Activities in the zone of proximal development between the ... · Patrizia Tortella Centre for the study of child motor development, University of Verona - [email protected]

Activities in the zone of proximal development between the development of motor skills

and school readiness: studies in kindergartensAttività in zona di sviluppo prossimale tra sviluppo di competenze motorie e preparazione scolastica:

sperimentazione nelle scuole dell’infanzia

ABSTRACTThe growing number of children with impairment in executive functions and the grow-ing increasing of sedentary behavior, estimated to be a major culprit of obesity andmetabolic diseases, call for intensive efforts for correction of these worldwide problemsaffecting the quality of life. Recent studies highlight that executive functions can be in-cremented early and during life and suggest that physical activity may be an importanttool to reach this goal. Educator has thus a great responsibility and recent data indicatethat kindergarten may represent a new and up-to-now little considered educationaltool. To involve and share with teachers these new aspects of education, an action-re-search was carried out with 100 teachers of Treviso (Italy), 51 kindergartens. Teacherswere given instructions by means of a book prepared for the project and containing sug-gestions for the organization of physical activity lessons in kindergartens. After the useof the book, which also included stimuli for evaluation of the activities and their impacton children, teacher were involved in discussions and focus groups from where impor-tant considerations emerged about education directed at fostering motor and cognitivedevelopment of pupils. Our study indicate that implementation of results of scientificstudies in daily activities requires direct participation of educators starting from theirknowledge and perception of the realty of the teaching environment.

L’aumento di bambini con disturbi nelle funzioni esecutive (FE) e di situazioni di seden-tarietà, considerata concausa delle patologie metaboliche e dell’obesità che affliggonola qualità della vita delle nuove generazioni, rappresentano importanti stimoli per cer-care di proporre soluzioni nuove ai processi educativi cui i bambini sono esposti. Recen-ti studi evidenziano che le FE possono essere sviluppate nell’infanzia attraverso specifi-ci percorsi educativi e suggeriscono che l’attività fisica rappresenta un importante stru-mento a tal fine. Per favorire l’adozione di nuove attenzioni al modo di educare nellescuole dell’infanzia è necessario coinvolgere gli insegnanti e con loro condividere inuovi sviluppi della ricerca scientifica. A Treviso è stata realizzata una ricerca-azione cheha coinvolto 100 insegnanti, 51 scuole dell’infanzia e che si è basata sull’utilizzo di un li-bro appositamente, scritto per aiutare e guidare gli educatori nella preparazione, realiz-zazione e valutazione di attività didattiche fondano sull’attività fisica dei piccoli allievi.Dopo la realizzazione del percorso formativo sono stati realizzati incontri e focus Groupdai quali sono emerse alcune considerazioni importanti relative all’insegnamento final-izzato allo sviluppo motorio e cognitivo. Si rivela fondamentale una formazione allenovità concettuali che emergono dalle ricerche internazionali ma che parta dallaconoscenza e dalla percezione della realtà degli insegnanti stessi.1

KEYWORDSZone of Proximal Development, Kindergarten, Physical Activity, Motor Skills, SchoolReadiness.Zona di Sviluppo Prossimale, Scuola dell’infanzia, Attività Fisica, Competenze Motorie,Preparazione Scolastica.

Patrizia TortellaCentre for the study of child motor development, University of Verona - [email protected]

Guido FumagalliCentre for the study of child motor development, University of - [email protected]

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Formazione & Insegnamento XIII –1 –2015

ISSN 1973-4778 print – 2279-7505 on line

doi: 107346/-fei-XIII-01-15_27 © Pensa MultiMedia

* Tortella P. is responsible for planning and executing the study, data collection, writing the paper.Fumagalli G. is responsible for planning the study, data analysis, writing the paper.

