The Environments of the Poorin Southeast Asia, East Asiaand the PacificThe Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS) was established as an autonomous organization in 1968. It is a regional centre dedicated to the study of socio-political, security and economic trends and developments in Southeast Asia and its wider geostrategic and economic environment. TheInstitutesresearchprogrammesaretheRegionalEconomicStudies (RES,includingASEANandAPEC),RegionalStrategicandPolitical Studies(RSPS),andRegionalSocialandCulturalStudies(RSCS).ISEASPublishing,anestablishedacademicpress,hasissuedmore than2,000booksandjournals.Itisthelargestscholarlypublisherof research about Southeast Asia from within the region. ISEAS Publishing workswithmanyotheracademicandtradepublishersanddistributors to disseminate important research and analyses from and about Southeast Asiatotherestoftheworld.INSTITUTE OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN STUDIESS i n g a p o r eAsian Development Bank InstituteEdited byAri sAnantaArmi nBauerMyo ThantThe Environments of the Poorin Southeast Asia, East Asiaand the PacificFirst published in Singapore in 2013by ISEAS PublishingInstitute of Southeast Asian Studies30 Heng Mui Keng Terrace, Pasir PanjangSingapore 119614E-mail: publish@iseas.edu.sgWebsite: http://bookshop.iseas.edu.sgAllrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem, ortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingor otherwise, without the prior permission of the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Asian Development Bank 2013The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, and do not necessarily relect the views and policies of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) or its Board of Governors, or the governments they represent, or of ISEAS. ADB and ISEAS do not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication, and accept no responsibility for any consequence of their use. By making any designation of or reference to a particular territory or geographic area, or by using the term country in this document, we do not intend to make any judgments as to the legal or other status of any territory or area. Wheretherearespaceconstraints,somecountrynameshavebeenabbreviated. ADBrecognizes the country referred to in this publication as China by the name Peoples Republic of China, KoreabythenameofRepublicofKorea,LaosbythenameLaoPeoplesDemocratic Republic,VietnambythenameVietNam,RussiabythenameRussianfederation, USA by the name United States and U.S., the region Inner Mongolia by the name Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Xinjiang by the name Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, TibetbythenameTibetAutonomousRegion,andNingxiabythenameNingxiaHui AutonomousRegion.ThephrasessuchasAsia-PaciicandAsia-Paciicregionrefertothe Asia and Paciic region.ISEAS Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataThe environments of the poor in Southeast Asia, East Asia, and the Paciic / edited by Aris Ananta, Armin Bauer, and Myo Thant.1.Southeast AsiaEnvironmental conditionsCongresses.2.East AsiaEnvironmental conditionsJapanCongresses. 3.PovertyEnvironmental aspectsSoutheast AsiaCongresses.4.PovertyEnvironmental aspectsEast AsiaCongresses.5.PovertyEnvironmental aspectsIslands of the PaciicCongresses.6.Economic developmentEnvironmental aspectsSoutheast AsiaCongresses.7.Economic developmentEnvironmental aspectsEast AsiaCongresses.I.Ananta, Aris, 1954-II.Bauer, Armin.III.Myo Thant, 1957-IV.Conference on The Environments of the Poor (2010 : Delhi, India)HC415 E5E5312013ISBN 978-981-4517-99-7 (soft cover)ISBN 978-981-4519-00-7 (e-book, PDF)Cover photo: Life on the river in Cambodia.Source: ADB Photo databank.Typeset by International Typesetters Pte LtdPrintedinSingaporebyMainlandPressPteLtdCONTENTSPrefaceviiiListofContributorsxPartIOVERVIEW1.ANewTriple-WinOptionfortheEnvironmentofthePoor3ArisAnanta,ArminBauerandMyoThantPartIIEASTASIA (PeoplesRepublicofChinaandRepublicofKorea)2.Poverty,Environment,andClimateChangeinthe15 GrasslandsofChina TsuiYenhu 3.ClimateChange,FoodSecurity,andPovertyinthe32 PeoplesRepublicofChina QiGubo4.ThePhysicalandSocialEnvironmentoftheChinese46 UrbanPoor WendyWalker,MadhumitaGupta,andDanielRoberts5.BeneitingthePoor,theEnvironment,andthePrivate60 SectorwithSmallEnterprisesandGreenJobsinthe PeoplesRepublicofChinaSatoshiSasaki6.Environment,EconomicGrowth,andPovertyinthe79 RepublicofKorea Yong-SeongKimviContentsPartIIIPACIFICISLANDS7.ClimateChangeAdaptationandPovertyReductionin99 SmallIslandsofthePaciic AnjeelaJokhanandMurariLal8.TheRoleofDevelopmentOrganizationsinPro-Poor106 AdaptationtoGlobalWarminginthePaciicIslandsPaulBullenPartIVMAINLANDSOUTHEASTASIA (Cambodia,Thailand,Vietnam)9.PovertyandtheEnvironmentinRuralCambodia145TongKimsunandSryBopharath10.ConservationAgricultureinCambodia:ATriple-Win159 OptionStephaneBoulakia,PenVuth,SannVathana,StephaneChabierski, andOlivierGilard11.VoicesofthePooronClimateChangeinThailandand170 Vietnam HermannWaibel,SongporneTongruksawattana,andMarcVoelker12. PoorThaiFarmersAdaptationtoClimateChange187SomchaiJitsuchonPartVARCHIPELAGICSOUTHEASTASIA (Indonesia,Malaysia,Philippines)13.ThePoliticalEconomyofEnvironmentalPolicyin203 IndonesiaAriantoA.Patunru14.ProsperinginEnvironmentalDegradation:AnIllustration221 fromanUplandArea,SouthKalimantan,IndonesiaArisAnanta,HarisFadillah,AhmadYunani,GustiFahmi Adliansyah,andDanangAdhinata15.MakingaLivingintheFaceofEnvironmentalChange:232 ACaseinanIndigenousCommunityinSarawak,MalaysiaWongSweeKiongandLingHowKeeContentsvii16.TheResponseofRuralCoastalHouseholdstoTyphoon243 MilenyointhePhilippinesJonnaP.Estudillo17.LifeAlongManilasFloodingRivers256EmmaPorio18.QuantifyingtheHealthRisksfromPathogensinthe271 FloodWaterinMetroManilaTranThiVietNgaandKensukeFukushi19.SlumPovertyinthePhilippines:CantheEnvironment286 AgendaDrivePublicAction?MarifeBallesterosPREFACESoutheastAsiaandEastAsiahavebeenhailedassuccessstoriesof economicgrowth,butpoverty,theenvironment,andclimatechange remain major challenges. Poverty reduction is often said to compete with efortstosavetheenvironmentandrespondtoclimatechange.Itis also argued that policies on the environment and climate change should notbecarriedoutattheexpenseoferadicatingpovertyorpromoting economicgrowth.Thisbooktriestoshowthatitispossibletoreduce poverty,protecttheenvironment,andrespondtoclimatechangeat thesametimeifcertainpoliciesarefollowed.Thebookprovides evidencefromSoutheastAsia,EastAsia,andthePaciicasabasisfor recommendingtriple-windevelopmentpolicies.Toemphasizethe relationshipsbetweenthethreewins,thebookintroducesaspatial approach to poverty, one that focuses on the environments in which the poorlive,i.e.,regionswheretheenvironmentoftenaggravatedby climatechangearemajordeterminantsofpoverty.Theseareasare lood-proneanddisaster-afectedlands,uplands,coastlands,dryland, andslums.EnvironmentsofthePoorwasthethemeofaconferencewhich theAsianDevelopmentBankandseventeendevelopmentpartners organizedon2426November2010inNewDelhi.1Thepaperson Southeast Asia, East Asia, and the Paciic at this conference were revised andeditedforthispublication.ThepapersonSouthAsiamakeupa separatevolume,beingjointlypublishedbyOxfordUniversityPress ofIndiaandtheAsianDevelopmentBank.Athirdvolumewillbe publishedthatincludespapersofamoregeneralnature,includingthe conceptualbackground.Themaintitlesharedbyallthreevolumesis TheEnvironmentsofthePoor. ThisvolumeispublishedjointlybytheAsianDevelopment Bank(ADB)andtheInstituteofSoutheastAsianStudies(ISEAS),with Acknowledgementsixco-inancingfromtheADBInstitute.ArminBauerofADBiseditor-in-chiefforthewholeproject,andhealsodesignedthebookcover. AssistingArminBauerwasPaulBullen,whodevelopmentallyedited allthepapers.ArisAnantafromISEASistheprimaryeditorofthe presentvolume.MyoThantofADBhelpedwiththecontentsanddid somecopy-editing.RahilahYusufofISEASPublishingcopy-editedthe inalmanuscriptandprepareditforpublication.We would like to thank various development partners who helped to maketheoriginalconferenceandthisbookasuccess,i.e.development institutions(ADB,AFD,DFID,GIZ,ILO,JICA,UNDPandUNEP); researchnetworksintheAsia-Paciicregion(ADBI,EEPSEA,NCAER, SANDEE, TEEB, TERI); and climate change and poverty related funding facilitiesandotherinitiatives(CDIA,GM-EOC,APCF).TheEditorsNote1.FormoreinformationontheNewDelhiconference,seetheEnvironments ofthePoorwebsiteat.LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS DanangADHINATAiscurrentlyworkingattheKPPU(Komisi PengawasPersainganUsahaCommitteeforSupervisingBusiness Competition).Previously,heworkedattheIndonesiasStatisticalOice inSouthKalimantantoconductthepopulationcensus. GustiFahmiADLIANSYAHisalecturerattheLPEICollegein Banjarmasin,SouthKalimantanIndonesia. ArisANANTAisSeniorResearchFellowattheInstituteofSoutheast AsianStudies(ISEAS),Singapore.Heisaneconomist-demographer withamulti-disciplinaryperspective.Hisresearchcoverstwobroad regionalareas:SoutheastAsiaandIndonesia.OnSoutheastAsia,he focusesonmigration,ageing,anddevelopment(includingpovertyand environment).OnIndonesia,heworksonvarioussocial,economic,and politicalissues,includingethnicity,religion,anddemocracy. MarifeBALLESTEROSisSeniorResearchFellowatthePhilippine InstituteforDevelopmentStudies.Sheholdsadoctoratedegreein DevelopmentEconomicsfromtheKatholiekeUniversityofNijmegen, theNetherlands.Herresearchworkconcernslandandhousingpolicy studies.DrBallesterosisconcurrentlyamemberoftheSoutheastAsia Urban Environment Management Network (SEA-UEM), where she serves asresourcepersonforurbanenvironmentissues. ArminBAUERisprincipaleconomistinADBsRegionaland SustainableDevelopmentDepartment.Aspovertyishisfocalpoint, heisworkingparticularlyoninclusivegrowth.Amongothers, DrBauerischampioningADBsenvironmentsofthepoorprojectand theinclusivebusinessinitiative. ListofContributorsxiBOPHARATH Sry is a research assistant for the Cambodia Development Resource Institute (CDRI) in Economic, Trade, and Regional Cooperation programme.ShehasbeeninvolvedintheInternationalDevelopment ResearchCenter(IDRC)projectontheGlobalFinancialCrisisand VulnerabilityinCambodia,aperspectivefromelevenvillagesin Cambodia.SheobtainedherbachelordegreeinEconomicsfromthe RoyalUniversityofLawandEconomicsinCambodiaandDiploma ofCommercefromRoyalMelbourneInstituteofTechnologyin Australia. StephaneBOULAKIAisaCIRAD(CentredeCooperationInterna-tionale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Dveloppement) agronomist, specializinginconservationagriculture(DMCandagroforestry).He hasbeenworkingwithinresearchanddevelopmentprogrammesin contrastedagro-ecosystemsofMadagascar,Gabon,andVietnam.Since 2003,hehasbeenactingasprincipaltechnicalassistantofanR&D projectoftheCambodianMinisterforAgriculturegrantedbythe FrenchDevelopmentAgency(AFD). PaulBULLENhasaPhDandanMAfromtheUniversityofChicago andaBAfromtheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley,allinpolitical science.DrBullenisaninterdisciplinaryresearcher,writer,andeditor basedinChicago.Hecanbereachedatpbullen@uchicago.edu.StephaneCHABIERSKIisaCIRAD(CentredeCooperationInterna-tionale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Dveloppement) agronomist. Hehasbeenworkingforadecadeonthedevelopmentofconservation