verbal attacks that preclude the possibility for listening.

• Internal noise that cannot be ignored may be another barrier. Our autonomic nervous system involuntarily pays attention to certain events such as a headache, sore feet or an empty stomach. It is difficult to divide attention between these involuntary distractions and concentrated listening.

• External/environmental noise that may compete with the main topic of interest may be another barrier. It is hard to listen to a soft-spoken subordinate in a noisy factory or to a phone conversation with a lot of static on the phone line. In these situations, separating the speaker’s voice from the surrounding noise can be exhausting.

• Detouring may be yet another barrier. The listener may become distracted by a phrase or concept and detour toward the distraction. This distraction then stimulates thought on another subtopic more interesting than the central point of the message; consequently, thoughts detour to the more interesting topics. Detouring is closely related to bias.

• The debate represents another barrier. A listener may suddenly find herself disagreeing with the speaker and begin to plan her rebuttal; while she does this, she blocks out the speaker and misses his message. For instance, a manager listening to complaints from a department might prepare a rebuttal as the other person explains the incident. As a result, the manager creates a defensive climate and misses the most important information.

• Time can also be a barrier to listening. It is an important factor in the day of every manager, and as such, “I just don’t have time to listen to this” is a common reaction for managers. Time seems to drag when people have to listen to something in which they have no interest. When listening appears to take too much time, managers tend to stop listening. One way some terminate listening is by making a hasty conclusion. This time pressure may lead to the tendency to judge, evaluate, approve, or disapprove a person’s statement too hastily.

• Message Noise may also act as a barrier. 1. Messages that are perceived as uninteresting or challenging can predispose some

listeners to tuning out, because the information seems too boring or complex. 2. Emotionally charged words or messages can interfere with listening because the

listeners focus on the emotions. For example, a witness who becomes emotional during a trial can distract the jury from the message conveyed.

3. Preconceived ideas and prejudices about a given topic can generate listening resistance if the message contradicts what the listener believes.

Listening to Informal Communication What causes rumours in a modern organization? To answer this question the following

formula is helpful: Rumours= Ambiguity x Interest

Rumours are created when the available message is ambiguous. If all information were available and clear from the formal channels, no rumours would be created. When the message

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is ambiguous but interesting, rumours will result. This relationship has an important implication for managerial communication. Management can determine what is interesting to employees by listening to rumours.

Research indicates information transmitted via the grapevine in organizations is 70 to 90% accurate. However, some amount of distortion always exists. This core of truth along with the degree of distortion is often what makes a message on the grapevine believable, interesting and durable.

Effective managerial listening requires that managers critically assess informal communication to determine the extent to which levelling (dropping details and simplifying the context and qualifications), sharpening (preference for the vivid and dramatic feature of data) and assimilation (the tendency of people to adjust or modify rumours to fit their personal needs) have occurred. Inaccurate rumours can sometimes call for action.

Research has shown that employees prefer to get their information from formal channels, and they resort to informal channels when the formal ones have dried up. Managers concerned about rampant rumours should bear this in mind.

Developing a Listening Environment While it is important for them to listen carefully, managers must also seem to be

listening, and this involves building a climate that demonstrates receptivity. Without this climate, the communication environment in an office can become like that in some homes:

Parent: Why don’t you ever tell us what you’re doing?

Child: I do, but you don’t listen. You’re always so busy.

Parent: We’re never too busy to listen to you, but you just don’t seem to want to tell us

anything.

Can managers appear too busy to listen? A manager may unintentionally establish a non-listening climate by exhibiting subtle behaviour that causes the subordinate to say to himself, “Why should I talk when nobody is listening?”

Managers need to develop a listening climate to motivate people to open up, because (s)he cannot listen if nobody is talking. Two levels of the listening climate require attention. The first is the micro level or the one-on-one situation. The second is the macro level or total climate.

• Micro Listening Climate – As mentioned before, the micro listening environment involves the one-on-one situation.

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Demonstrating a positive climate is most important when a manager is involved in empathic listening (listening from the other person’s point-of-view). Most people have a very difficult time expressing their feelings, so an encouraging, supportive, receptive climate needs to be established. Managerial strategies include maintaining eye contact, leaning slightly toward the speaker, changing facial expression in relationship to the message and taking notes. All these behaviours demonstrate a positive listening climate.

• Macro Listening Climate – The macro listening environment is related to the total climate. Managers must take responsibility for ensuring that those who work around them are free to exchange information in a timely and accurate manner. They must develop a general atmosphere that promotes rather than hinders the opportunity to communicate. This macro level of listening is demonstrated by the manager’s demeanour and style. For instance, a lot has been said about managing by wandering around (MBWA). When managers are physically available and are not locked away behind closed office doors, they create an atmosphere that says,: “I am here to listen to you.”

It is important that managers attempt to create strong listening environments. The following suggestions might be useful:

1. Managers should attempt to build opportunities to listen into their daily routines. This can be done by frequently visiting areas where employees eat or take breaks.