1. Introduction

A growing number of children appearing to be affected by executive-functiondisorders such as attention-deficit/Hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). These chil-dren do not show specific problems but are unable to display properly their ca-pacities because of emotional, social, physical distress (Diamond, 2010; 2013;2014). Several reasons may cause impairment in executive functions perform-ance, such as: to be stressed, sad, lonely, limited sleeping time, poor nutrition,lack of exercise. Executive functions are a set of mental processes sustaining thecapacity to concentrate, remember and pay attention which are critical for aca-demic achievement (Diamond, 2006; Jacques & Marcovitch, 2010). Inhibitory con-trol, working memory and cognitive flexibility are considered the three core ex-ecutive functions (Diamond, 2013; Logue & Gould, 2014) required to build capac-ities such as reasoning, problem solving and planning (Collins & Kiechlin, 2012;Lunt et al., 2012). Evidences have been provided showing that different activitiescan positively interfere with development of children’s executive functions (Dia-mond, 2012; Diamond & Lee, 2011); among these, physical activity appears to berelevant. Indeed a strong relationship has been shown to exist between practiceof specific sports/forms of physical activity and improvement of executive func-tion (Lakes & Hoyt, 2004); however generalization cannot be done as evidenceslinking levels of executive functions with aerobic capacities are poor and con-flicting (Davis et al., 2011; Kamijo et al. 2011). On the other hand physical activityis very important for children, because it can engage passionate interest thusstimulating repetition and iterative experiences that, after hours of practice, leadto the success. Physical activity also contributes to the control of physical andmental health and to the fight against obesity; its practice sustains schoolachievements and is positively related to physical fitness. It contributes to mus-cular and cardio-respiratory fitness improvement, bone and functional health; itreduces the risk of hypertension, coronary heart disease, stroke, diabetes, breastand colon cancer and depression (WHO, 2014). Despite the strong evidences of these beneficial effects of physical activity,

sedentary behavior is increasing in many countries and participates to the spreadof obesity and of metabolic disorders that impair quality and duration of life(WHO, 2014).

2. Physical activity and motor competence

Motor competence is the child’s ability to execute various motor acts requiringboth gross and fine motor skills (Haga, 2008). Motor competence is fundamentalfor child engagement in physical activities (Hill, 2010; Stodden et al., 2008) and isconsidered (Stodden, 2008) a primary underlying mechanism in the promotionof physical activity. The fundamental motor skills can be categorized as: loco-mo-tor skills, object control skills and balance (Haywood, Getchell, 2009). Childrenwith low level of motor skills are not able to proficiently run, jump, catch, throwand have limited opportunities/interest to engage in physical activity (Stodden etal., 2008).

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3. The problem

Children with a lower motor competence level face physiological, biomechani-cal and neuromuscular barriers in practicing physical activity. They perceivethemselves less competent and will be less likely to participate in physical activ-ities (Stodden et al., 2008). The common believe is that children “naturally” learnthe fundamental motor skills (FMS), but several studies show that children whodo not develop proficiency in FMS will not be motor competent when adults(Goodway & Branta, 2003, Goodway et al., 2003). Physical activity contributes tophysical fitness, a properties that is fundamental together with mental health forthe development of executive functions. Diamond (2014) suggests that promo-tion of executive function development requires interaction between all thesecomponents, together with other aspects of the child, such as emotional and so-cial needs. She also suggests that, for consideration about the benefits of appro-priate levels of executive function and the methods to foster them, researchersshould not limit their interest to academic achievements or school programs, butshould have a broader view on all the aspects around the child, including motorcompetence. Other authors suggest that improvement in executive functionsand academic achievement related to physical activity may not be due to a directeffects of the activity but other factors including: a) physiological mechanisms in-dependent or dependent on aerobic fitness; b) psychological mechanisms inde-pendent of aerobic fitness (Etnier, 1997); c) the positive relationship existing be-tween physical activity and academic achievement, d) the teacher and the stu-dent attitudes, including motivation; f) public policy (Shepard, 1997).