agriculture(CA)techniquesandtheiradaptationtodiferentagro-ecologicalandsocio-economiccontexts.DuringhisstayinMadagascar from2003to2007,heimplementedseveralCAdisseminationpro-grammes,morespeciicallyintheLacAlaotraarea.Heiscurrently secondedtotheMinistryofAgriculture,ForestryandFisheriesof CambodiaandanalysestheCAadoptionprocessamongsmallholders inthecountry. JonnaP.ESTUDILLO(fromthePhilippines)iswiththeNational GraduateInstituteforPolicyStudiesinTokyo,Japan.HarisFADILLAHistheViceDeanandLectureroftheFacultyof Economics,UniversityofLambungMangkurat,SouthKalimantan, xiiListofContributorsIndonesia.Heisworkingoneconomicdevelopment,includingpoverty, particularlyonissuesrelatedtoSouthKalimantan. KensukeFUKUSHIisAssociateProfessorattheIntegratedResearch SystemforSustainabilityScience(IR3S),UniversityofTokyo,Japan. OlivierGILARDisprogrammeoicerintheFrenchDevelopment Agency(AFD),andinchargeofclimatechangerelatedagriculture, waterresourcesandenvironmentprogrammesinSoutheastAsia. MrGilardhasabackgroundinwaterresourcesandrelatedrisk managementandworksinAsiasince2001. MadhumitaGUPTAissocialdevelopmentspecialistinADBsEast Asiadepartment.SomchaiJITSUCHONisResearchDirectorattheThailandDevelop-mentResearchInstitute(TDRI),specializinginmacroeconomicpolicies, macroeconomicmodelling(computablegeneralequilibriummodels andeconometricmodels),theoriesandempiricalapplicationsof povertyandincomedistribution,socialprotectionandwelfaresystem. DrJitsuchonreceivedhisPhDinEconomicsfromtheUniversityof BritishColumbia,Canada.Heworkedasvisitingresearcheratthe EconomicPlanningAgency(EPA)inTokyo(Japan),speciallecturer attheNationalInstituteforDevelopmentandAdministration(NIDA) andThammasatUniversity,bothinThailand.AnjeelaJOKHANisDirectoroftheUniversityofSouthPaciic,Fiji. Yong-SeongKIMisResearchFellowattheKoreaDevelopmentInsti-tute.Hisresearchinterestsarelaboureconomics,appliedeconometrics andprogrammeevaluation.HeearnedaPhDineconomicsatthe UniversityofMichigan,AnnArbor,USA.MurariLALisResearchAssistantattheUniversityofSouthPaciic, Fiji.LINGHowKeeisAssociateProfessor(SocialWorkandSocial Policy)attheFacultyofSocialSciences,UniversitiMalaysiaSarawak (UNIMAS),Malaysia.CurrentlytheDirectoroftheCentreofExcellence forDisabilityStudiesatUNIMAS,shehasalong-standinginterest ListofContributorsxiiiincommunitydevelopmentformarginalizedgroups.Shehaspub-lishedpapersandgivenseminarsonindigenoussocialworkpractice andeducation,culturalcompetencyinsocialworkpracticebothin Malaysiaandinternationally.TranThiVietNGAisalecturerattheInstituteofEnvironmental ScienceandEngineering,NationalUniversityofCivilEngineering, Hanoi,Vietnam.AriantoA.PATUNRUwasDirectoroftheInstituteforEconomicand SocialResearch,DepartmentofEconomics,UniversityofIndonesia (LPEM-FEUI).HehasalsotaughtattheDepartmentofEconomics, UniversityofIndonesia.HeisnowFellowattheArndt-Corden DepartmentofEconomics,CrawfordSchoolofEconomicsand Government,CollegeofAsiaandthePaciic,TheAustralianNational University. Mr Patunru holds a PhD from University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,andhasbeenworkingintheareasofglobalization,trade, poverty,andenvironmentaleconomics.PriortobeingtheDirectorof LPEM-FEUI, he was the research director at the institute, covering issues ofinvestmentclimate,poverty,andmacroeconomics.Hehasservedas consultanttoOECD,WorldBank,ADB,andGovernmentofIndonesia (Bappenas,MOF,MOT,andCMEA).DrPatunruhaspublishedinthe American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Asian Economic Journal, Choices, andBulletinforIndonesianEconomicStudies.Heisalsoaco-editorof EconomicsandFinanceinIndonesia.EmmaPORIOisProfessorofSociologyattheDepartmentofSociology andAnthropology,SchoolofSocialSciences,oftheAteneodeManila University.Previously,shewasChairmanoftheGoverningCouncil ofthePhilippinesSocialScienceCouncil,PresidentofthePhilippines Sociological Society, President of the Institute of Development and Policy Research,andaconsultanttointernationalorganizations,suchasthe ADB,WorldBank,andtheUnitedNations.Herresearchfocuseson children,gender,urbanpoverty,urbandevelopment,andgovernance. ShesitsontheboardoftheResearchersForumforHumanSettlements (Rome), Water and Sanitation Council (Rome), International Cooperative HousingFoundation(Washington,D.C.)andtheHuairouCommission (New York). She also sits in the editorial board of the Journal of Southeast xivListofContributorsAsianStudies(Singapore),SocialMovements(London),Inter-Cultural StudiesAsia(Sage/Taipei,China)andContemporaryPolitics(London). QIGuboisprofessorforruraldevelopmentattheCollegeofHumani-tiesandDevelopmentStudiesatChinaAgriculturalUniversity.She obtainedaPhDdegreein AgriculturalEconomicsatChina Agricultural Universityin1996.Hermainresearchinterestsincludecommunity commonresourcesmanagement,ruraltechnologyandinstitutional innovation,andgenderissuesindevelopment. DanielROBERTSisaconsultanttoADBandworksattheUniversity ofLondon. SatoshiSASAKIisaspecialistonEnterpriseDevelopmentandJob Creation,ILOOiceforChinaandMongolia.Myo THANT is a Myanmar national who received his academic degrees fromtheInstituteofEconomics,RangoonandNewYorkUniversity. PriortojoiningtheAsianDevelopmentBankheworkedattheUnited NationsandtaughtatNYU.Heiswidelyknownforhispioneering work on the economics of HIV/AIDS and regional economic cooperation. Heiswellknownforhispath-breakingworkongrowthtrianglesand economiccorridorsandinvolvementintheGMSprogrammefromits inception.KimsunTONGisaresearchfellowandProgramCoordinatorforthe CambodiaDevelopmentResourceInstitutes(CDRI)Economic,Trade, andRegionalCooperation.HehasbeenheavilyinvolvedinPoverty DynamicStudy,ChineseInvestmentinCambodia,theImpactof GlobalFinancialCrisisonCambodianHouseholds,LandTenureand PaddyProductivity,theImpactofMigration(internalandexternal remittance)onPovertyandAgriculturalProductivity,andWater ResourceManagementResearchCapacityDevelopmentProgramme. DrTonghasaPhDinEconomicDevelopment.Hewaseducatedat KobeUniversity,Japan. Songporne TONGRUKSAWATTANA was Research Associate and PhD studentattheInstituteofDevelopmentandAgriculturalEconomics, SchoolofEconomicsandManagementattheLeibnizUniversityof HannoverinGermany.SheobtainedherPhDinEconomicsin2011. ListofContributorsxvHerresearchinterestsfocusoneconomicsofpovertyandvulnerability ofruralhouseholdsinAsia,shock,copingandrisksmitigationstra-tegies,agricultureandruraldevelopment,technologyadoptionand economicsofaquaculture. TSUIYenhuisaProfessorattheInstituteofSocialCulturalAnthro-pology,XinjiangNormalUniversity,Urumqi,Xinjiang,China.Hewas avisitingresearchscholartotheDepartmentofSocialAnthropology atCambridgeUniversity(199194)whenheparticipatedinaninter-nationalcooperativeprojectinitiatedbyProfessorCarolineHumphrey, CulturalandEnvironmentalConservationinInnerAsia.Sincethen, hehasconductedsocialanthropologicalstudies(focusingoneco- anthropologyandsocialdevelopment)inpastoralareasofnorthwest Chinaandpublishedpapersandieldreportsfromhisieldresearch.SannVATHANAistheDeputyGeneralSecretaryoftheCambodia CouncilforAgricultureandRuralDevelopment. MarcVOELKERwasResearchAssociateandPhDstudentatthe InstituteofDevelopmentandAgriculturalEconomics,Schoolof EconomicsandManagementattheLeibnizUniversityofHannoverin Germany.HeobtainedhisPhDinEconomicsin2010.Hehasworked inVietnaminthecontextoftheDFG-fundedresearchunitFOR756on vulnerabilityinSoutheastAsia.Sincelate2011hehasheldaposition withtheStatisticalOiceoftheStateRhineland-Palatinate,Germany.PenVUTHisDirectorGeneraloftheMinistryofAgriculture,Forestry, andFisheryinCambodia. HermannWAIBELisProfessorofAgriculturalEconomicsandthe DirectoroftheInstituteofDevelopmentandAgriculturalEconomics, SchoolofEconomicsandManagementattheLeibnizUniversityof HannoverinGermany.HeiscurrentlytheDirectorofaResearch ConsortiumoffourGermanuniversitiesonImpactofRisksand ShocksonRuralHouseholdsinEmergingMarketEconomiesinSouth EastAsia.Hiscurrentresearchfocusisonruraldevelopmentin Asia.Hehaspublishedwidelyontopicsofnaturalresourcesman- agement,biotechnology,agricultureandenvironmentindeveloping countries.DrWaibelobtainedhisPhDinAgriculturalEconomicsand xviListofContributorshisMScinAgriculturalEconomicsfromtheUniversityofHohenheim, Germany. WendyWALKERisaSeniorSocialDevelopmentSpecialistintheEast AsiaUrbanandSocialSectorsDivisionoftheADB.Sheisresponsible forsocialprotectionandsocialdevelopmentintheportfolioforChina andMongolia.Shehasworkedinawidevarietyofsectors,focusingon thesocialconsequencesofpolicyreforms,environmentandadaptation andsocialimpactassessmentofinfrastructureandinAfricaandAsia.WONGSweeKiongisSeniorLecturerattheDepartmentofDeve-lopmentStudies,FacultyofSocialSciencesinUniversitiMalaysia Sarawak(UNIMAS),Malaysia.Sheisatrainednaturalresourceand environmentaleconomistandhascarriedoutvariousresearchprojects particularlyamongtheindigenouscommunitiessuchastheSemaitribe inWestMalaysia,IbanandBidayuhcommunitiesinSarawak.Shehas alsopublishedjournalarticlesinternationally. AhmadYUNANIisSecretaryoftheDepartmentofEconomicsand Development Studies and Lecturer at the Faculty of Economics, University ofLambungMangkurat,SouthKalimantan,Indonesia.IOverview31A NEW TRIPLE-WIN OPTION FOR THE ENVIRONMENT OF THE POOR Aris Ananta, Armin Bauer and Myo ThantTheSoutheastandEastAsiaregionshavemademajorprogressin reducingincomepovertybybringingdownthelevelofpoverty incidencefrom57percentin1990to16percentin2008forthe US$1.25internationalpovertylineandfrom81percentto28percent for the US$2 international povertyline, over thesame period. However, livingstandardsformanypoorpeopleremainamajorchallengedue toworseningenvironmentaldegradationandincreasingvulnerability toclimatechange.SoutheastandEastAsiasremarkableeconomic growthoverthelasttwentyyearswasoftenaccompaniedbyenviron-mentalstresssuchasdeforestationandoverishing,transformation ofgreenareasintocommercialandindustrialland,andmassive pollutionandcongestioninmega-cities. AlthoughtheenvironmentalproblemsoftheSoutheastandEast Asiaregionsarereasonablywelldocumented,lessisknownonhow environmentalpolicies,climatechangemitigationandadaptation measurescanbeusedtofurtherreducepovertyandimprovethe situationofthepoorwhofrequentlyliveinthemostenvironmentally 4ArisAnanta,ArminBauer,MyoThantfragile areas. This book argues that trade-ofs between poverty reduction, improvementinqualityofenvironment,andmitigationaswellas adaptationtoclimatechange,canbeavoided.Policymakerscandesign policieswhichmanagethesethreeissuestogethertoproduceatriple-winoutcome:raisingthewelfareofthepopulationbysimultaneously reducingpoverty,improvingtheenvironmentalquality,andmitigating andadaptingtoclimatechange.Thisbookpresentsempiricalobservationsofthistriple-winoption inSoutheastAsia,EastAsia,andthePaciic.Itdescribeslivelihood andincomegenerationopportunitiesforthepoor,aswellasenvi-ronmentalpoliciesthatdirectlyinluencethelivingstandardoflow-incomepeople.Thisbook,utilizingamultidisciplinaryapproach, arguesthatmoretriple-winoutcomeswouldbepossibleforthepoor, theenvironment,andtheclimate,ifawarenessoftheenvironmentin whichthepoorliveweregreaterandconsequentlyappropriatepolicies wereimplemented.POVERTY, ENVIRONMENT AND CLIMATE CHANGEClimatechangehasaffectedandwillaffectpeoplethroughthe increasedfrequencyofhotdays,heatwaves,tropicalcyclones,heavy precipitation, and rising sea levels. Climate change will aggravate many existingdevelopmentproblems,includingthoseinvolvingpovertyand