2. Managers should try to have informal meetings; ‘huddles’ or spontaneous gatherings of a few people to discuss a problem indicate the manager wants and needs to listen to employees’ ideas. Another technique is to keep official titles and symbols of authority to a minimum. People are more willing to talk when they don’t feel inferior to another. In some contemporary organizations, job titles have not only disappeared from office doors, but they also have been deleted from business cards. The implication is that everybody works together – communicates together – to get the job done.

3. Managers should consider using an ‘open-door policy’. If this is done, the manager should try to ensure that a positive listening climate is created by being easily and readily available.

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Communicating Non-verbally “What you do speaks so loud that I cannot hear what you say.” Ralph Waldo Emerson.

Non-verbal communication refers to body movements or vocal variations that communicate without words; in fact, it includes everything but the words. It is a natural part of almost any kind of communication, including managerial interaction. Without non-verbal communication as a source of information, most of the richness and a lot of the meaning in messages would be lost. In many cases, conversations would be complicated by the need to repeat messages for clarity, and the time required would multiply enormously. Non-verbal behaviour manages and regulates conversation, displays emotions and feelings, provides feedback and influences others. Non-verbal behaviours can also communicate to customers.

Although the extent of the non-verbal aspect of communication varies by interaction, one set of statistics shows that the actual words only convey 7% of a message, vocal aspects convey 38% and the remaining 55% comes from the speaker’s appearance, facial expression, and posture. In other words, 7% of a message is communicated verbally, and 93% non-verbally.

It is important to stress these three generalisations about non-verbal signals. First, non-verbal signals rarely have one set meaning. Instead, they usually add to the message’s meaning. Additionally, non-verbal signals vary from culture to culture, and region to region, in their meaning. They derive from experiences within the communication environment (cultural, regional or social). Furthermore, when non-verbal signals contradict verbal ones, the non-verbal are usually the more trustworthy. They can provide valuable cues to the truth of a message.

Importance of Non-verbal Communication According to Harrison (1974), non-verbal communication is “the exchange of information through nonlinguistic signs” (25). Like linguistic signs (words), non-linguistic signs are capable of bearing meaning.

Burbinster (1987) suggested that there are six functions of non-verbal communication:

Complementing: Non-verbal signals that complement the verbal message repeat it. Typically, these signals accompany what is being said. For eg., a supervisor welcoming a subordinate back after a long illness might give him a warm handshake to stress how pleased he is at the other’s return.

Accenting: Those non-verbal signals that accent call our attention to a matter being discussed. A common example is a person pounding on a desk as she makes an important point. People may also use vocalics (the non-verbal aspects of the voice itself)

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to highlight a point. Someone differentiating between two choices might say “I want this one, not that one.”

Contradicting: The non-verbal signs that contradict are less obvious. These are usually sent unintentionally by the subconscious to express non-verbally the opposite of what is being said verbally. Either subtly or obviously, non-verbal cues will often tell the careful observers the truth when the verbal cues don’t.

Repeating: Repeating occurs when we already have sent a message using one form of communication and wish to emphasize the point being made. Unlike complementing, repeating is done after the verbal comment. For example, a demonstration following a verbal description of a tool’s use is a non-verbal repetition.

Regulating: Regulating is a subtle and important function. It occurs during conversations to signal to our partner to “slow,” “stop”, and even “wait your turn” and let the other person know that you are ready to listen or to speak.

Substituting: When we can’t send a message by verbal cues, we might choose to use non-verbal ones – especially emblems – to get the point across to our receiver. A supervisor visiting a loud factory might use the “OK” sign to signal to an employee; this would probably be more effective than something that is shouted.

From a theoretical perspective, non-verbal communication also serves another important function: communication redundancy. This concept refers to the phenomena built into any language system that combat the effects of noise. It simply means that much of the meaning of a message can be deduced from other elements in the message that have already appeared. The TV show Wheel of Fortune is an example of redundancy in that not every word or letter must be on the game board before one can guess the correct phrase. Communication redundancy is extremely important because it helps ensure our message gets past the various barriers built by environmental, organisational or interpersonal elements. As a message is made more redundant, that is, as the information in the message becomes more predictable to the receiver, the message has a greater chance of conveying the meaning intended by the sender.

Types of Non-Verbal Communication 1. Kinesic behaviours are the movements we use to communicate. Kinesic behaviours, such as

leaning or pressing your index finger to your lips to signal others to be quiet, can regulate conversation. They can also help us illustrate our verbal points, reduce anxiety and express emotion.

2. Eye behaviour can certainly communicate emotions, but it can also facilitate and regulate conversation and monitor others’ reactions. Imagine that you are at a departmental meeting during which you are scheduled to present report findings. The department director looks directly at you to signal that it is time for your presentation. While you are presenting, you notice the gaze of your colleagues and determine their level of interest or

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attention to your message. From a cultural perspective, direct eye contact is important in North America because it can signal interest, but in Japan and some Eastern cultures, direct eye contact can signal aggressiveness, disrespect or even an invasion of privacy.