4. The conditions to improve executive functions and the proximal zone of develop-ment of Vygotsky

Diamond (2014) suggested that the condition to improve the executive functionsare: discipline, private speech/self monitoring, well trained teachers, collabora-tions during activity, respect of the other’s spaces, tools, rules; in addition, the ac-tivity must be continually increased, repeated, practiced, (increasingly) difficultand should include scaffolding to the children. In this context, the implications for executive functions of Vygotsky’s theory

on the cognitive development are very important. Working in the proximal zoneof development with scaffolding is the appropriate condition able to motivatechildren to do their best (Davis, et al., 2011; Diamond et al., 2007; Manjunath &Telles, 2001). Several studies showed that the best results were achieved whenchildren were pushed at higher levels of their EF skills. By scaffolding executivefunctions and physical activities it is possible to enable children to increase theirskills to levels that they were not able to reach by themselves, i.e. by practicingwithout scaffolding. For example, when children are practicing to walk along anarrow line, they practice motor control and focused attention; as the individualchild learns the task, it is possible to add difficulties, such as walking faster, car-rying something on the head, etc. (Diamond, 2014). Accordingly, we have shownin a previous study (Tortella et al. 2012b) that children performing difficult tasks(climbing walking on an unstable balance beam; Fig. 1) became able to executethe tasks when they were scaffolded by the teacher and not when they were leftto play/try by themselves (Figures and 3).

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Fig. 1. Unstable elastic balance beam

Fig. 2, Effects of scaffolding on the ability to climb on the unstable elastic beam

Fig. 3. The ability to climb and walk on the unstable beam in children scaffold by the teacher(group A) or unattended (Group B, free play). The measurements were taken at the end of atraining periods consisting of 10 min sessions repeated once per week for 10 weeks. Data are

from Tortella et al., 2014

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This experiment clearly shows that teachers have the important role to per-sonalize the activities and scaffold the children in these difficult tasks. The dataare in line with observations carried out in different context by others (Diamond,2014). Diamond (2013) highlights that children as well as teachers must be pas-sionate and enthusiastic about the activities that they perform. Teachers need tobe charismatic to galvanize children’s interest. Children need to repeat severaltimes the experiences in order to learn the skills, and they must come in differ-ent, difficult and enthusiastic situations. To increase motor skills and executivefunctions it is necessary for children to experience different conditions in thezone of proximal development (Vygotsky). If teachers do not provide supports(scaffolding), children cannot have a successful experience, feel embarrassedand get reprimanded (Diamond, 2014). Children need to be scaffolded to moti-vate them to practice the activity and to learn. With successful experience chil-dren develop pride and increased confidence on their own abilities. Diamond(2014) suggests that when children are supported by scaffolding they increaseconfidence in the possibility to do something in the future. Tortella (2014) high-lights that when the child says “I did it by myself!” after being supported by scaf-folding; he/she perceives personal competence even if he/she is not competentyet. This feeling increases the motivation to train and to learn. By scaffoldinghe/she discovers new capabilities for actions (affordances) that lead him/her toendure hardship and finally to learn. It has been shown that different portions of the brain are involved at differ-

ent moments of the learning process; indeed, prefrontal cortex appears to be in-volved during learning something difficult, especially in proximal zone of devel-opment when the child is struggling to recall and exercise his/her executive func-tions; when the task becomes familiar, the prefrontal cortex is no longer activat-ed (Chein & Schneider, 2005; Diamond, 2013) Teachers should be aware that theexperiences need to be continuously modified in order to obtain improvementsin motor competences and executive functions and that children need to prac-tice different skills, (training various executive functions and motor skills) to ob-tain substantial benefits. In this context, physical activity should be considered afavorite activity for children that can drive their interest and willingness to prac-tice. To combine these methodological aspects with the new insights comingfrom the scientific research is therefore becoming a “must” and qualifying pro-fessional attitude for teachers and educators.