theenvironment.Forexample,theefectoftheover-exploitationof forestresourcesonthelocalpeoplewillbemuchworsewhenheavy precipitationandheatwavesoccurmoreoftenandcyclonesbecome moreintense.Thepoorasagrouparetheleastabletocopewith environmentaldegradation.Theyarealsolikelytobeleastcapableof adaptingtoclimatechangebecauseofobviousconstraintsintermsof accesstoknowledgeandinancialresources. Theeffectsofchangesinphysicalenvironmentonpovertyare illustratedbyNgaandFukushiwhoquantifytheefectsofloodingin MetroManila,inparticularhealthrisksassociatedwithgastrointestinal illness.Thecityisinthecentreofthetropicalmonsoonclimaticzone andhassuferedfromfrequentlooding.Thehighratesandamount ofmigrationtothecityandinadequateloodpreventioninfrastructure have worsened looding in the city. Water-borne diseases are transmitted directlybycontaminatedwater,whichiseitherconsumedorincontact ANewTriple-WinOptionfortheEnvironmentofthePoor5withpeople.Theprobabilityofinfectiondependsonthedepthofthe loods.Thedeepertheloodlevel,thehigheristheprobabilityof beinginfected.However,theprobabilityofinfectionwillincreaseif, becauseofclimatechange,loodsoccurmorefrequently,lastlonger andlooddepthismorethantwometres.Theyconcludethatthe highestprobabilityofgettingwater-bornediseaseisfoundamongthe young,andurbanpoorwomenasthesegroupsaremoreexposedto contaminatedwaterduringloods.Theefectsofclimatechangecanbecalamitous,suchaswiping outanentiresmallislandcountryandthereforearepeaceandsecurity issuesinadditiontobeingenvironmentalconcerns.Indeed,asnoted byJokhanandLal,theefectsofclimatechangeinducedlooding willhitthePacificIslandcountriesthehardest.Theirsmallsize, remotegeography,fragileenvironmentsandeconomiesmakethem especiallyvulnerabletoclimatechangeandattendantsealevelrise. Foodsecurityisaparticularlycriticalissue,asthelocalpeopleno longerproduceandstoretheirownfoodandinsteadrelyonimported food.ItisnotsurprisingthattheleadersofNauru,Micronesia, andKiribatihaveurgedtheUnitedNationstotakeimmediate actionstoofsettheseriousefectsofclimatechangeinthePaciic Islandcountries. BEYOND GROWTH-ORIENTED DEVELOPMENTNewstatistics,suchasgreenGDPandgreenbudgeting,should beusedtomeasuretheprogressofeconomicdevelopmentandmake possible the design of triple-win polices. Green GDP would be calculated byusingmulti-indicatorstatisticstomeasureeconomicdevelopment. Allevaluationsofeconomicdevelopmentshouldincludestatisticson povertyandinequality,environment,andclimatechange.Patunru distinguishesbetweengreenandbrownGDPandbudgetingin measuringeconomicdevelopment.GreenGDPandbudgetinginclude thelossescausedbyenvironmentaldegradationunlikebrownGDP. GreenGDPwouldbelowerthanbrownGDPincaseswherethere hasbeenmuchenvironmentaldegradation.Greenbudgetingwould, forexample,cutsubsidiesthatharmtheenvironmentanddirectdeve-lopmentprogrammestothosewhichareenvironmentallyfriendly.The authoralsoproposesthepublicationofthesestatistics,toincrease 6ArisAnanta,ArminBauer,MyoThantpublicawarenesssothatthosewhodestroytheenvironmentshould ultimatelybemadetopaythecosts.UsingIndonesiaasanillustration, hesuggestscutsingasolineandkerosenesubsidiestorelectthereal priceofconsumptionofthesefuelsandtherebyoptimizetheuseof gasolineandkerosene. Kimusesamathematicalmodeltoshowthatevenifeconomic developmentismeasuredwithconventionaleconomicgrowth,there shouldnotnecessarilybeanytrade-ofbetweenenvironment,poverty and economic development. He concludes that by implementing a well-chosencombinationofwelfareandtaxpolicies,acountrycanpromote botheconomicgrowthandfairincomedistribution.Thegovernment shouldtaxenvironmentalpollution,asitmayalsoincreasecapital accumulationandeconomicgrowth.Hisconclusionisthatitispossible tohaveatriple-winsolutionevenwhenbrowneconomicgrowthis primarilybeingpursuedalthoughtherewillbediferencesdepending onunderlyingsocial,cultural,political,andeconomicconditions. Tsuiconcludesthatpovertyandenvironmentaldegradationin northandnorthwestChinaslargegrasslandareaismostlyattributable toeconomicpolicieswhichprioritizeconventionaleconomicand householdincomegrowth.Thegovernmentneedstoutilizelocal knowledgeinitspovertyreductionprogrammeswithinthecontextof climatechange.Walker,Gupta,andRobertsalsoshowthenegative impactofeconomicgrowthorientedpoliciesinChina.Inparticular, theydiscussthesituationoftheChineseurbanpoor,manyofwho havebeenlivingindegradedenvironmentsandsubjectedtonew formsofsocialexclusion.Economicgrowthorientedpolicieshave successfullyresultedinhighereconomicgrowthformanyyears, buthavealsobroughtrisingsocialvulnerabilities,includingthose associatedwithincreasingnewurbanpoverty.Itisnewbecause urbanpovertyhasbeenarelativelynewconceptinChina.Though recognizingthateconomicgrowthisimportantinalleviatingpoverty, theystresstheneedtocreateliveableandinclusivecities,which areabletorespondtotherisingsocialvulnerabilitiesamongthe urbanpoor.Theimportantroleoflocalknowledgeonadaptationtoclimate changeisgivenspecialattentionbyWaibel,Tongruksawattana,and Voelker,whoexaminetheroleoftheperceptionoftheruralpoorhave onimpactofclimatechange,inThailandandVietnam.Theruralpoor ANewTriple-WinOptionfortheEnvironmentofthePoor7depend greatly on agriculture and natural resources for their livelihood. Thesuccessofprogrammestohelpthemadapttoclimatechangeis muchafectedbyhowtheyperceivethedangersofclimatechange.If theydonotfeelclimatechangewillafectthemseverely,oriftheydo butfeelthatthereisnothingwhichcanbedone,governmentinitiated programmessuchastheuseofnewandenvironmentallyfriendly technology,willnotwork.Increasingfrequencyofnaturaldisasters mayleadtoincreasedfearofclimatechangebuttheymaybeunable toleavetheirhomes.Thiscreatesso-calledpovertypockets,that isclimatechangesustainedpoverty.Theauthorsrecommendthat climatechangerelatedprogrammesshouldtakeintoconsiderationthe perceptionandknowledgeofthepeopleonclimatechangeandshould belocallytestedandnotexternallydeveloped. CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION THROUGH BETTER LIVELIHOODS TongandBopharathshowhowimportantqualityandaccessibility ofnaturalresourcesareforthelivelihoodofthepoorinCambodia. Destructionofnaturalresources,includingthatcausedbyclimate change,islikelytoharmthepoor.Theauthorsshowthatpoverty wouldincreaseifruralhouseholdscannotsupporttheirlivelihood fromforestryandhunting.Theriseinpovertywouldalsobearesult ofdroughtandflooding.Moreover,povertyhasoftenlimitedthe choicesthepoormakeinmanyaspectsoflife,includingchoosing environmentallyfriendlylivelihoods.Theymayfocusmoreontheir ownimmediatesurvivalandignorelong-runenvironmentalimpacts. Therefore,onewaytohelpthepoorpreserveorevenimprovethe environmentoftheplacesofresidenceistoprovideenvironmentally friendlyandrewardingalternativelivelihoods. Qiexaminestheimpactofclimatechangeonfoodsecurityand povertyinthedrylandareasinnorthernChina,particularlyas relatedtotheproblemofdesertiication.Shearguesthatprojectson aforestation,reforestation,foodsecurity,andbio-energyshouldbe abletomakethepoorsurvivebetter.Theprojectsshouldatthevery leastcompensateforwhateverearningsarelostbythepoorbecause ofenvironmentalprojects,andstrivetoimprovethelivelihoodofthe poor.Shealsorecommendsthatthegovernmentsupportthepoorby 8ArisAnanta,ArminBauer,MyoThantprovidingcapitalandinsurance,asfarmersusuallyalreadyhavetheir ownwaysofadaptingtoclimatechangeandensuringfoodsecurity.Anantaetal.showhowintheuplandareasofSouthKalimantan, Indonesia, the local people depend heavily on the environment. Lucrative livelihoods from the mining industry have made them leave agricultural worktojointheminingindustryalthoughtheyareawareofthelong-termnegativeimpactofminingontheirenvironment.Themining industryhasalsoprovidedthecommunitywithmanygifts,suchas improvement in roads as well as religious, educational, and recreational facilities.Theauthorsconcludethatthegovernmentandsocietymust beabletoprovidealternative,betterpaying,andenvironmentally friendlylivelihoodtothecommunity.Theyfurtherrecommendthat globalconsumersnotbuygoodsproducedusinginputsandprocesses which harm the environment. Changes in global consumption behaviour arelikelytoreducedemandforenvironmentallyunfriendlygoods andservicesandthereby,reduceincentivesforbusinesstopursue environmentallyharmfulactivitiesandpractices. SasakidiscussesthepoliciesoftheNanjingmunicipalgovernment, China,whichhaspromotedlowcarbonconsumptionbehaviourinthe citymakingpeopleonlyconsumegoodsandserviceswhichare pro cessed using environmentally friendly technologies and inputs. Social mediamarketingwasutilizedtocreateawarenessamongconsumers, includingthepoor,ontheneedtoconsumeinanenvironmentally friendlyway.Sasakirecommendstheinvolvementofbusiness communitiesinthecreationofenvironmentallyfriendlylivelihoods. TheGreenBusinessOptions(GBO)inChinaisanexampleofsuchan involvement of business communities which is particularly important for smallandmediumenterprises.Herecommendsthatmicro-enterprises beabletotapemerginggreenmarketsand,atthesametime,create labour-intensivejobs.Thesebusinessopportunitiesareexpectedto helpproducealowcarboneconomy.Thegovernmentshouldhelp thegrowthofGBOsbyprovidingfinancialandfiscalsupportfor thosewhoareworkingingreenenterprisesandconsuminggreen goodsandservices. Theneedtocreatebetteralternativelivelihoodsisalsostressed byWongandLingintheirstudyontheroleofoilpalmplantationsin uplandcommunities,inthedistrictofLundu,Sarawak,Malaysia.They indthatdevelopmentprogrammeshaveimprovedtheeconomicstatus ANewTriple-WinOptionfortheEnvironmentofthePoor9ofthecommunitybut,atthesametime,degradedtheenvironment. They also ind that people living relatively far from oil palm plantations suferlessfromenvironmentaldegradationandyetenjoyeconomic benefitsfromtheplantation.Thechallengeforpolicymakersis thatwhatmaybeseenbythepeopleasimprovementineconomic statusatpresentmaytransformintoafutureeconomicburdenifthe environmentcontinuestobedegraded,particularlybygovernment-initiateddevelopmentprojects.Nogroupshouldbedeprivedfrom enjoyingthefruitsofdevelopmentbecauseofshort-run,economic successwhichdoesnotpaysuicientattentiontoenvironmentally adverseimpacts.Theneedtocreateenvironmentallyfriendlyyetremunerative livelihoodsisalsodiscussedbyJitsuchonwhoshowsthatorganic agriculture,whichisenvironmentallyfriendlyandmoreabletoadapt toclimatechange,hasbecomemoreproitableinThailandbecause thecostofusingchemicalfertilizerandpesticideshasexceededthe revenue from selling the product. He argues that the government should continuemakingorganicagriculturemoreproitablethantraditional agriculture.Healsoindsthatclimate-relatedpovertyisseenlessoften amongfarmerspractisingorganicagriculture.Herecommendsgiving paymentstofarmerswhoadoptagro-ecologicalsystems.Boulakiaetal.provideanillustrationofaprogrammewhich cansimultaneouslysolvetheissuesofpovertyandclimatechange. TheauthorsusetheexampleofanagriculturesysteminCambodia andshowthatitispossibletoavoidtheusualconlictbetween agricultureandenvironment,andalsobetweenreductioninpoverty andmitigation/adaptationtoclimatechange.InCambodia,asinother Mekongcountries,theagriculturalsectormainlyusesanirrigatedrice croppingsysteminthelowlandareas.However,asthesystemwith itsconventionaltillagetechniquesreachesitsgeographiclimitsand degradessoilfertility,anewsystemneedstobeused.Anewsystem, theso-calledDirectsowing(seeding)Mulch-basedCroppingsystem (DMC),wasstartedinCambodiain2008.Thisisano-tillagesystem whichseesthesoilasthemaincapitalinagriculture.Theyconclude thattheprojecthasproducedatriple-winsolution.Theirstwinis thatthissystemcanbettermitigateandadapttoclimatechange.It usesmoreorganicmatterandthesoil,servesasaCO2sinkhole.The systemisalsobetterabletoadapttonaturaldisasters.Thesecond 10ArisAnanta,ArminBauer,MyoThantwinisimprovedagriculturalproductivitybecauseofthelong-term sustainabilityofsoilfertilityandtherecoveryoffertilitywhichhas beendamagedbyprevioususeofchemicalinputs.Higherproductivity, coupledwithmuchsmalleruseofrelativelyexpensivechemicals,in turnreducespoverty,andprovidesthethirdwin.ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGEGovernmenthelptothepoorwhentheyarehitbynaturaldisasters isveryvitalbecausethepooroftendonothavethemeanstoprotect themselves.Estudilloshowshowpoorlandlesshouseholdswerethe hardesthitbytheMilenyostorminthePhilippineswhichwasthe tenth worst storm globally in 2006. The community and the government wereabletoworktogethertorespondtothestormbuttheresponse fromthecommunity,intheformofhelpfromrelativesandfriends, inhelpingthevictimswasstillverycrucial.Thegovernmentplayed onlyacomplementaryrole.Estudillosuggeststhatthegovernment shouldhavebeenmoreactive,includingformulatingex-anterisk managementpoliciessuchasdisasterpreparednessstrategiesandan earlywarningsystem.Asalongertermadaptationstrategy,rural householdsshoulddiversifytheirlivelihood,suchasworkingmore innon-farmactivities. Frequentfloodshavealsoresultedinpeoplessurrendered attitudeinthePhilippines:theyfeelthattheycannotavoidloods andthatloodingisnormal.Porioshowshowsomepeopleinlow-lyingKamanavaareas(mostlywetlandsorswamplands)ofMetro Manilahavedevelopedawater-basedlifestyle.Theyarealwaysin anevacuationmodeandconsidersuchalifestyletobenormal. Creationofalternativeandbetterlivelihoodsinareaswhichare notlood-proneisthereforeimportanttochangethiswater-based lifestyleandoutlook.AsPoriopointsout,theirfatalisticattitude hasputthemathighrisktoincomelosses,morbidity,andsocial loss.Inturn,thehighrisksfromstayinginwater-loggedareashave puttheminaspiralofvulnerabilityandpoverty.Sherecommends thatthegovernmentmakeawater-sensitiveurbandesignthat isintegratedwithlanduseandbuildingpractices,particularlyby anticipatingtheimpactofclimatechange.Shealsostressesthe importanceoftakingintoaccounttheissuesofgender,ethnicity/ANewTriple-WinOptionfortheEnvironmentofthePoor11migrationstatus,andagewhendesigningpoliciesforpeoplelivingin lood-proneareas.Ballesterosrecommendsimplementingefectivetownandshelter planning,includingtheimprovementofunderservicedinfrastructure inthecaseofslumsettlementsinMetroManila.Shenotesthat householdsinslumareasmaynotbeverypoor.Theytypicallyearn betweenUS$2andUS$4perday,butliveinslumareassimply becausetheycannotafordthecostoftravellingtoworkiftheyhave toliveinphysicallybettersettlementareas.However,thisinequality intheformofshelterdeprivationhasnotbeenreceivingadequate attentionfromthegovernment.Povertyinslumsettlementscannotbe simplyovercomethroughtraditionalpovertyreductionprogrammes inthePhilippines,suchascashtransfers.Theauthorarguesthatthe government should take regulatory actions that cut cross administrative boundaries,asenvironmentalissuescannotbeisolatedbygeographical andpoliticalboundaries.Walker,Gupta,andRobertssuggestthatsettlementprogrammesfor theurbanpoorinChinagobeyondhousingimprovementandshould encompassmanyaspectsoflife.Theyshowthatthechallengesfaced bythegovernmentincludetheprovisionofservicestothepoor,such asthecreationofwelfaresupportandsustainableurbancommunities inthecontextofrapidlydevelopingcitieswitharisingnumberof circulatingpopulation.Theyarguethatthegovernmentshouldshift itspoliciesfromthosefocusedonhousingimprovementtothoseon liveablecitieswhichwillenablethegovernmenttobettermanagethe urbanpoorsrisingsocialvulnerabilities.Theyhoweverrealizethat physicalandinancialconditionsmayconstrainthegovernmentfrom implementingthesepolicies.JitsuchonexaminessocialsafetynetsforpoorfarmersinThailand. Associetyscapacityinassistingthosesuferingfromnaturaldisasters islimited,herecommendsfinancialinnovationssuchasweather insurance,whichismoremarket-basedandefectiveinprotectingthe poor.Inadditiontomarket-basedinsurance,thegovernmentshould providedirectassistancetothose,andparticularlythepoorest,who cannotusethemarketmechanismtoprotectthemselves.Amore complete,universal,welfaresystemshouldbecreatedtocomplement market-basedweatherinsurance,toensurethatthepoorestwillbe takencareof.12ArisAnanta,ArminBauer,MyoThantCONCLUSIONThisbookprovidesmanyimportantinsightsonpoverty,environment andclimatechangeissuesfromdiferentpartsofAsia.Theinsights areenrichedbytheuseofamultidisciplinaryapproachinexamining these pressing issues. The papers in this volume clearly show that many peopleinAsiaarethreatenedwithanincreaseinpovertyduetothe changesintheenvironmentandclimate.Increaseintheincidenceand severityofpovertyarelikelytobeparticularlyhighincaseswhere thepoorliveinenvironmentallyfragileareas.Thisbookshowsthat itisneverthelesspossibletosuccessfullycarryoutprogrammesthat simultaneouslyreducepoverty,improvethequalityoftheenviron-ment,andmitigateandadapttoclimatechange.Usingdataandcase studiesfromEastandSoutheastAsiaandthePaciicIslands,thebook providestwomajorpolicylessons.First, is that trade-ofs do not have to exist between poverty reduction, improving the quality of the environment, and climate change mitigation andadaptation.Atriple-winapproachispossible:simultaneously reducingpovertyandinequality,raisingthequalityofenvironment, aswellasmitigatingandadaptingtoclimatechange. Howeverforthistobesuccessful,thesecondpolicylessonisthat thereisaneedtogobeyondconventionalgrowth-orientedeconomic developmentmodels.Thisrequiresthecreationanduseofabroader setofindicatorstomeasureeconomicdevelopment,whichincludes povertyandinequalityreduction,improvementinqualityofenviron- ment,aswellasmitigatingandadaptingtoclimatechange.Urban policiestocreatesustainablecitiesaswellasspeciiciscalpolicies andproactivedisastermanagementprogrammesareneeded.Above all,thisrequiresstrongandfar-sightedpublicpolicywhichpays adequateattentiontothespatialdimensionsofpovertyandisable toefectivelyaddressissueswhichcutacrosstheresponsibilitiesof manydiferentgovernmentagencies.Atthesametime,theprivate sectorinbothurbanandruralareasshouldbeencouragedthrough marketincentivestoinvestinbusinesseswhichprotectandpromote thequalityofenvironments.IIEast Asia (Peoples Republic of China and Republic of Korea)152POVERTY, ENVIRONMENT, AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN THE GRASSLANDS OF CHINA Tsui YenhuInnorthandnorthwestChinalievastareasofgrassland.Mostof whicharealsodryland.Inthepastiftyyears,therehavebeendrastic changestotheecologyandenvironmentofthisareaduetoongoing drought, rising temperature, and imprudent human activities, including unsustainabledevelopment.Ofthe70millionpeoplewholiveinthe area,7or8millionarenomadicorsettledherders.Povertyisaserious problemforherders. ThevastgrasslandsofnorthandnorthwestChinaareinthesemi-aridandaridbeltsoftheeastpartoftheEurasiangrassland.Drought isalwaysagreatthreattotheenvironmentandpeoplethere.Insome areas(e.g.,westernInnerMongoliaandsouthernXinjiang),theannual rainfallisbelow200mm,havingthelargestareaofaridpasturesand poorvegetationintermsofheight,coverage,andnumberofgrass species.16TsuiYenhuInthepasthalfcentury,therehavebeendrasticchangestothe areasecologyandenvironmentduetopersistentdrought,rising temperatures,imprudenthumanactivities.Degradationofthepastures inthenorthandnorthwestChinaisacommonphenomenon.The grasslandofnorthandnorthwestChinahasbeeninaconditionof non-self-maintenance,non-sustainableinecologyandnon-sustainable inenvironment(Wang2010).Anddeteriorationofthegrasslandeco-environmenthasbeenhappeninginmostofthegrasslandareas.The followingarethemostseriousissues:ofthe2.87billionhectaresgrassland,about90percentofthe pasturesaredeterioratedtocertaindegrees;thepasturesthataredeteriorated,desertified,andsalinized constituteabout53percentinareaofthetotal;theproductioncapacityofthegrasslandhasdecreasedby 1740percent,ofwhichthearidgrasslandpasturesisthemost serious,a40percentreductionisverycommon;theareaofsoilerosioninthenorthandnorthwestChina increasedfrom2,870,000km2in1989to2,940,000km2in2000, mostofwhichoccurredinthegrasslandareas;manyriversandlakesoftheareashaveeitherdriedupor reducedinthevolumeofwaterandarea;andthecompositionofplantspeciescommunityinthegrassland areashaschangedwiththedisappearanceofmoreineforage grassesandmorepoisonousgrassspecies.Thisisespecially obviousinthewesternpartofInnerMongolia,Gansuand Xinjiang.ThetotaldesertiiedareaandaridareaofnorthandnorthwestChina provincesamountstoabout2million(1,968,599)km2,whichforms abouthalf(or45.1percent)ofthetotaldesertiiedareaandarid areaofthecountry,andmostofthedesertiiedandaridarealiein thedrylandandinthegrassland.Inrecentyearstherehasbeena decreaseinthedesertiiedaridareaofnorthandnorthwestChina provincesasChinesegovernmentandlocalgovernmentshavetaken measuressuchasrestorationofpasturesandgrowingtrees.However, thegeneralsituationhasnotfundamentallychangedinsomeareasof InnerMongolia,XinjiangandQinghaipartiallyduetoclimatechanges (MaandShu2008).Poverty,Environment,andClimateChangeintheGrasslandsofChina17ThereasonsforthedeteriorationoftheenvironmentofChinas grasslandareasarecomplex.Extensivestudieshavebeenmade.The followingarethemostimportantfactors:reclamationofgrasslandtofarmland(about5percentofthe grasslandswerereclaimed);over-capacityandovergrazing(whichareseeninallofthe grasslandareas);rapidpopulationgrowth;miningandindustrydevelopmentrelatedtoexploitationof mineralresources;climatechangesoverthepastiftyandmoreyears;andnon-sustainablemanagementofgrasslandeco-environment.CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE POVERTY OF GRASSLAND HERDERSAccordingtothesurveysonthequestionofwhetherclimateinthe areashasvisiblychangedornot,ofthe140herderhouseholds,91per centherdersbelievethatthechangesareanobviousandconstant existence.1SeeTable2.1.Nomatterwhethertheyarestillpractisingnomadicherdingorthey havesettledintofarming,theherderswhowereinterviewedhavea commonknowledgeaboutclimatechangeinthegrasslandareasin thefourprovincesorregions.SeeTable2.2.Manyoftheherderswhowereinterviewedreportedwhatthey sawandfeltaboutclimatechangeanditsefectsontheirproduction andlife. Case 2.1: Jinser, a Mongolian herder of HandgarteMongolian Town, Altay Steppe, Xinjiang:HandgarteisahillypastureareainAltayMountainanditwascool inthepastyears.Butwearefeelingthatitisgettingwarmerand warmernow.Inthepasttherewasalotofsnowinthewinterandwe usedsleighsasameansoftransportation,buttheyaregoneasthere isnomuchsnowontheground.Andthetimeforsnowtostayon thegroundismuchshorterthanbefore(Howlonghasthisbeenso?). 