3. Paralanguage, also referred to as vocalics, involves vocal sounds other than words. Paralanguage is about how you say something rather than what the words mean. In our interactions with others, vocal pitch (highness or lowness of tone), speech rate (speed), volume (loudness) and rhythm (timing and emphasis) can express a variety of meanings. Suppose that when you present your report to the members of your department, your speech is hesitant, your rate of speech is slow, and you repeatedly use vocal interferences such as “um”, “er”, “uh”, and “like”, “you know” to fill some of the dead air; your colleagues may interpret this paralanguage as insecurity or limited knowledge of the subject matter.

4. The study of how people use and perceive time is known as chronemics. Time is of great importance in North American culture. In the United States, time equals money, so the focus is on adherence to deadlines, schedules, promptness and alacrity when making points, all facets of monochronic time. From a monochronic time perspective, arriving ten minutes late to a job interview may convey a message to the employer that the applicant is unreliable or uninterested and may cost the company valuable time. It is not unusual in the United States and England for business meetings to begin exactly at the scheduled time. In Eastern Asia, 20 to 30 minutes early is common. By contrast, in many Latin American and Middle Eastern cultures the focus is on interpersonal relationships and a perception that everything has its own time. In this polychronic time orientation, schedules are not strictly observed and expectations about arrival and departure times are less rigid. Being 20-30 minutes late is acceptable because the pace is more relaxed.

5. Proxemics is the study of our use of space and distance. The distance we put between ourselves and others also reflects feeling and attitudes and thus it affects communication. For example, distance can reflect the attitude of the person who does the positioning. Research shows that a person who expects an unpleasant message or views the speaker as unfriendly takes a more distant position than does someone expecting good news or viewing the speaker as friendly. An observant communicator can thus use the distance others choose with respect to him or her as a basis for hunches about their feelings.

Interpersonal distance is another non-verbal indicator of power. One unspoken cultural rule is that the person with higher status generally controls the degree of approach. This principle of distance explains why subordinates rarely question the boss’s right to drop in to their work area without invitation, but are reluctant to approach their superior’s office even when told the door is always open.

6. Touching behaviour is known as haptics. Non-verbal touching can communicate a variety of messages, including a formal greeting. Most business touching consists of formal handshakes, informal pats on the back and the occasional arm touch when addressing a co-worker in conversation.

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Burbinster, S. (April, 1987). Body Politics. Associate & Management. 55-57. Harrison, R. P. (1974). Beyond words: An introduction to nonverbal communication. Englewood

Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Hynes. Geraldine. (2008) Managerial Communication (4th ed.). New York: McGraw- Hill

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UNIT IV: Interpersonal Communication Strategies

Conflict Management

“Difficulties are meant to rouse, not discourage. The human spirit is to grow strong by conflict.” William Ellery Channing

A conflict is an event expressed through communication when individuals or groups behave in ways that indicate they have incompatible positions or goals. Another way of defining it could be as “a process in which people disagree over significant issues, thereby creating friction between parties.” In the same way that it is evident that conflict is very pervasive in the world, it is also obvious that conflict exists within the corporate world. Overseas, this is demonstrated by the frequency of mergers, acquisitions, and unfriendly takeovers; while in Jamaica we are aware of conflicts between competing organisations such as telecommunication companies.

Tensions can also run high within companies, and in some parts of the world, workplace violence ranks among the leading causes of death for women, and the number two cause for men, on the job. As the incidence of workplace violence increases, managers must protect workers from violence by developing intervention efforts, including training in conflict resolution.

A recent survey of American Management Association executives stated that managers were likely to spend about 20% of their time dealing with conflict. Conflict may occur as a simple disagreement over clashing vacation schedules or the meaning of a work procedure, or it may be an argument over priorities and involve deciding which of two projects should benefit from the limited funds available.

Organisational conflict is a natural part of the traditional organisational structure because there often exists a built-in opposition between units or departments. Increases in conflict are often directly proportional to factors like increases in an organisation’s levels of hierarchy, standardisation of jobs, and increases in the number of workers.

Benefits of Conflict • Conflict generally has a negative connotation; however, conflict is a positive occurrence

if managed properly. Conflict requires managers to analyze their goals, and it creates dialogue among employees.

• Conflict may also foster creativity. It helps us to overcome individual psychological distortions and biases by forcing people out of their traditional modes of thinking. In this

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way, conflict promotes the unstructured thinking that some see as required for developing good, novel alternatives to difficult problems.

• Studies show that a higher decision quality exists when there is open opposition and resistance by subordinates than when the resistance of subordinates is weak or even passive. This suggests that managers who pride themselves in ‘running a smooth ship’ may not be as effective as they think. The ‘smooth ship’ may reflect suppressed conflict that could have potential benefit if expressed. One might even suggest that the conflict itself might not be as harmful as its suppression.

• The middle ground is that some levels of conflict are healthy, others are not. Moderate levels of conflict stimulate creative decision-making and prevent apathy. Very low conflict levels lead to complacency and stagnation. Extreme levels, especially if based on individual rather than organisational goals, are detrimental to the organisation, causing dysfunctional behaviour. The level and type of conflict determine whether it is beneficial or detrimental to the organization.