5. The design of the study

The aim of our study has been to realize an action- research involving teach-ers, children and parents and developing good practices to increase motor andcognitive skills in preschool children. Teachers from 51 kindergartens in Treviso(northern Italy) were recruited and assigned the task of organizing five struc-tured physical activity lessons with their children. Since formal education in thefield of motor activity is not included in the curriculum of the Italian preschoolteachers/educators, we provided them two specific books. The first, “Favorire lapratica dell’attività motoria” (Tortella et al., 2013), i.e. “Implementing physical ac-tivity programs in kindergarten”, contained basic information on the impact ofappropriate physical activity and education on motor development and health aswell as main rules for an appropriate insertion of physical activities in the stan-dard curriculum defined in the school by the same teachers. It also containedpractical example in the form of a fantasy story that the teacher could realize with


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the children in 5 different lessons/days. For each of the 5 sessions of the story,goals and evaluation tools were clearly identified and the teacher was guidedstep by step in the production of the motor activity experience of the children.The second book, “Attività fisica e funzioni esecutive nella scuola dell’infanzia”(Tortella et al., 2014), i.e. “Physical activity and executive function in kinder-garten”, followed the same organization used in the first book, but the focus wason significance and methods to exercise executive functions. Also in this case,the teachers were provided with basic knowledge and information aiming at theorganization of 5 lessons where identified motor skills and executive functionswere programmed, evaluated and monitored. Also in this case, a fantastic storywas used to attract children interest.The teachers were asked to read the books and to realize the five lessons in-

dicated in the books. Both books encourage the teachers to work in the zone ofproximal development and to focus the activity on defined goals, in accordancewith the Italian Chart of activity in kindergartens and with the international rec-ommendations on physical activity and health.

Fig. 4. Book A – “Favorire la pratica dell’attività motoria 3-6 anni” (2013);book B: “Attività fisica e funzioni esecutive nella scuola dell’infanzia” (2014).

To help the teachers in their efforts, they were invited to attend three traininglessons about the use of the book(s). The first lesson was organized in Novem-ber (2013 and 2014) in the form of a meeting with the authors of the books/re-searchers and main goals, organization and implementation of the project weredescribed and discussed. The second lesson (February 2014 and 2015) was doneat midway between the beginning and the conclusion of the project and provid-ed opportunity for collaborative discussions between teachers and researchers.In the third training lesson (May 2014 and 2015) the teachers were asked to dis-cuss their activities in the form of oral presentation supported by ppt slides; theaudience included the other teachers participating to the study. During their ac-tivities the teachers were supported by the researcher by mean of a dedicatedweb site. At the end of the training meetings, two focus groups with teacherswere realized (after each meeting). All the materials provided by teachers wereanalyzed by grounded Theory. The underlying question we investigated was:“Does an action-research on the implementation of a physical activity programfor preschool children based on a specifically written manual(s) provide growthof knowledge and teaching competence in educators?

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6. Results

In the academic year 2013/14, thirty teachers participated actively to the wholeproject and conducted the five requested lessons in the kindergartens; the firstbook only was provided to the teachers. All of them produced the final presen-tations and the reports. In the second year (academic year 2014/15), seventyteachers joined the project; forty of them were provided with the first book, theothers (consisting of teachers that already had the experience with the first bookin the previous year) were provided with the second book. The following aspects were highly considered by the teachers: a) motor activ-

ity was realized in a context of fantastic stories and this aspect appeared to be at-tracting and motivating for the children; some of the teachers changed the char-acters and replaced them with others already in use in the kindergartens; b) plan-ning in advance the activities is very important to achieve goals; c) the assess-ment of the children is a good way to give value to what children are able to do,in accordance with Tessaro (1997); c) the children were deeply involved, interest-ed and passionate in the organized activities; d) cooperative learning was a veryimportant aspect of the activities; some teachers created new strategies to in-volve children in the activities, such as drawing a poster as a map of the story,production and use of posts representing animals to invite children to jump, run,crawl.Some teachers were very motivated to learn more about physical activity and

some of them were enthusiastic at the idea of experiencing new, unusual prac-tices. Several teachers reported of difficulties in organizing new activities and infinding strategies, with problems arising mostly because of available dedicatedmaterials, time and space. All teachers declared that physical activity programsrequired the presence of at least two educators for a standard class of 20 childrenand that their schools lacked adequate and dedicated room for the activities. Itemerged a consideration of outdoor environment as a good opportunity for chil-dren to move and many teachers were reconsidering the potential role of thegarden/open space of their school as opportunity for teaching. The role of peers in child development, through the mechanisms of imitation