18TsuiYenhuTABLE 2.1Perception of Climate Changes by Local HerdersPlace of Surveys Ethnic Groups of Herders surveyed Not SettledSettledVery Obvious ChangeChanged but not obviousaAltay Steppe Kazak herders32 19 Non-Settled: 30Settled: 1722West Tianshan Mountain Kazak andMongolian herders 24 21 241902Ordos, Inner MongoliaMongolian herders18 18 0Kezilesu, West Tianshan MountainKirkiz herders28 23 271914Yushu, Qinghai Tibetan herders16 12 16110GannanGansu Tibetan herders 20 20 201812Notes: a The ield survey was conducted in 2007, 2008 and 2009. Those who answered changed but not obvious were all young herders under 30 years old.Source: From the authors ieldwork and the data obtained from their iled work. (Cf. the above description).TABLE 2.2Perception of the Impacts of Climate Changes by HerdersPlace of SurveysNumber of Herders Very Serious SeriousYes, but Not SeriousDo Not Know Xinjiang149 121 22 6 0Inner Mongolia18 18 0 0 0Gansu 40 34 5 1 0Qinghai28 27 1 0 9Source: From the authors ieldwork and the data obtained from their iled work. (Cf. the above description).Poverty,Environment,andClimateChangeintheGrasslandsofChina19Well,about15years.Whatisworseisthatthewaterintheriveris lessandlessandthetherearenoishatallnow.Andgrassgrowing inthespringpasturesaroundhereisshorterandthinnerandmany springsfromwhichwegetdrinkwaterhavedriedup.Inthepastwe wereworriedabouttoomuchsnowbutnowweareworriedabout toolittlesnow.(authorsinterview)Case 2.2: Naranbater, a Mongolian herder of Ushen Qi, Ordos, Inner MongoliaInourgrassland,thereweremanylakes,andsomeofthemwere verybigandsomeweresmall.Butmanyofthemdriedupandthe lakebasinsaredesertlandnow.Inthepastitwascoolherebutnowit isveryhot.Iraiseinewoolsheepfor35yearsandtheydonotlike tostayinaplacewhereitishot.Inthepast,wedidnothaveany problemwiththis(toohotforthesheep),butnowtheyhavetroubles withthesummertemperature.Iamworriedaboutitbecausewewill havetogiveupraisinginewoolsheepiftheclimategoesonlike this.(Authorsinterview).Case 2.3: Hishankhan, a Kazak herder of Oyimok Town,Altay Steppe, Xinjiang(Beforetheinterview,theoldmanbroughtmearoundtolookat thehighmountainpastureswhichareabout3,000metresabovesea level.Thegrasswasratherthin,yellowishandshort;itwouldbe diicultforhissheeptohaveenoughhayonthewayofmigration. (mid-July2008).)Iam72yearsoldbutIhaveneverseenthissituationbefore. Ofthefourseasonalpastures,thesummerpastureherewasusually veryabundantwithhigh-qualitygrass,usually40cmhigh.Butas youcansee,thereisnograssatallontheslopesandthetopofthe mountain.WehavenothadanyrainsinceMarchandmostofthe streamshavedriedup.Mysheepandotheranimalshavehadavery hardtimehere,andthisissomethingIhavenotexperiencedinmy life.Iamworriedaboutmyanimalsbecauseintwomonthstime,we willmovethemdowntoourautumnpastures,buttherearenograss onthewaydown.Howcouldtheywalktherewithoutanythingto eatontheway?(Authorsinterview).20TsuiYenhuTheseethnographicdatacorrespondtothedatacollectedbythe authorandotherresearchersinotherareasofdrylandofnorthand northwestChina.Theyaresupportedbytheresearchofecologists andmeterologistswhostudiedtheclimatechangesofthearea(Zhai 2006;Han2008).TakingAltaySteppesasanexample,from2002to 2008,thereweredroughtsinthesummerandsnowstormsinwinter foralmosteveryyear.Theclimatechangewhichhasseriousefecton thelocalgrasslandenvironmentandthepastoralsocietyisasocial factorthatisexperiencedbythelocalherders. GRASSLAND DEGRADATION IN THE CONTEXT OF CLIMATE CHANGE PovertyinthegrasslandsofnorthandnorthwestChinahasbeen observedbymanyresearchersanddatadisclosedbythecountrys oicialsources(Li2007;Du2008;Wang2010;AnnualReportsof Poverty in China). The number of national-level poverty-stricken counties intheareasismorethanthatinotherareasofthecountry.Bythe endof2008,therewereseventy-fournational-levelpoverty-stricken counties,about15percentofthetotalinChina.Thepercentageof poverty-strickenhouseholdstakesabout1822percentofthewhole numberofhouseholdsoftheareas.Forexample,inQingheCounty ofAltaySteppes,Xinjiang,thenumberofpoorherderhouseholds is35percentofthetotalherderhouseholds.Theaverageincome ofeachherderhouseholdoftheareasis2540percentlowerthan theaverageincomeofruralhouseholdsofthecountry.Duetoenvi-ronmentalchanges,theincomegrowthofherderhouseholdsofthe areasismuchslowerthanthatofruralhouseholdsofthecountry ingeneral.AccordingtoareportofGreenpeaceandOxfamonthe povertyconditionsofInnerMongolia,GansuandQinghai(Greenpeace andOxfam2009),about60percentoftheherderhouseholdswere afectedbygrasslanddegradationandsomeofthemlivedatthe edgeofpoverty.Thecontinuinggrasslanddegradationintheareasnotonlymakes thepoorherderhouseholdspoorerbutalsomakessomeaverage-incomeherderhouseholdsreturntopoverty.Forthepoorhouseholds, theyhavetosellmoresheepandotheranimalstomaketheirends meetandthedegradedpasturescannotsupporttheiranimalsgrazing. Poverty,Environment,andClimateChangeintheGrasslandsofChina21Theresultisthatthemoretheysell,thefewertheykeep,andthe reductionofthenumberofanimalstheykeepbecomesinevitable. Intheyearof1984,theaverage-incomeherderhouseholdsobtained boththerighttousethepasturesbyhouseholdbaseandnumber ofdomesticanimalsatlowestvalueofixedassets(includingsheep, goats,cattle,horsesandcamels).Tenyears(from1984to1994)their incomeincreased,whichenabledthemtoobtainmoreanimals.As aresult,therapidincreaseofanimalpopulationresultedineven greaterpressureonthepasturesthanbefore,which,inturn,degraded thepastures.Manyhouseholdscannotkeepasmanyanimalsas theydidduetotheconstantdroughtandworseningdegradation ofthepastures.Theirincomedeclinedfrom1996totodaybyabout 1627percent,andanestimated1520percentoftheherdershave returnedtothepovertycondition.2Case 2.4: Herders Returning Poverty in Inner Mongolia In1983whentheresponsibilitysystemwasimplementedinInner Mongoliangrasslandareas,therewerenopoorherderhouseholds inthearea(cf:HaiShan2009).However,thepovertyhappenedin thefollowingyears.TakeaGachaofXinlinguolenPrefecture,Inner Mongolia,asanexample,asshowninTable2.3.TABLE 2.3Poverty Increase at Yingtu Gacha of Zhengxiangbai Qi, 19832005Year Number of Poor Households Percentage of the total Herder Households1983 0 0%1985 2 0.29%1990 8 1.16%1995 5 0.72%2000 20 29%2005a32 46%Notes: a. Of the poor herder households, 25 do not own any animals. b. The poverty line of Xilinguoleng Meng (Prefecture) in the respective year was calculated only for those households where the average number of sheep per person possessed is below 30. Source:Wang Xiaoyi (2009); Hai Shan (2009).22TsuiYenhuAsimilarsituationisseeninotherQisorGachasofInnerMongolia. Forexample,inAbagaQi,eachpersonin70percentofherder householdsownedonlytwenty-eightsheepunitsin2002,visiblybelow thepovertylineoftheregion. POVERTY OF THE SETTLED HERDERSForthoseherderhouseholdsthatweresettledandhadturnedto farming,thenumberofpoorhouseholdshasbeenincreasing.Poverty among them is mainly due to degradation of grassland, lack of resources, lackoffarmingtechnology,naturaldisasters,poormanagement,and lackoflabour.TheherderhouseholdsofQinghaojiaVillage,WenquanCounty, Xinjiang,weresettledattheendof1990sandtheywereallocatedwith farmlandandotherfarmingresourcesandprovidedwithtrainingfor farmingaftertheyweresettled.Before1998whentheywerenomadic herders,therewereonlythreepoorhouseholdsthatneededpoverty aidsfromthelocalgovernment.In2007,42percentofsettledherder householdswereinpoverty.Case 2.5: Jiamali, head of the village, Qinghaojia Village, Wenquan County, XinjiangTheamountoflandthevillagersactuallycultivateisonlyabout630 muapproximately5.4muoflandperperson.Duetotheyear-roundlowtemperaturestheclimateisnotsuitableforgrowingcotton, sothemaincropsarewheatandoil-sunlower.Therearetwotypes oflandinthevillage:neartheBortalaRiverthereisanembankment whichtakesupabout320mu,andtheleftoverlandisgobiordesert whichtakesupabout310mu.Theselandsarepoorandbarren,so5.4 muperpersonisnotenough,andthelandisfrequentlycontracted out.In2010,thevillagehadatotalofforty-fourhouseholds,sixof whichpractisedcultivation,threeofwhichareMongolianandthree ofwhichareKazakh.Inrecentyears,alongthebanksoftheBortala Riverinthetownshipsalargeamountoflandhasbeenopenedup, butitisdiiculttocalculatethesurfaceareaexactly,asitstretches continuouslyforseveralkilometres,nolessthan1kilometrefrom Poverty,Environment,andClimateChangeintheGrasslandsofChina23theriver.Mostofthislandisusedforgrowingoil-sunlower,which isawater-intensivecrop.AnothersideofQinghaojiavillageisfora HerdingUnit.Aftersedentarization,eachherderfamilyreceived30or somuoffodderlandwhich,accordingtotheplan,wassupposedto beusedforraisingalfalfaforthelivestock.Inreality,however,most ofthesealfalfaieldsarecontractedouttooutsidebusinessmenwho usethemforwheatoroil-sunlowerproduction.Theherdershave preservedtheirnomadicherdingmethod,goingintothemountains inthesummerandwintermonthsandonlystayinginthepermanent settlementduringspringandautumn.Thesecasessuggestthat,thoughherder-settlementstrategywas originallydesignedtohelpherdersoutoftheirpovertysituation whichwerepartiallycausedbydegradationofgrassland,mostsettled herderhouseholdsarenotabletoescapepoverty.Onthecontrary, theirpovertyconditionisdeepeningduetothereasonsmentioned above.GOVERNMENT MEASURES TO RESTORE THE GRASSLANDS Since1990s,Chinahastakenintegratedmeasurestoimproveand restorethedegradedgrasslandeco-systemandtoreducethepoverty ofherderhouseholdsinthegrasslandareasofnorthandnorthwest China.TheChinesegovernmenthasmademanypoliciesforthis purpose.West China Development Strategy (1995), in which the protection andrestorationofdamagedenvironmentofgrasslandisdecided astheirsttargetofthestrategy,andabout10billionyuanhas beenplannedforthistarget.Thestrategycallsforrebuildinga greenenvironmentinwestChina.RegulationforConvertingtheFarmlandforForestryandPasture (IssuedbytheStateCouncilin2002),whichspeciiesthepolicies andmeasures,andplanstoput3,400billionyuanforimple-mentingtheprojectwhichwilllastforseventeenyears.SupplementaryPoliciesonConvertingtheFarmlandforForestry (issuedbytheStateCouncilin2005),whichfurtherspeciiesthe measures for ofering funds and technologies to individual herder 24TsuiYenhuhouseholdtopractiseconvertingthefarmlandforforestryand pastures.Accordingtothenewmeasures,morethan80percent herderhouseholdsingrasslandareasofnorthandnorthwest Chinaobtaincashcompensationsandtechnologiesforgiving upcultivationandreturningtheirlandtoforestryandpastures.ImplementationMeasuresforRegulationonConvertingthe FarmlandforForestryandPastureissuedbythelocalgovern-mentsofthearea(from20032008).Thelocalgovernments(at provinceandcountylevels)havemadetheirownmeasures toensureandpromotetheimplementationoftheproject,and morefundsareoferedbythemforspeciickeyareas. ProjectforRestorationofDamagedGrasslandEnvironment.This projectjointly-initiatedbyMinistryofEnvironmentProtection, MinistryofAgriculture,MinistryofForestryaimstorestorethe mostlydamagedgrasslandenvironmentofChina,mostofwhich islocatedinnorthandnorthwestChina.Uptonow,hundreds ofbillionyuanhavebeenallocatedfortheproject.ProjectforConstructionofSanbeiProtectForestcovering northeast, north and northwest China. This project aims at growing agrandforestbeltfromnortheastChina,vianorthChinaand tonorthwestChinatoprotecttheenvironmentandtostopthe movementofthedesert).Theirstandsecondphasesofthe projecthavebeencompleted. Besidetheabovepoliciesandmeasures,Chinahastakenother measurestohelptheherderhouseholdsoftheareastoreduceand alleviatepoverty,including:improvementofinfrastructureofgrasslandareas;implementation of anti-poverty projects at provincial, county and townlevels;makingandimplementingpovertyrelievingpolicies;promotionofsmalltowndevelopmentingrasslandareas;andimprovement of education in grassland and ofering training pro-grammestohelpherdersaccessnewresourcesfordevelopment.Allthesepoliciesandmeasureshaveprovedefectiveinreducing povertyconditionsoftheareasastheyhaveobviouslyimprovedthe