Consequences of Conflict

• Individuals, teams, or departments that are in conflict and competition may lose sight of the common goal and focus on winning at any cost. They withhold important information and resources from one another and sabotage one another’s work.

• Distorted judgements lead to lack of cooperation and even more conflict. When we conflict with another person or group, we tend to perceive them negatively, describe them by using unflattering stereotypes and pay attention only to negative information.

• When conflict leads to winners and losers, losers are demoralized and demotivated. This loser effect harms long term relationships and overall organizational performance.

The Relationship between Communication and Conflict It is important to understand that effective communication can make conflict a constructive, positive process. This is because the very nature of conflict demands that communication play a role in both its existence and its resolution. Below are four axioms that are particularly relevant to communication.

1. Conflict involves at least two parties, so communication is automatically an integral component of conflict. Conflict can be generated or resolved only through communication. Consequently, managers must understand the types of communication interactions that can cause conflict, and the communication patterns that are most functional after conflict has developed. In fact, a good communicator can bring conflict to the surface and make it a productive process.

2. Conflict develops from perceived mutually exclusive goals. Mutually exclusive goals can exist as a result of objective facts or an individual’s values and perceptions. However,

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the key factor is that the parties involved perceive the objectives as mutually exclusive; often, through communication, the parties see that the goal actually isn’t mutually exclusive. Only through communication can the parties in conflict determine the existence of a superordinate goal that may meet both parties’ goals. Again, the positive nature of conflict is obvious because without conflict, the parties may not know about the superordinate goal.

3. Conflict involves parties who may have different values or perceptions. When conflicting parties have different values or perceptions, communication is important in two way. First, exposure and communication between two individuals will likely result in the individuals eventually sharing values and becoming friendlier toward each other. Second, as more accurate communication develops between them, the perceptual differences will subside, and hence, the probability of conflict will be reduced.

4. Conflict ends only when each side is satisfied that it has won or lost. Win-lose situations seem to dominate Western culture. Competition to win in sports is so keen that it is not uncommon for fights to take place between spectators. The pervasive win-lose attitude in our culture has made it difficult to imagine that both parties may ‘win’ in any conflict. This reminds us of number two above, which states that conflict develops from mutually exclusive goals. However, accurate communication may reveal that a ‘win’ or ‘loss’ is not the only alternative.

Types and Levels of Conflict • Intrapersonal conflict is a personal internal conflict. It occurs because one’s goals,

values, or roles diverge.

• Interpersonal conflict – This refers to conflict that arises because two or more people who are required to interact have different goals, values or styles. This type of conflict can be problematic for managers because such conflict typically revolves around personal differences rather than organisational goals, the potential negative impact is high.

• Intragroup conflict refers to conflict within a work group over goals and work procedures. This type of conflict can be extremely detrimental to group cohesion. The conflict may occur because members disagree about goals, procedures, and norms, or how to handle deviants. Some intragroup conflict is healthy, but when it is intense, unresolved and unmanaged, intragroup conflict eventually interferes with a group’s ability to function effectively.

• Intergroup conflict occurs when groups within and outside an organisation disagree on issues. Intergroup conflict is usually about broad organizational issues such as resource allocation, access to information, and system related processes.

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Approaches to Conflict When faced with a conflict, managers have several choices about how to respond. Each of these approaches or strategies has different results.

§ Avoiding/avoidance/withdrawal (lose-lose situation) – One way to deal with conflict is to avoid it whenever possible and withdraw when confronted. In some cases avoidance is physical: refusing to take phone calls, staying barricaded in the office, and so on. In other cases, however, avoidance can be psychological: denying that a problem exists or that it is serious, repressing emotional reactions, and so on. Avoidance might have its short term benefits of preventing a confrontation, but there are usually long term costs, especially in ongoing relationships. Despite its drawbacks, avoidance is sometimes a wise choice. Avoidance may be the best response to conflict when:

o the issue is trivial; o parties lack the communication skills necessary to prevent destructive

escalation; o potential losses from an open conflict outweigh potential gains, and/or o there is insufficient time to work through the issue adequately.

The drawback to handling conflict by avoidance is that the confrontation is usually only delayed or transferred to another issue.

§ Accommodating/accommodation/smoothing (win-win situation) – Whereas avoiders stay away from conflicts, accommodators give ground as a way of maintaining harmony. In many cases, accommodating is hard to defend. It can be equivalent to appeasement, sacrificing one’s principles, and putting harmony above dealing with important issues. Despite the drawbacks of accommodating, this approach does have merit in some circumstances. If you are clearly wrong, then giving up your original position can be a sign of strength, not weakness. If harmony is more important than the issue at hand – especially if the issue is a minor one – then accommodating is probably justified. Use accommodation when:

o the issue is minor; o the damage to the relationship would harm both parties; o a temporary reduction in conflict is needed to give time for additional research

or information, and/or o tempers are too hot for productive discussion.

The drawback to handling conflict by accommodation is that it only temporarily solves the problem; it’s like putting a Band-Aid on a broken arm.