and support, has been identified and underscored by teachers. Teachers recog-nized that many children had difficulties in motor skills and suggested the im-portance to support them by scaffolding and by encouraging them. The book“Favorire la pratica dell’attività motoria 3-6 anni” was considered a good supportalso by teachers that lacked knowledge on physical activity. Also the observation-al grids were considered very useful by the teachers. We analyzed (Grounded Theory) two focus groups, reports and presentations

of the teachers and we built the following categories: i) strengths; ii) weakness;iii) most relevant difficulties for children; iv) issues learned by the teachers.


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Table 1CATEGORIES OF STATEMENTS FROM INTERVIEWS.

On gray lines the categories and in white the statements of the teachers

The analysis was then expanded by including in the analysis the statementsfrom focus groups, reports and presentations. Nine new categories emergedand were identified.

& &* * * * **

* * * * **41>*71*?;7:8*:;8*9:4:8@81:9*=A*:;8*:84<;839**

):3812:;9*#;8*B==C*;86D8>*:=*=32417E8*9:3F<:F38>*4<:7G7:789H*49*?866*49*I@8:3=J*79*4*:34<8*:=*A=66=?*#;8*B==C*;86D*:=*C1=?*18?*4<:7G7:789H*F1C1=?1*#;8*B==C*;86D*:=*C1=?*18?*4<:7G7:789*A=3*B4641<8*41>*@=B767:5*#;8*=B983G4:7=1*237>9*438*G835*F98AF6*!;76>381*?838*G835*81:;F9749:7<**(:*8@8328>*:;8*D8398G8341<8*=A*<;76>381*(:*8@8328>*23=?712*<=664B=34:7=1*41>*<==D834:7=1*B8:?881*<;76>381*(:*8@8328>*=G83<=@712*9;51899*71*<;76>381*#84<;839*1=:7<8>*@=38*=32417E4:7=146*<4D4<7:5*71*<;76>381*#;8*;79:=35*=A*:;8*21=@89*79*4*:==6*A=3*6712F79:7<*8137<;@81:*+388>=@*71*:84<;712*79*18<899435*:=*27G8*D839=146*<=1:37BF:7=19*#;8*9:7@F64:7=1*=A*<384:7G7:5*71*@=G8@81:*79*AF1>4@81:46**71*A71>712*18?*9:34:82789*A=3*D3=B68@*9=6G712*K4641<8*41>*@=B767:5*4<:7G7:789*?838*D34<:7<8>*@F<;*@=38*:;41*F9F4665*/84C1899*%384:*B==C*A=3*LMN*58439*=6>*<;76>381H*6899*A=3*O*58439*=6>*(:*?49*>7AA7<F6:*:=*<=1>F<:*4<:7G7:5*46=180*(:*?49*18<899435*:=*B8*4:*6849:*:?=*:84<;839*(:*?49*:==*67::68*:7@8*A=3*D34<:7<8*B=:;*@=:=3*4<:7G7:5*41>*>34?712H*71*:;8*94@8*>45*(:*79*7@D=3:41:*:=*<=197>83*:;8*=F:>==3*9D4<8*#;838*438*:==*@415*<;76>381*71*:;8*<64993==@*41>*7:*79*>7AA7<F6:*:=*=32417E8*:;8*4<:7G7:789*(:*?=F6>*B8*7@D=3:41:*:=*9;438*7@D38997=19*?7:;*=:;83*:84<;839*)@466*<;76>381*A71>*7:*>7AA7<F6:*:=*D43:7<7D4:8*71*9:3F<:F38>*4<:7G7:789*#;8*4<:7G7:789*438*9F7:4B68*A=3*<;76>381*=A*:;8*94@8*428H*71*:;8*94@8*<64993==@9*)=@8:7@89*:;8*9D4<89*438*714>8PF4:8*#;838*79*64<C*=A*9D8<7A7<*@4:837469*'868G41:*>7AA7<F6:789*A=3*<;76>381*):4:7<*41>*>514@7<*B4641<8*Q7AA7<F6:5*:=*8R8<F:8*F1F9F46*@=G8@81:9*!;76>381*438*3F11712*71*F1<==3>714:8>*?45*):3F226712*:=*@=G8H*:=*3F1H*:=*<34?6*%8:*:738>*D;597<4665*9==1*Q7AA7<F6:789*71*A71>712*9=6F:7=19*!;76>381*438*1=:*4B68*:=*>34?H*9=@8:7@89*:;85*:;71C*:=*@=G8*41>*1=:*:=*>34?*=3*:;85*>=1S:*>34?*3868G41:*:;7129*Q7AA7<F6:*71*4::4<C712*4>;897G8*:5D8*(99F89*684318>*B5*:;8*:84<;839*):3F<:F38>*4<:7G7:5*466=?*<;76>381*:=*68431*@=38*:;41*>F3712*A388*D645*!;76>381*;4G8*>7AA7<F6:*71*<==3>714:7=1*#;838*79*4*D38G4681<8*=A*A718*@=:=3*4<:7G7:789*71*:;8*>4765*=32417E4:7=1*71*:;8*C71>83243:81*T:767E8*=F:>==3*9D4<89*71*8G835*@=@81:*=A*:;8*>45*79*7@D=3:41:*#;8*7@D=3:41<8*=A*@=:7G4:8*41>*81<=F3428*:;8*<;76>381*:=*D3=G7>8*:;873*>8G86=D@81:*)=@8*<;76>381*188>*:=*B8*9FDD=3:8>*:=*71<38498*:;873*9C7669*(:*79*7@D=3:41:*:=*9:7@F64:8*<384:7G7:5*71*<;76>381*U3=G7>8*@=:=3*4<:7G7:5**