grasslandenvironment.Forinstance,withtheimplementationofthe Poverty,Environment,andClimateChangeintheGrasslandsofChina25RegulationforConvertingtheFarmlandforForestryandPasture, abouthalfamillionherdershavemovedtobetterenvironmentofthe grasslandinXinjiang.Theirlivingconditionhasimprovedasthelocal infrastructurehasimprovedandthegrasslandenvironmentisbetter thantenyearsagoinsomeareas. CLIMATE CHANGES CHALLENGES TO POVERTY REDUCTIONIn2008,the AltaySteppeareaofXinjiangwashitbyaseriousdrought disasterwhich,assomeagedlocalherderssaid,hadneverbeenseenin thisareasinthepast.Thedisaster,calledblackdisasterbythelocal KazakandMongolianherders,causedgreatdamagetothepastures andlivelihoodofherders.Accordingtothelocalstatistics,onaverage, therewasabouta1520percentdecreaseinincomeforeachherder household.Oneoftheefectsofthedroughtwasthatmanyherders spentmoremoneyonfodderandhayfortheiranimalsduringthe longwinter(aboutivemonths).In the winter of 2009, the same area was hit by a big white disaster, an unexpected snowstorm that caused even greater damage to livestock productionthanthedroughtin2008,andmorethan12,000animals diedandmorewereinjured.Inthespringtimeofthefollowingyear, XinjiangAltaySteppeareawashitbyloodsfrommeltedsnow,which lastedfornearlytwomonths.Theloodscausedthestartingtimeof seasonalmigratingofherdersandtheiranimalstobepostponed,and theyreachedthespringpasturesaboutonemonthlaterthanusual. Therefore,theherderhouseholdshadtobuyfodderandhayfortheir animals.Thosesettledherderhouseholdshadtheirfarmlandlooded; andirrigationchannelsandditchesweredamaged.Somehousesin thelowlandorrivervalleyswerebadlydamaged.Theseed-timehad tobepostponedformorethanamonth,whichafectedtheirincome in2010. Itisnotclearwhetherthesuccessivedisasterswererelatedtothe efects of climate change. More meteorological research has to be carried out.Butitisnodoubtthattheybroughtaboutprofoundefectson livestockproductionandlivelihoodofthelocalherders,deepeningthe povertythatalreadyexistedinthearea. 26TsuiYenhuAccordingtoresearchofChinesescientists(Zhai2006;Han 2008)andtheethnographicdataIcollectedfromtheieldsurveys, theefectsofclimatechangeonthegrasslandenvironmentaremainly thefollowing.Visibleincreaseinthetimesandinluencesofdroughts,which bringaboutcomplexefectsontheecosystemofpastureswith reductionanddisappearanceofspeciesofinequalityforagegrass andincreaseinabundanceofspeciesofpoisonousgrassand otherinedibleherbagegrassforanimal.Theresultisclear:with thischange,theproductivityofpasturesisgreatlyreduced.Constantdryclimateresultinginshrinking,evendry-upof rivers and lakes and disappearance of wetlands. This will further deepentheeco-crisesofsemi-aridandaridgrasslandenviron-ment,andmightendangerthewholeecosystemtotheextent thatdesertiicationwillspeedup.Fragmentationofpastureswithmoreandmoreherdersturning tofarmingthroughreclaiminggrassland.Increaseinthefrequencyofnaturaldisasters,suchasdroughts, sandstorms,insectplagues,locustplagues,mouseplaguesand snowstorms.Ethnographicdatacollectedbytheauthor,WangXiaoyi,Haishan, andothers(Zhai2006;Tsui2007;Du2008;Hai2009;Wang,Xiaoyi 2009;Wang,Yunxia2010)alsorevealthattheaboveefectsofclimate changeontheenvironmentofgrasslandhaveinturninducedthe challengesforpovertyreductionoftheseareas.Measurestoreducepovertyofherderstakenbythegovern- menthavelosteicacytosomeextentduetofurthergrassland degradationasthedamagedpastureenvironmentisirreversible.Herderhouseholdseffortstoconvertfarmlandtoforestry andpasturebecomemoredifficult,orevenimpossible,due totheconsequencesofclimatechange,suchaslackofwater, desertiicationandconstantriseoftemperature.Projectsforeco-protectionandeco-environmentrestorationwill bearnoresultsastheeco-environmentconditionsforthemno longerexistduetoclimatechange.Poverty,Environment,andClimateChangeintheGrasslandsofChina27Herdersreturningtopovertybecauseofeco-environmental crisesthatarecauseddirectlyorindirectlybyclimatechange isasocialfactoringrasslandareas.Thenumberofherder householdsthatwereoutofpovertybutreturnedtopovertyis about3035percentofnewpoorhouseholds.The grassland areas are located in one of Chinas high eco-sensitivity andeco-fragilityzones,andtheareaswheremostofherderslive areeco-fragile.Theseareasareeasilyinluencedbyclimatechange. Thisexplainswhymostofthenationalpoverty-strickencountiesare intheeco-fragileareasand90percentofpoorpopulationofthe countryliveintheseareas.Incomparisonwiththenumberofnational poverty-stricken counties in most farming areas, the number of national poverty-strickencountiesinthegrasslandareasofnorthandnorthwest Chinaislarger.POLICYClimatechangemaybeapowerfulforcethatwillremappovertyand povertyreductioningrasslandareas.Theseareasaremoresensitive tochangethanthefarmlandareas;soitispossiblethatthepasture ecosystemhasbeenseriouslydamaged.Withtheunprecedented challenges,itistimetoreconsiderthestrategiesfordevelopment andpovertyreductioningrasslandsandtodevelopnew,integrated development strategies for which the social, cultural, eco-environmental componentsaretobeputintothecontextofclimatechangesandits complexefectsontheareas.Byintegrateddevelopmentstrategies Imeanthatinordertochangethesituationandtofacethechallenges, thepolicy-makersoftheareashouldchangethepresentpolicy-making processfromanupdownprocesstoadownupprocess.Theyshould putsocial,eco-environmental,andculturalfactorsintopolicy-making, ofwhichthelocalknowledgeofclimateandpasturemanagement aretwokeyelements.Participationbythelocalcommunities,herders inparticular,inthestrategy-makingwillbeessentialastheyare thevictimsofthechange,buthaveboththeirownexperiencesand community-basedorhousehold-basedstrategies.Thenewintegrated developmentstrategiesforsustainablepastoraldevelopmentinthe areatakesaspecialposition.Thepresentdevelopmentstrategies 28TsuiYenhuimplementedintheareaoveremphasizegrowthofGDPandhousehold income.Thedefectsofthestrategieshavebeenmoreandmorevisible inthepastyears.Thefollowingmaybeimportantincreatingthenewstrategies:Reconsiderandadjustdevelopmentstrategiesforthegrass-landsawayfromfocusoneconomicgrowthtowardsafocus onsustainabledevelopment.Changethepolicy-makingforpovertyreductionawayfrom government-orientationtowardstheinteractionbetweengov-ernmentalandlocalparticipation.Cooperationbetweenmoderntechnologiesandlocalknowledge ingrasslandmanagementandtheprotectionandrestorationof pastureeco-system.Developvariousintegratedgreeneconomymodelstomeet theneedsofdifferentherdercommunitiesindifferenteco- environmentareasandculturalsettings.Changethestrategiesforinputonpovertyreductionawayfrom reducingincomepovertytoreducingclimatepoverty.Climate-povertyisasomewhatambiguousterm.Thecausesofthe herderpovertyarecomplex,thoughtheefectsofclimatechange aremoreandmoreimportantandobvious.Itisimpossibleto measureclimatepovertywithoutconsideringothercauses,such aspolicy-makingatinstitutionalandhouseholdlevels,market demandsandlocalresponsestothem,andchangesineco-environmental concepts and behaviour of the local herders. More multi-disciplinaryresearchwillbeneededtoworkoutwaysto measureclimatepovertyreduction.Developglobalnetworkforpovertyreductionandchangefrom areaefortstoglobaleforts.Thesemi-aridandaridbeltoftheeastEurasiangrasslandextends intoneighbouringMongolia,Kazakhstan,andRussia.Thosecountries havethesameproblemswithgrasslanddevelopment,inparticular, withclimatechangeinpastoralareas.Inrecentyears,InnerMongolia andXinjianghavecooperatedwithMongolia,Kazakhstan,andSouth SiberiaofRussiainregionaldevelopment.Meetingthechallengesof environmentdeteriorationofthedrylandgrasslandareashasbeen animportantitemontheagenda.Butthepresentcooperationisfar Poverty,Environment,andClimateChangeintheGrasslandsofChina29fromenoughintakingmeasuresagainstthesocialandenvironmental problemsresultingfromclimatechange.Strategiesforregional povertyreductionwithanemphasisontheefectsofclimatechange areneeded.Thiscouldbeexpandedfurthertoaglobalnetworkfor povertyreduction.CONCLUSIONDuetodrought,risingtemperature,andunsustainabledevelop ment, therehavebeendrasticchangestotheecologyandenvironment ofthevastgrasslandsofnorthandnorthwestChinaoverthepast iftyyears.Ofthe70millionpeoplewholivethere,sevenoreight millionareherders.Environmentalchangeisafectingtheirmeans ofsurvival.Inthisessay,Ianalysetheherderspovertyinconnectionwith environmental,social,andculturalaspectsofgrasslands.Ireporton localknowledgeaboutclimatechangeandassessmeasurestakenby thenationalandlocalgovernmentstodealwiththeproblems. Idescribethechangestotheenvironmentandhowtheyafectthe poor.Ireportonthelocalunderstandingofclimatechange(based onmyinterviews)andhowitafectsthewayherdersmakealiving. Basedondatafrommyieldsurveys,Idescribetheenvironmental, social,andculturalaspectsofthepovertyamongherders.Istart withadescriptionofthenationalandlocalgovernmentsattempts toaddressdrylandpoverty,reducetheefectsoftheclimatechanges ontheenvironmentandthelivelihoodofthepeople.Idiscussthe successfulandunsuccessfulaspectsofthemeasuresthathavebeen takentoreducepovertyintheareas. Irecommendthatpovertyshouldbeunderstoodasbeingnot merelyaneconomicissue.Socialandculturalfactorsshouldbeconsid-eredinthestrategiesforpovertyreduction.Notes1.Inthissection,someethnographicdataabouttheresponsesoftheherders intheareastotheclimatechangeanditsefectsontheirproductionand lifewillbeusedforthetopic.Thedatacomefromtwosources.First, mostofthemarefromtheauthorsieldsurveysfrom1999to2009,which 30TsuiYenhuweredoneinthegrasslandareasofTianshanMountains,AltaySteppes andOrdos,InnerMongolia,andthemethodsofindividualinterviews andquestionnaireswereusedinthequestionstothesurveyedherders includedthatconcerningtheclimatechangeandenvironmentalchangesin thediferentsites.Second,someofthedatafromtheotheranthropologists andecologistswhodidsimilarsurveysfrom1994to2008inthegrassland areasofGansu,QinghaiandTibet,andinparticular,thedataobtainedby DuFachun,DuGuozhen,andLiJinareextremelyuseful.Intotal,about 140herderswereinterviewed.2.WangXiaoyioferedaveryconvincingcaseaboutthisherdersreturning topovertybasedonhissurveysinInnerMongolia;andhisindingare supportedbyHaiShanandtheauthorofthepaperwhosurveyedother partsofthearea.ReferencesBanks,Tony,CamilleRichard,andYangZhaoli.Community-BasedGrassland ManagementinWestChina-Rationale,PilotProjectExperienceandPolicy Implications.MountainResearchandDevelopment23,no.2(May2003).DroughtMonitoringandForecastingSectionofLanzhouAridMeteorology Institute.DroughtSituationinthe2009Summer.ChinaJournalofArid Meteorology,no.2(2009).Du,Fachun.PastureDegradationandEco-migrant: ACaseofQinghaiMaduo County.PaperpresentedattheConferenceforEnvironmentalChanges ofGrasslandandSocialandEconomicProblems,organizedbyChina AcademyofSocialSciences,2008.GreenpeaceandOxfam.ClimateChange&PovertyinChina:ACaseStudy ofChina,AreportpublishedbyGreenpeaceandOxfam(ChinaOice inBeijing),BeijingandHongKong,March2009. Hai,Shan.PovertyinPastoralAreasofInnerMongoliaandPoverty-aid Strategies(inChinese).AnimalHusbandryEconomy,no.10(2009).Han,Xinhui.ResearchonEcologicalEffectsandMechanismofForestry (Pasture) Project in Loess Plateau.Ph.D. dissertation. Northwest University ofAgricultureandForestry,Yangling,China,2008.Hansen,Art,andAnthonyOliver-Smith.InvoluntaryMigrationandResettlement: TheProblemsandResponsesofDislocatedPeople.Boulder,Colorado:Westview Press,1981.MaJingkuiandShuQing,eds.ChinaStatisticalYearbookonEnvironment.2008. Beijing:ChinaStatisticsPress,2008.Tsui,YenHu.InstitutionalReasonsandReformsofGrasslandManagement