§ Competing/competition/forcing (win-lose situation) is based on the assumption that the only way for one party to reach its goals is to overcome the other party. Choosing a

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competitive style means that a person is putting his/her interest before anyone else's interests. Choose this strategy when:

o a decision or action must be immediate; o the parties in the conflict expect and appreciate the force and power necessary

in a win-lose situation, and/or o those in conflict recognise the power relationship between themselves.

The drawbacks to handling conflict by force are (i) the real cause of the conflict is usually not resolved, and (ii) the solution may only be temporary; when the losers gain more power, they may reinstate the conflict.

§ Collaborating/problem-solving means working together to resolve conflicts. This is based on the assumption that it is possible to meet one’s own needs as well as those of the other person. Collaboration may be the best response to conflict when:

o members are trained in problem-solving; o the parties have common goals that require everyone’s cooperation to be

achieved, and/or o the conflict arises from misunderstandings or communication breakdown.

The drawback to handling conflict by collaboration is that it may not be successful when the parties have different values or goals. For example, a person who feels that conflict should be resolved in a competitive manner has goals and values completely opposed to the “everyone wins” view of the collaborator. Another important drawback to the problem-solving strategy is that it usually takes longer to resolve than other strategies.

§ Compromising/compromise occurs when each party sacrifices something that he or she originally sought to gain in an agreement. People who compromise are likely to say "let's split the difference" or "something is better than nothing”. It may be the best response to conflict when:

o both parties stand to gain; o an “ideal” or “quality” solution is not required; o time is short; o a temporary solution is needed for a complex problem (with a problem-

solving/collaboration discussion to be held later to determine the best solution), and/or

o the parties in the conflict are equals.

The drawbacks to choosing this strategy are that everyone loses something, and the best solution is probably not reached.

Although all of these methods can be used to handle conflict, the most productive and satisfying method over the long run is normally the collaboration method.

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How to Manage and Resolve Conflict Situations

• Collective bargaining – Especially in workplace situations, it is necessary to have agreed mechanisms in place for groups of people who may be antagonistic (e.g. management and workers) to collectively discuss and resolve issues. This process is often called "collective bargaining", because representatives of each group come together with a mandate to work out a solution collectively. Experience has shown that this is far better than avoidance or withdrawal, and puts democratic processes in place to achieve "integrative problem solving", where people or groups who must find ways of co-operating in the same organization, do so within their own agreed rules and procedures.

• Conciliation – The dictionary defines conciliation as "the act of procuring good will or inducing a friendly feeling". South African labour relations legislation provides for the process of conciliation in the workplace, whereby groups who are in conflict and who have failed to reach agreement, can come together once again to attempt to settle their differences. This is usually attempted before the more serious step of a strike by workers or a lock-out by management is taken; and it has been found useful to involve a facilitator in the conciliation process. Similarly, any other organization (e.g. sports club, youth group or community organization) could try conciliation as a first step.

Negotiation, Mediation and Arbitration

Three methods of resolving situations that have reached the stage of open conflict are often used by many different organizations. It is important to understand these methods, so that people can decide which methods will work best for them in their specific conflict situation:

• Negotiation – This is the most informal method of dispute resolution, and is the process where mandated representatives of groups in a conflict situation meet together in order to resolve their differences and to reach an agreement. It is a deliberate process, conducted by representatives of groups, designed to reconcile differences and to reach agreements by consensus. The goal of a negotiator is to resolve the dispute with the best possible terms for the party that he or she represents. When parties attempt to resolve a dispute by negotiation, it is not certain that the process will result in a resolution. The parties and their negotiators must deal face-to-face with each other in a manner that promotes the parties’ interests, yet preserves the parties’ relationship. In a successful negotiation, the parties and their negotiators reach a resolution of the dispute based on the parties’ interests. The outcome is often dependent on the power relationship between the groups. Negotiations often involve compromise – one group may win one of their demands and give in on another. In workplaces, unions and management representatives usually use negotiations to solve conflicts. Political and community groups also use this method often.

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It is important to note that the only participants in the negotiation process are the parties and their designated negotiators.

Negotiation may be used in the following cases: o A buyer and a salesman are negotiating a price for a car. o A wife is negotiating with her husband over the use of finances.

• Mediation – This is often referred to as “assisted negotiation.” When negotiations fail or get stuck, parties often call in an independent mediator. This person or group will try to facilitate settlement of the conflict. A mediator is not a negotiator, as (s)he does not represent the interests of either party. The mediator plays an active part in the process, acting as a facilitator, who helps the parties explore the strengths and weaknesses of their cases and assists them to frame and transmit settlement offers. (S)he advises both or all groups, acts as an intermediary and suggests possible solutions. In contrast to what happens in arbitration (see below) mediators act only in an advisory capacity - they have no decision-making powers and cannot impose a settlement on the conflicting parties. Skilled mediators are able to gain trust and confidence from the conflicting groups or individuals. The mediator spends a majority of the time meeting privately with each party. As is the case with negotiation, a settlement may be based upon compromises, promises of performance, and agreements to continue to do business in the future. By using these processes, the parties retain control of the resolution. Mediation may be employed in the following cases:

o A buyer purchases a used car from a seller. The car breaks down soon after. The buyer demands his money back. The seller accuses the buyer of damaging the car himself. Instead of dealing with the matter in court, which can be both costly and time-consuming for both parties, they instead agree to hire a mediator and work out their situation out of court.

o A couple decides to get a divorce, but the ex-spouses argue over who gets what. Instead of waging legal war against each other, they decide to work out their agreement with a divorce mediator. The mediator uncovers what the needs and interests are for each individual, as well as separating the emotions from the problems at hand.

o Two nations, on the verge of war after failed negotiations, agree to peace-talks. Neither side trusts the other side, so they ask for the help of a neutral representative to act as mediator for their talks. Through the mediator, both stake-holding countries are able to work out an agreement and avoid war.