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * *

*


362

Table 2CATEGORIES OF STATEMENTS FROM INTERVIEWS, FOCUS GROUPS, REPORTS, PRESENTA-

TIONS

On gray lines the categories and in white the statements of the teachers

& &* * * * * * * * *

* * * * * * * * * * * * **

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363

By combining the two levels of analysis reported in tables 1 and 2, we identi-fied the core categories that are included in table 3.

Table 3THE CORE CATEGORIES (2)

*& &

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!&%-(#(.$*U'&!$))$)*_8R8<F:7G8*AF1<:7=19H*6412F428`*

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!&%-(#(.$*U'&!$))$)*_@41F46*49*9<4AA=6>*A=3*:84<;839`*

#;8*7@D=3:41:*3=68*=A*8R:83146*81G73=1@81:*41>*F1<=1G81:7=146*9D4<89*71*<;76>*>8G86=D@81:*

#X$*'&W$*&+*$-.('&-,$-#H*#&&W)H*$Y#$'-"W*$-.('&-,$-#*

U;597<46*4<:7G7:5*79*1=:*B4641<8>*[*:?=*@F<;*@417DF64:7=1*41>**:?=*6899*B4641<8*41>*@=B767:5*

+T-Q",$-#"W*,&#&'*)\(WW)*

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+T-Q",$-#"W*,&#&'*)\(WW)*

#;8*:84<;839*38467E8*:;8*7@D=3:41<8*=A*:;8*:7@8*71*:;8*9F<<899*=A*:;8*4<:7G7:789**

!&-)#'"(-#)*#(,$*

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!&-)#'"(-#)*X$WU*KV*!&WW$%T$*

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!&-)#'"(-#)*+'$$Q&,*

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!&-)#'"(-#)*W$))*!X(WQ'$-*

!;76>381*438*71G=6G8>*71*:;8*4<:7G7:789* $,&#(&-"W*U'&!$))$)*_81a=5`*#;8*7@D=3:41<8*=A*81<=F342712* $,&#(&-"W*U'&!$))$)*_81<=F342712`*)=<746*9C7669* )&!("W*)\(WW)***