Institutions:ACaseAnalysisofSocial,EconomicandEnvironmental Poverty,Environment,andClimateChangeintheGrasslandsofChina31ProblemsinXinjiangPastoralAreas.PaperpresentedatBeijingSeminar forSociety,EconomyandEnvironmentofNorthChina,2007. .EnvironmentalChangesofHandgartePasturesofAltaioverFifty Years:ACaseAnalysisofXinjiangAltaiGrassland.InGoodEarths.Kyoto, Japan:KyotoUniversityPress,2009.Wang,Xiaoyi.PastoralCommunitiesunderEnvironmentalPressure:CaseStudiesof SixVillagesinInnerMongolia(inChinese).Beijing:SocialScienceLiterature Press,2009Wang,Yunxia.APositiveStudyontheGrasslandDegradationandItsDeter-minantsinInnerMongolia.Ph.D.dissertation.InnerMongoliaUniversity, Hohhot,China,2010.Zhai,Luxin.ClimaticVariabilityandImpactonHydrologyinRecent50Years inNorthwestChina.Ph.D.dissertation.LanzhouUniversity,China,2006.323CLIMATE CHANGE, FOOD SECURITY, AND POVERTY IN THE PEOPLES REPUBLIC OF CHINA Qi GuboChinasagriculturehasgrownrapidlyoverthelastthreedecades. Thisisduetotheliberalizationofmarkets,rapidtechnological change,andthehouseholdresponsibilitysystem.1Wheneconomies grow,theyvaryinhowmuchthegrowthbeneitsthepoor.Inthe recentgrowthoftheChineseeconomy,thegrowthinagriculture beneittedthepoorthreeandhalftimesasmuchasthegrowth oftherestoftheeconomy(WorldBank,2008,p.6).Thegrowth inChinasagriculturehasbeenlargelyresponsibleforthedecline inruralpovertyfrom250millionin1978to14.78millionin2007, accordingtotheoicialpovertylineandincomeindicator.China haslargelyeliminatedthefearofhungerinthecountry.2Butthese achievementsarebeingthreatenedbyclimatechange.Somepartsof thecountryaremoreafectedthanothers.Onetypeofareathatis especiallysensitivetoclimatechangeistheecotone,thatis,where twodiferentecologicalcommunities(e.g.,forestandgrassland)border ClimateChange,FoodSecurity,andPovertyinthePRC33andoverlap.Poorpeoplewholiveinsuchareasareindingiteven morediiculttoovercometheirpoverty.TheChinesegovernments efortstomitigateclimatechangeoftenunintentionallymakelife morediicultforthem.CLIMATE CHANGE, FOOD PRODUCTION, AND POVERTYInluence of Climate Change on Food ProductionClimatechangewillcauseproductivityinthefarmingofmajorfood cropstodeclineandbeunstableinChina.Asaresultoftheincrease intemperatureandthedecreaseinwaterandarablelandexpectedfor thenexttwentytoiftyyears,theperiodofcropproductionwillbe shortened and food production will be threatened. The production levels ofChinasthreemainfoodcrops(rice,wheat,andmaize)areexpect-edtodecreaseby14percentto23percent,nottakingintoaccount possibleadaptationmeasures(LinErdaetal.2008).3SeeTable3.1.Climatechangewillhaveasubstantialefectonwaterresources, anessentialfactorinfoodproduction.Waterlowwillprobablybe reducedinnorthernprovincesandinregionssuchasNingxiaand Gansuinnextiftytohundredyears,whileinsouthernprovinces suchasHubeiandHunan,thelowwillincrease.Sotherewillbe moredroughtinsomeareasandmoreloodinginothers.Ifeforts aremadetousewaterinasustainableway,mostprovincesinChina willhaveenoughwater;buttherewillprobablybeshortagesinInner Mongolia,Xinjiang,GansuandNingxia.4Foodproductionwillalsobethreatenedbydisasters,insects,and disease.Warmerweatherwillallowinsectsanddiseasestosurvivethe wintersmoreeasilyandextendtheirgrowingperiod.5Thiswillresult inmoreinsectsandmorediseasesandalargerafectedarea.Extreme weatherinducedbyclimatechangewillbeaccompaniedbymore droughts,looding,andhigh-temperaturedisasters.Thesewillcause morelossesinfoodproduction.Collectiveandindividualadaptation howeverwillhelptopreventsomeoftheseefects.Inluence of Climate Change on Agriculture WithhigherCO2emissions,rapidpopulationgrowth,andeconomic growth,thewateravailableforagriculturewilldecreaserapidly.The 34QiGuboTABLE 3.1Predicted Change of Unit Yield of Three Main Food Crops in China(Yield in 2000 as baseline)Scenario of climateCO2 fertilizationCropping patternChange of unit yield of rice (%)Change of unit yield of wheat (%)Change of unit yield of maize (%)2020sa2050s*b2020s 2050s 2020s 2050sA2Middle-high emissionNot consideredRain-fed 18.520.410.322.8Irrigated 8.9 12.4 5.6 6.7 5.3 11.9Considered Rain-fed 15.4 13.3 9.8 18.4Irrigated 3.8 6.2 20.0 25.1 0.6 2.2B2Middle-low emissionNot consideredRain-fed 10.2 11.4 11.3 14.5Irrigated 1.1 4.3 0.5 2.2 0.2 0.4Considered Rain-fed 4.5 6.6 1.1 8.5Irrigated 0.4 1.2 11.0 14.2 0.1 1.3Notes: A2 scenario of middle-high emission relects slower speed of regional cooperation and adaptation to new technologies, and continued population growth, corresponding to IPCC published data of stable CO2 concentration of 600 ppm. B2 scenario of middle-low emission relects regionally environmental improvement, corresponding to IPCC published data of stable CO2 concentration of 450500 ppm. (a)201140; (b)204170.Source: Lin et al. (2005).areaofriceproductionwilldecreaseby40percentandthearea ofrain-fedmaizewillincreasebymorethan40percent.Increasing temperatureswillharmcropsplantedincoolecotones.Forexample, potato production in southern mountain areas of Ningxia has decreased (SunFang2008).Plantingmethodsarechangingrapidly:thepropor-tionofgrain-plantedareastothetotalarablelanddeclinedfrom 80percentin1980to67percentin2005,withgrainoutputincreasing from321millionto484milliontons.6Inresponsetoclimatechange, cropproductionwillchangeinfourways:(1)themultipleplanting areawillbeextendednorthwardandintohighaltitudeareas,(2)the areaforplantingwinterwheatwillbeextendednorthandwest, (3)maizethatisnowgrowninthenortheastwillbemovedfarther northandfarthereast,and(4)theplantingareaoflatematuring ClimateChange,FoodSecurity,andPovertyinthePRC35varietieswillbeextended(LiYijunandWangChunyi2010).Farmers canadapttoclimatechangebyproducingdrought-resistantcropsor greenhousecrops,orbyleavinglandthatisnolongerarabletodo of-farmwork. Foodavailabilityincreasedfrom317kg/personin1980to379.6 kg/personin2007.Percapitagrainproductionreached285kgper yearbythelate1970sandearly1980sandthenexceeded300kg afterthat,exceptfor2003,whenproductiondecreasedto286kg.As measuredbytheFoodandAgricultureOrganizationsfoodsecurity standards,Chinasgrainoutputtotalled501.5milliontonsin2007. Netcerealexportswere7.96milliontonsandnetsoybeanimports were30.82milliontons.Theself-suiciencyratioforgrains(including soybean)exceeded95percent,meaningthatpercapitagrainsupply (includingproductionandstorage)wouldbe400kgwhendivided intoapopulationof1.3billion.Thestockconsumptionratiostood around45percentattheendof2007.Chinascerealimportshad accounted for a high percentage, reaching 34 per cent of total agricultural importsfrom1979to1981.However,thepercentageofcerealimports inChinastotalagriculturalimportsdroppedto8.68percentin2004. CerealspercentageinChinastotalagriculturalexportshasluctuated accordingtotheproductioncycleofcerealinChina.SeeTable3.2.How Climate Change Inluences LivelihoodsThepeopleinecologicallysensitiveareasarelessabletoadaptto climatechange,andthusaremorelikelytohaveproblemsmaking aliving.In2005,therewere23.65millionpeoplelivingbelowthe TABLE 3.2Cereals Import and Export of China197981 198991 19992001 2003 2004Percentage of cereals in total agricultural importsChina 34.15 19.98 6.91 5.19 8.68World 17 11 9 8 8Percentage of cereals in total agricultural exportsChina 8.44 5.62 8.15 13.01 4.01World 17 11 9 8 8Source: FAOSTAT, http://faostat.fao.org.36QiGubopovertylineestablishedbyChinesegovernment(683yuanofannual percapitanetincomein2005,equivalentofUS$84.63at2005exchange rate),morethan95percentofwhomlivedinremoteorfrontier areasinhabitedbyethnicminorities.Thepoverty-strickenareasall haveextremelyfragileecologicalenvironments.7Climatechangewill afectpovertydirectlyandindirectly.Thedirectefectsareextreme weatherdisasterscausinglossestoagriculture,livelihoodassets,and infrastructure.Theindirectefectsarethrougheconomicgrowth.Poor areaswillhavemoreproblemssincetheyrelymoreonrainfalland othernaturalresources.Theirinances,technology,andinstitutionsalso havelittlecapacitytoadapttoclimatechange.Ecotonesareafected inadditionalwaysbecauseoftheirhighersensitivitytoclimate. Ruralpovertyincidencewillincreaseby23percentforevery10 percentincreaseindamagetoagriculturalproductionbyloodsand drought.8Infamineyears,therateofrelapseintopovertyinrural areasinGuizhouProvinceisashighas20percent.Incertainkinds ofextremeweather,itmaynotbepossibletosecurehealthyfoodand water,evenwithquickrescuesaswiththesustained,seriousdrought iniveprovincesofsouthernChinain2010.Sothehealthofpoor populationwouldbethreatened.Asaresultoflowerresistanceand malnutrition,diseasescouldspread.POVERTY ALLEVIATION AND THE RESPONSE TO CLIMATE CHANGEPoverty Alleviation and Climate ChangeRecently,governmentplansforreducingpovertyhaveincludedindus-trialization,integratedvillageplanning,andagriculturalandrural developmentfunds.Butclimatechangehasnotbeenfactoredinto povertyalleviationplans.Poorpeopletendtobemoreexposedtothe environment,especiallythoselivinginfragileareas.Climatechangeis afectingthepoormorethanothers.Oneattempttoreducepovertyisthroughloansofvarioussorts. Themicroinanceloansmadedirectlytopoorfarmerscanbeused todiversifytheirsourcesofincome(bytechnologicalsupport,such asguidanceoffunctioningoffund,doingbusinessandproduction innovation)andaccumulatecapital.Diversiicationoflivelihoodisa ClimateChange,FoodSecurity,andPovertyinthePRC37wayforfarmerstoavoidsmallerrisks.Capitalaccumulationcanhelp themdealwithbiggerrisks.Farmerscannotavoidthelossofmaterial assetswhenunexpecteddisastersstrike.Undersuchcircumstances, theinabilitytoengageincapitalaccumulationpreventsthemfrom formingnewgroups.9Therefore,withoutthediversiicationandcapital accumulationmadepossiblebysmallloans,thelivelihoodvulnerability offarmerscannotbereducedandthesefarmerswillremainpoor.Asawayoflimitingtheriskscausedbyclimatechange,poverty alleviationinindustrialsectorscanalsoprovidefarmerswithalterna-tivelivelihoodssimilartothosediscussedabove.Buttheseactivities cannotreachthepoorwithoutbeingadaptedtosocial,economic,and politicalconditions.Moreover,microinancefundsaretoolimitedto supportalternativelivelihoods.Besides,industrialpovertyalleviation promoteseconomiesofscale.Economiesofscalecan,ontheonehand, increasetheabilityoffarmerstorespondtonaturalrisks,including thosefromclimatechange,ifthescaleofproductionisguaranteed byagriculturalfacilities,suchasgreenhousesforvegetables.Onthe otherhand,economiesofscalemayreducethediversityofproduction, andfarmerswillbemoreeasilyexposedtorisksfromunpredictable weatherorpriceluctuation.Nevertheless,somepovertyalleviationmeasuresincreasethe adaptationofthesocietytoclimatechange;forexample,thepoorcan bepaidtobuildstructuresthatprotectagainstextremeweather.Small-scaleirrigation,waterconservation,andfarmlandcapitalconstruction compensatefortheunevendistributionofrainfallandtemperature. Theyalsoallowpoorpeopletomoreeicientlyusenaturalresources, suchasland,water,andaccumulatedtemperature.Roadconstruction enablescounties,townships,andvillagestohaveaccesstomarkets. Drinkingwaterprojectsforhumansandlivestockimprovetheliving conditionsofpoorhouseholdsdirectly.Thefollowingisanexampleoftheroleofwaterconservation facilitiesinreducingvulnerabilitytoclimatechange.Comparedto villageswithoutirrigatedarableland,GuantanVillageofNingxiaHui AutonomousRegioncanrespondmoreadequatelytothechanging