• In contrast to negotiation and mediation, which are non-binding processes that will resolve the dispute only if the parties agree to the settlement, arbitration is binding. It involves the

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appointment of an independent person to act as an adjudicator (or judge) in a dispute, to decide on the terms of a settlement. Both parties in a conflict have to agree about who the arbitrator should be, and that the decision of the arbitrator will be binding on them all. The arbitrator conducts a hearing, similar to a trial in court, and issues a decision, known as an “award,” that binds the parties. Unlike a mediator, the arbitrator cannot meet privately with the parties, but must come to a decision based upon his or her understanding of the evidence submitted at the hearing and the law. Though arbitration is similar to litigation in court, it is private, the parties can choose an arbitrator that has particular expertise in the subject matter of the dispute, and the scheduling of the arbitration proceeding is not dependent on delays usually associated with court cases. Arbitration differs from mediation and negotiation in that it does not promote the continuation of collective bargaining: the arbitrator listens to and investigates the demands and counter-demands and takes over the role of decision-maker. People or organizations can agree on having either a single arbitrator or a panel of arbitrators whom they respect and whose decision they will accept as final, in order to resolve the conflict.

Below are two examples of arbitration: o Two employees are having issues with each other. They take these issues to the

boss. The boss hears both sides and then decides to fire one of the employees. o Two siblings are having a fight and the mother gets involved. The mother hears

what they have to say, and of course both siblings are pointing fingers at the other side. The mother decides to ground them both.

http://ezinearticles.com/?Whats-the-Difference-Between-a-Negotiation,-Arbitration,-and-Mediation?&id=335530

Managerial Negotiation Negotiation is the process by which two or more parties reach a mutually agreeable arrangement to exchange goods and services. It is one of the most commonly used, beneficial skills managers can develop. The global business environment, the diverse workforce, rapid pace of change, and shift towards teams and empowerment require managers to hone their negotiation skills.

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Factors Influencing Managerial Negotiation Ø Culture: Globalization has increased the frequency of cross-cultural negotiations. Given that

negotiation involves exchange, interaction and communication, the impact of culture on this process is significant.

Managers from masculine cultures are likely to emphasize assertiveness and independence, see negotiation as competition, and focus on winning at all costs. Managers who value uncertainty avoidance will tend to rely too much on quick, easy and available options or solutions that hinder the creative process of the search for new solutions.

The disparity between “high context” and “low context” is another cultural dimension that influences negotiations. A high context is one in which people have close communications over a long period of time. Many aspects of cultural behavior are not made explicit because most members know what to do and what to think from years of interaction with each other. Your family is probably an example of a high context environment.

Low context refers to societies where people tend to have many connections of shorter duration or for some specific reason. In these societies, cultural behaviour and beliefs may need to be spelled out explicitly so that those coming into the cultural environment know how to behave.

In high context cultures, most of the information is inferred from the context of the message; little is “spelt out”. Japanese, Arabic, and Latin American cultures are considered high context. Managers from high context cultures rely on the context, various non-verbal cues, and situational factors to communicate with others and to understand the world around them. They will look for subtle, non-verbal cues, read between the lines, and operate on trust or implicit agreements.

In low context cultures, context is less important; most information is explicitly spelt out. German, Scandinavian, and the dominant U.S. cultures are low-context. Managers from low context cultures are likely to use verbal and written messages to understand others and interpret situations. As a result, negotiators from low context cultures pay attention to what is said and written and want clear, formal written documentation of all agreements. These cultural differences can add considerable confusion and conflict to an already difficult and complex business negotiation.

In addition to national cultural differences, many ethnic, gender, and individual variations affect the style and process of negotiation. Skilled negotiators take these factors into account during all phases of negotiations and change their approach and style to reach agreements.

Ø Sender, Receiver and Purpose: In negotiation, appearance is an important source of communication; during much of the discussion, negotiators watch one another closely. You

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can promote success with a neat appearance that suggests that you are well-organised and a person that cannot be easily exploited. The process of the negotiation is to maximise your advantage. Hence, the negotiator should know what he or she wants, or more appropriately, know what is reasonable to expect. The maximum supportable outcome (MSO) is the absolute most one can ask for in the opening position within reason. A negotiation can be easily terminated if the MSO is beyond reason. The least acceptable outcome (LAO) is the least acceptable result one will accept from the negotiation. If the outcome of the negotiation is anything less than one’s least acceptable outcome, it would be better to terminate the negotiation.