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


364

Fig. 5. Core categories

From the analysis of the focus groups, the presentations and the final reportsproduced by the teacher participation to the action-research, it emerged that theteachers considered physical activity in kindergarten an important tool to devel-op cognitive processes, fundamental motor skills, social skills, emotionalprocesses. They also found some constraints such as the limited time availablefor physical activity, the need to be supported by other teachers during the exe-cution of the physical activities (never work alone), the importance to feel them-selves free to organize the activities and to be able to be creative, the need to re-duce the numbers of children to work better. Teachers stated that the manual onphysical activity (book A): 1) is a very useful tool for planning, executing and eval-uating movement-based activities for 4-5 years old children; 2) gives informationabout structured activities never provided before; 3) describes new activities andprovides practical examples for balance and mobility; 4) the observational gridsare very useful to assess motor skills; 5) the fantasy story in the book is very nice;6) provides clear indications on how to organize physical activities; h) reports sci-entific evidences disrupting common believes including that structured activitiesstimulate motor development at higher level than free play.It is very interesting to notice that the core categories emerging from the

analysis of teacher statements can be assigned to the three major items includ-ed in the Newell’s model (1986) (see figure 5). This model highlights that thereare three items/aspects interacting between each other and affecting motor de-velopment: individual constraints, environmental constraints and task con-straints. The change one of these items has consequences on motor develop-ment.

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365

Fig. 6. Core categories of the study and implementation into the Newell’s model

Table 6ASPECTS HIGHLIGHTED BY THE TEACHERS RELEVANT FOR DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS

(Diamond, 2015)

The teachers unanimously agreed that: a) the prevalence of activities likedrawing, and others involving fine motor skill, lead to a sedentary lifestyle; b) theoutdoor environment can provide very good opportunities to improve the levelof physical activity; c) structured activity are important for motor development;d) teachers should support children by scaffolding; e) it is important to provideenthusiasm to children with a quiet attitude; f) that both e and f ask for impor-tant modification of their teaching behavior and programs. These considerationsindicate that the teachers have reached at the end of the study a wide perceptionof the potential relevance of the connection between physical activities and ex-ecutive functions and of the need to joint these items in a common teaching pro-gram. They also converged on the consideration that appropriate scaffolding ofthe child must be placed on stage facilitate development of both physical com-petences and executive functions.

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366

7. Conclusions

Although several evidences indicate that body and physical activities are inti-mately linked to cognitive development, little space is given to physical activityin Italian kindergarten reflecting low knowledge and consideration by Italianteachers on the role of physical activity in child development (Tortella, Tessaro,Fumagalli, 2012). Drawing and creativity are relevant aspects of the teaching pro-grams and are considered activities fostering cognitive development. In terms ofmotor activities performed in Italian kindergartens, the focus is on fine motorskills and children are sedentary and their active time is much lower than recom-mended by the international health organisms and scientific associations (Tortel-la, Tessaro, Fumagalli, 2012).At the end of our experimental study with kindergarten of the Treviso area,

teacher perception of their mission concerning motor development of theirpupils had changed substantially. The teachers unanimously agreed on the needto modify their teaching behavior and programs in order to introduce momentsof physical activities in their daily programs. In addition, they also converged onthe consideration that appropriate scaffolding of the child must be placed onstage facilitate development of both physical competences and executive func-tions. This indicates that the teachers have reached at the end of this action-re-search study a wider perception of the potential relevance of the connection be-tween physical activities and executive functions and of the need to joint theseitems in a common teaching program. The statements made by the teachers during interviews, focus groups and an-

swering to questionnaires provide a new picture of their professional needs andhighlight their interest toward new and evidence-based methods for improvingthe development of motor competences and executive functions of their pupils.

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Activities in the zone of proximal development between the ... · Patrizia Tortella Centre for the study of child motor development, University of Verona - [email protected]