climatewithwaterchannelledfromtheYellowRiversince1998. Villagersusethemaizegrownonirrigatedlandasfeedforlivestock andpoultry,thussavingaroundUS$8.00perhouseholdonfeedcosts 38QiGuboeveryyear,whichcanmakeuptheirshortageofcashincomeandhelp themdevelopanimalhusbandry.10Policy Responses to Climate Change and PovertyThePeoplesRepublicofChinasNationalDevelopmentReformCom-missionisthecountryseconomicplanningagency.Asthisincludes coordinatingthenationalresponsetoclimatechange,thecommission has assembled an advisory group made up of representatives of various ofsectorsoftheeconomyandtennationalministries.Itiscalledthe NationalLeadingGrouponClimateChange.Thisgroupcontributedto thedraftingoftheNationalStrategyforCopingwithClimateChange, whichwasreleasedbytheNationalDevelopmentReformCommission inJune2007.11Inthatstrategydocument,thegrouprecommendsmany responsestoclimatechange,includingbio-gasprojectsinruralareas, restoringforestsonfarmland,payingforforestecologicalservices,the restoringgrasslandsonpastures,protectingwetlands,andconstructing naturereserves.However,thesepolicymakerssometimesappeartobe unawareofhowtheirpoliciesafectpoorpeople.Iwillillustratethis lackofawarenessbylookingatonecaseconcerningnaturereserve policy,whichgiveslittleconsiderationtothelivelihoodvulnerabilityof thepoor.Hereisanexampleofecologicalprotectionandopportunity costforfarmerslivinginnaturereserves.Inanaturereserveinthe SanjiangPlain,wherethevillagerslostboththeirincomefromcrop farmingandtheirsubsidiesforgrowinggrainavillagersaid, Thenaturereservehasnothingtodowithus.Therearenobeneitsat all.Inthepast,peoplefromYongfengvillageandJiahetownfarmed inthenaturereserve.Theycouldploughafterpayingasmallamount ofmoneyforpermissiontoRaoheLandAdministration.12 Asapprovedbythelandadministration,thelandwasunrecover-ableandcouldalsoreceivetwosubsidies(directandcomprehensive grain).Butnowthewetlandisunderthemanagementoftheforestry administration,andfarmersarenotallowedtoploughtheland.13Thepolicythatpromisestomitigateclimatechangehasnewre-quirementsthatafectrurallivelihoods.Thepolicyofreducingcarbon sourcesbypromotingbiofuelandcleanenergyinruralareasmayput thelivelihoodofthepooratgreaterrisk.Therefore,transferpayments andtechnicalsupportforthepoorshouldbeconsidered.ClimateChange,FoodSecurity,andPovertyinthePRC39Adaptation to Climate Change by Poor People ThemselvesNotallclimatechangeadaptationandmitigationcomefromabove. Somecomefromcommunitiesandhouseholds.Poorpeopleadaptto climatechangeallthetime,buttheyarelimitedintheirabilityto reducetheirexposuretorisk,giventheconditionoftheirassets.Poor peopleoftentakethefollowingmeasurestoreducethevulnerability oftheirlivelihoodstotheefectsofclimatechange:Responsivemeasuresbaseduponthetraditionalwaysofmaking alivelihood.Forexample,collectingrainwater,changingthe farmingcycle,preservingsoilmoisture,water-savingirrigation, andsoon.Alternativelivelihoods.Examplesofchangeswithsmaller scopearealternativecrops,livestock,andpoultry.Examples ofchangeswithwiderscopearechangingfromfishingto plantingandanimalhusbandry,developinganorchard,or travelforemploymentopportunities.Theymightnotbeper-manentemigrants,butonlytemporary,sayforseveralmonths inayear.Adaptationinvolvingacombinationofexternalinterventions andtraditionalwaysofliving,forexample,state-fundedcon-structionofirrigation,waterconservationfacilities,andwater-savingirrigationtechnology.Inagriculture-animalhusbandry areas,technologicalandfinancialaidsareusedtoadjust grazingtimesandlivestockcarryingcapacity,togetherwith stablebreeding.Adjustmenttoalternativelivelihoodsviaexternalinterven-tions.Forexample,poorwomeninaridareascouldstartsmall businessesorengageinanimalhusbandrywiththeaidofa microinanceproject.Peopleinareaswhereethnicminorities liveandeconomicactivitiesarelimitedcoulddeveloptourism orsellhandicrafts.Peopleinareasthataretooharshforliving couldmigratetoindjobsinnewplaces.Thefollowingareexamplesofadaptationfrombelowinthree ecotone-typeareas.InNingxiaHuiAutonomousRegion,climate- 40QiGubochangeeffects,especiallydrought,affectthenormalproduction andlifeoffarmers.Inadditiontolookingfornon-agricultural jobopportunities,farmerstrytheirbestinagriculture.Theirmain measuresforadaptationarepreservingsoilmoisture(coveringwith plasticfilm,ploughingandgrindingthesoil,andsandpressing), collectingwater,andwater-savingirrigation(WuYanjuan2008). Furthermore,farmersreducelivestockcarry ingcapacity.Theself-managementofgrasslandadoptedbysomecooperativesreducesthe pressureongrasslandandpromotesthesustainabledevelopmentof livelihoods.InInnerMongolia,thedryclimatethreatenslocalgrain, resultinginthelocalsvulnerabilitytodrought(Brogaardetal. 2005).Onlyasmallpartofrurallandcanbeirrigated.Ifdrought hitsinspring,themajorresponseforrainwater-irrigationagriculture istoplantbroomcorninsteadofmaize,andsunflowerinsteadof chestnut.Incasesofseveredrought,farmersareunabletoplantany cropsatall.InWuminginGuangxiZhuangAutonomousRegion,farmers viewdroughtandloodstobethebiggestdiicultytheyhaveever encountered.Theareaofirrigatedlandhasdroppedfrom300muto 64mu,duetothelossofwaterinthereservoir.Manyfarmershave adaptedbyplantingcassava(acashcrop)insteadofcereal.Farmers pumpwaterfromthereservoirorwaitforrainfallwhentheysufer droughtandwatershortages(WangXiufen2007).InthemeasurestakenbyfarmersinZhongdian,YunnanProvince, toreducedamagefromloods,mistyrain,andhail,therichcould depend on loans, while the poor could only rely on aid from neighbours andthegovernment.Andinserioussituations,poorfarmershadno choicebuttosellassets,mainlylivestock(HuiXue2006).Farmers thoughtthatofalltherisk-reducingactivities,communitysafety-netbuildingwasthemosteffectiveshort-termprogramme,while educationfortheirchildrenwasefectiveforthelongterm.Training inhowtousenewfarmingtechnologies,jointdecision-making, andincreasingthenumberofgrazingherdswereconsideredtobe efectivelong-termchoicesthatcouldreducedamage.Farmersalso considereddiversifyingsourcesofincomeandstrengtheningfamily tiestobeefectiveintheshortrun.ClimateChange,FoodSecurity,andPovertyinthePRC41Experiences in Increasing Poor Peoples Adaptability to Climate Change Farmersneedexternalassistancetoimprovetheirabilitytoadapt.In thenorthernirrigatedareatheyhopedthegovernmentwouldsupport theconstructionoffarmlandcapital,transfersofcash,andtheinput ofagriculturalmaterialforlocalsengagedinagricultureandanimal husbandry.14Thoughthefarmersinthemiddlearidareaofthecountry alsoexpressedhopesfortheabove-mentionedassistance,whatthey neededmostwasdirectcashpaymentsfromthegovernment.Thisis becausealargeproportionoftheiragriculturehasbeenafectedby drought,andmanyfarmersthoughttheproblemcouldnotbesolved byfarmlandcapitalconstructionorincreasedinputofagricultural material.Theythoughtcashsubsidieswouldmoreefectivelyensure theirfoodsecurity(WuYanjuan2008).Inthedrynorthwestregion, farmershavebeenencouragedtoshiftfromrain-fedagricultureto greenhouse production. The use of simple plastic greenhouse technology reducesevaporativelossesfromthesoilandpermitsthecultivation ofhigh-valuevegetablecrops.Buttheserequireintensiveirrigation, sowateruseincreases.Therehasbeenanincreaseduseofinsurancepoliciesissuedby thegovernmentorbymutualinsuranceassociations.In2007,the ChinaInsuranceRegulatoryCommissionissuedastatementthat emphasizedtheneedtoprepareformorefrequentextremeweather byinnovationsininsuranceproducts.Withthispolicy,allfarmers couldbuyinsuranceforbreedingsows,milkcows,andrapeseed; andspecializedfarmerscouldbuyinsuranceforrice,greenhouse vegetables,watermelon,oranges,forest,pigs,chickens,ducks,geese, andfish.Hazardcoverageincludestropicalcyclones,rainstorms, loods,frostdamage,commoninsects,anddisease.Thoughagricultural insuranceforfarmersisagoodwaytoimprovetheirresiliencein thefaceofdisasters,itisalwaysdiiculttoimplementinpractice throughapurelycommercialapproach.Therehavealsobeeneforts toprovidebetterwarningsystemsforfloodsortyphoons.The localgovernmentandweatherbureausmakeuseofmoreadvanced communicationtechnologytohelpfarmersandishermenpreparefor weather-relateddisasters.42QiGuboBOX 3.1Role of Microinance in Reducing Livelihood Vulnerabilityof FarmersThefollowingisanexampleoftheroleofmicroinanceinreducing livelihoodvulnerabilityoffarmers.FarmersinthevillageofZheguyuan inGuizhouprovincereclaimedwastelandandplantedover3,000yews in1993.Beforetheyreceivedanysmallloans,theyhadtocutdownand selltreesastheirmainsourceofincome.Eachyewcouldbesoldata priceofRMB50200.ButthepriceincreasestoRMB1,000ifthetreeare 20yearsoldormore.Thankstosmallloans,thefarmerswereableto beginplantingvegetablesin2005.Thishasgraduallybecomethemain sourceofincome.Thefarmersnolongerhadtocutdowntrees,butthey reservetheyewsasasourceoffutureincome.Theycanfallbackon cuttingdownyewsiftheyieldofvegetablesisloweredbydiseaseand insectsascouldhappenasaresultoftemperaturechanges.RECOMMENDATIONSIrecommendthatresearchbedoneonlocalactivitiesthatarealready loweringpeoplesvulnerabilitytoclimatechangedamage.Thiswould involvestudyingthecombinationofexternalsupport,indigenous knowledge(particularlyofhowtodisseminatepredictions),micro-insurance,andalternativelivelihoods.15Thisresearchwouldalso includetheparticipationoftherelevantgovernmentdepartments.The resultsshouldbemadeimmediatelyavailabletopolicymakers.Based onthecurrentfoodsubsidypolicy,anawardingapproachandsupport forincentivestoapplynewtechnologywouldprovideincentivesto localpeopleforfoodproduction.Since2010theNationalReformand DevelopmentCommitteehasbeenpreparingpoliciesinwhichpeople arepaidfortheirecologicalservices.Itisexpectedthattheimplement-ationofthosepolicieswillstartby2012.Theyprovideanopportunity tointegrateconsiderationsoffoodsecurity,livelihooddevelopment forthepoor,andenvironmentalprotection.Naturalmigrationwith supportfromthestateinChinahasbeenconsideredanimportant alternativeforthoselivingintheareastoadapttoclimatechange.Thepoorcancontributetoclimatechangemitigationbyliving innaturereserves/areaswherecultivationisprohibited,andwhere ClimateChange,FoodSecurity,andPovertyinthePRC43therearegrasslandecologicalconstructionprojects,aforestationand reforestationprojects,foodsecurityprojects,andbio-energyprojects. Theircontributionshouldbefullycompensated.Thecompensation shouldbemadealongwiththedevelopmentprogrammesthatimprove theirlivelihood.Thegoalshouldbeforthecompensatorymeasures topromoteassetaccumulationandsustainablelivelihoods.Special povertyalleviationmeasures,inancialbudgets,andtransferpayments shouldbeestablishedforecotones.Climatechangethreatensfoodsecurity,forsomemorethanothers, sincesomecommunitiesaremoreexposedtonaturaldisastersand land degradation. However, current poverty alleviation policies integrate climate-changeconsiderationsinonlyalimitedway.Poorpeoplehave theirownwaysofadaptingtoclimatechangethroughagricultural productionadjustment,productiondevelopmentstrategy,andalter-nativelivelihoodactivities.Butsincetheiradaptabilityislimitedby alowlevelofassetsandinsurance,theyneedexternalsupportof thesortthatthegovernmentcanprovide.Thegovernmentspoverty alleviationpoliciesshouldintegrateclimate-changeconsiderations, introducingelementsofmitigationandadaptation.Thegovernment canplayanimportantroleinprovidingthisexternalsupport.Inorder toensurefoodsecurityamidstclimatechangeinChina,itwillbe necessarytoadoptanewwayoflookingattherelationshipbetween theenvironmentandpoverty.Inordertodealwiththethreatt