Ø Time: Negotiators also need to consider when to negotiate, how long to continue and when to make a counter-offer. Since negotiation is liable to be most fruitful when close to an opponent’s deadlines, several suggestions about deadlines are appropriate: (1) if possible, do not reveal the true deadlines; (2) be patient; (3) use the clock. Strategic negotiators should also seek an optimum physical environment that benefits them without giving advantage to the opposition.

Ø Language: Negotiators should use common, basic language, should strive for clarity, should be specific, and should not be apologetic. Questions asked during negotiations have five purposes: to create attention, to obtain information, to clarify, to stimulate thinking, and to conclude or summarise.

Ø Channel: The channel chosen for negotiation is also important. The channel chosen depends on the circumstances; the letter or memo of intent that follows many negotiations requires care in preparation and can work to the advantage of the person preparing it.

Negotiation Strategies Managers will find the following core strategies useful as they attempt a negotiation strategy. No particular approach is recommended over another; rather, these six approaches represent possibilities that may best fit a particular situation:

§ Surprise: unexpectedly introducing a goal or concession into a negotiation. For instance, a manager negotiating budget items with a vice president might suddenly request the addition of a new member of staff. The total surprise may catch the other person off guard so that the additional request is approved. A quick concession on a non-essential item is another form of surprise. Once again, this concession may be on an item that is not related to the main focus of the negotiation in the hopes that the concession will foster a reciprocal concession by the opponent. Surprise may be particularly valuable with an opponent who is under pressure, because it may stimulate some quick concessions.

§ Bluff: this is the act of creating an illusion without the use of lies or outright misrepresentations. It is fair play in negotiations because each side is attempting to

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maximize its own benefit. A difference exists between withholding information and presenting wrong data.

§ Stacking: this strategy is used when one idea is attached to another. For instance, a public relations manager might use this approach when negotiating a new strategy: “I was just reading in Fortune that ABC International has changed its approach to a one that’s similar to what I’m suggesting.” In this case, the PR manager is stacking her approach on top of ABC’s credibility. Managers use this tactic in negotiations when they stack an undesirable characteristic unto a desirable one. For instance, a person may be asked to take a transfer to another location (undesirable) in combination with a promotion (desirable).

§ Fait accompli: this is a type of bluff that involves acting as if terms are acceptable to the opposition before any agreement has occurred. It is as if one is saying, “Here it is, it is accomplished.” The terms of an offer are stated and the proponent acts as if the terms are acceptable to the opposing party. The expectation is that when an issue is phrased as if it were a negotiated final settlement, the opponent will accept it with little or no protest. The fait accompli strategy is a risky one with one side doing whatever it wants and expecting the other side to accept the terms and the outcome.

§ Take it or leave it: this position lets an opponent know that this offer is the best one; it represents the maximum goal adjustments a person is willing to make. In making a take-it-or-leave-it offer (which is, in fact, an ultimatum), you take the risk that the offer will be rejected, so there may be no chance to improve it or even revive the negotiations. You could follow with a different offer if the initial take-it-or-leave-it proposal were to be rejected; however, credibility would be lost. You can really only use this strategy once.

§ The screen: this is a third party used by the negotiator as part of the process. You act like a screen between the opponent and the final decision maker. Imagine you are negotiating with a contractor. You may say that certain conditions proposed by the contractor need to be approved by others more senior than yourself within the company. When these conditions are not approved, further concessions on the contractor’s part may result. Instead of negotiating one on one, the opponent (in this case the contractor) has two ‘adversaries’ and it is difficult to negotiate through a ‘barrier’ or screen. Though the screen is used often, it has a serious drawback in that it gives the impression that you have limited power. If your opponent believes that you have little decision-making authority, you may lose both respect and influence. If possible, do not let your adversary use the third-party technique (screen). Instead, try to go directly to the decision maker.

It is important to note that these six strategies are only suggestions. Combinations of these or even other strategies are possible. Every strategy has potential drawbacks, strengths and risks.

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Intercultural Managerial Communication Culture influences every single aspect of business communication: how to show politeness and respect, how much information to give, how to motivate people, how loudly to talk, even what size paper to use. Culture includes the religious systems to which we are exposed, the educational system, the economic system, the political system, the recreational outlets, the mores governing how we dress and how we groom ourselves, the standards of etiquette, the food and how it is prepared and served, the gift-giving customs, the morals, the legal system, the quality and quantity of communication among the people, the greeting practices, the rituals performed, the modes of travel available, as well as the other aspects of people’s lives that they come to take for granted.

Some of the Ways in Which We Differ

§ Power distance indicates the extent to which society accepts the fact that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. It is reflected in the values of both the more powerful and less powerful members of society. The Philippines, Venezuela, Mexico, and Yugoslavia are countries with high power distances; and Denmark, New Zealand, Austria, the United States and Israel are a few of the countries with low power distances. A manager in a high power distance culture is seen as having dramatically more power than a subordinate would have. This manager, who is usually addressed by title and surname, might favour a controlling strategy and behave like an autocrat. In a culture with a low power distance, however, a manager is seen as having little more power than a subordinate, is often addressed by first name, and manages by using an equalitarian communication strategy.

§ Uncertainty avoidance deals with a society’s tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity; it ultimately refers to man’s search for Truth. It indicates to what extent a culture programmes its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, and different from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth: ‘there can only be one Truth and we have it’.

For example, in Germany there is reasonably high uncertainty avoidance (65) compared to countries such as Singapore (8) and the neighbouring country Denmark (23). Germans are not too keen on uncertainty, and by planning everything carefully they try to avoid it. Its society relies on rules, laws and regulations. Germany wants to reduce its risks to

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the minimum and proceed with changes step by step. The United States scores a 46 compared to the 65 of the German culture. Uncertainty avoidance in the US is relatively low, and this can clearly be viewed through the national cultures.

The first step in understanding another culture is to realise that it may do things very differently, and that difference is not bad or inferior. If you plan to travel to a specific country, or if you work with people from other cultures, read about that country or culture and learn a little of the language. Talk to people; that’s really the best way to learn whether someone is wearing black as a sign of mourning, as a fashion statement, or as a colour that makes them appear slim and doesn’t show dirt easily.

A good intercultural communicator:

o Is aware that his or her preferred values and behaviours are influenced by culture and are not necessarily “right”

o Is flexible and open to change o is not ethnocentric o is non-defensive about his or her homeland in the face of questions about its problems o is curious about other people and brave with regard to the conditions he or she might

have to confront o is empathetic and understanding and non-judgemental of intercultural partners o is patient living with ambiguity and expecting the unexpected o is genuinely personable to the people of the other country with whom he or she is

dealing o is sensitive to differences among individuals within a culture

To ensure your documents are bias-free (does not contain language that discriminates against people on the basis of sex, physical condition, race, age, or any other category), use language that is fair and friendly and complies with the law. Such language includes all readers; it helps to sustain goodwill.

REFERENCES

Adler. R., & Elmhorst. M. J. (2002) Communicating at Work. 7th ed. New York: McGraw- Hill.

Angell. Pamela. (2004) Business Communication Design. New York: McGraw Hill.

Hamilton, C. & Parker, C. (2001). 6th ed. Communication for results: a guide for business and the professions. Wadsworth series in communication studies. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

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Hynes. Geraldine. ( 2005) Managerial Communication. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw- Hill.

Additional Resources:

http://www.practicebasedlearning.org/students/docs/working_with_others/page_11.htm

Intercultural Managerial Communication Culture includes the religious systems to which we are exposed, the educational system, the economic system, the political system, the recreational outlets, the mores governing how we dress and grooming, the standards of etiquette, the food and how it is prepared and served, the gift giving customs, the morals, the legal system, the quality and quantity of communication among the people, the greeting practices, the rituals performed, the modes of travel available, as well as the other aspects of people’s lives that they come to take for granted.

Some of the Ways in which we differ

§ Power distance indicates the extent to which society accepts the fact that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. It is reflected in the values of both the more powerful and less powerful members of society. The Philippines, Venezuela, Mexico, and Yugoslavia are countries with high power distances; and Denmark, New Zealand, Austria, the United States and Israel are a few of the countries with low power distances. A manager in a high power distance culture is seen as having dramatically more power than a subordinate would have. This manager, who is usually addressed by surname, might favour a controlling strategy and behave like an autocrat. In a culture with a low power distance, however, a manager is seen as having little more power than a subordinate, is often addressed by first name, and manages by using an equalitarian communication strategy.

§ Uncertainty avoidance deals with a society’s tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity; it ultimately refers to man’s search for Truth. It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, and different from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth; ‘there can only be one Truth and we have it’.

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For example, in Germany there is reasonable high uncertainty avoidance (65) compared to countries as Singapore (8) and neighbouring country Denmark (23). Germans are not too keen on uncertainty, by planning everything carefully they try to avoid the uncertainty. In Germany there is a society that relies on rules, laws and regulations. Germany wants to reduce its risks to the minimum and proceed with changes step by step.

The United States scores a 46 compared to the 65 of the German culture. Uncertainty avoidance in the US is relatively low, which can clearly be viewed through the national cultures.

A Good Intercultural Communicator is not ethnocentric, is non-defensive about his or her homeland in the face of questions about its problems, is curious about other people and brave with regard to the conditions he or she might have to confront, is empathetic and understanding and non-judgemental of intercultural partners, is patient with living with ambiguity and expecting the unexpected and is genuinely personable to the people of the other country with whom he or she is dealing.

References

Adler. R., & Elmhorst. M. J. (2002) Communicating at Work. 7th Edition. New York: McGraw- Hill.

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Angell. Pamela. (2004) Business Communication Design. New York: McGraw Hill.

Guffey, M. E. (2010). Essentials of Business Communication. 8th ed. Ohio: Cengage.

Hynes. Geraldine. (2008) Managerial Communication. 4th ed. New York: McGraw- Hill.

Krizan, A.C., et al. (2008) Business Communication. 7th ed. Mason, OH: Thomson.