SOCIETAS PRO FAUNA ET FLORA FENNICA

ACTA BOTANICA FENNICA

98

Irmeli Vuorela: Human influence on the vegetation of Katinhanta hog, Vihti, S. Finland

HELSINKI- HELSINGFORS 1972

ACTA BOTANICA FENNICA

1-19 vide Acta Botanica Fennica 20-50.

20-49 vide Acta Botanica Fennica 50-82.

50. Bans Luthera Verbreitung und Okologie der hoheren Wasserpflanzen im Brack­wasser der Ekeniis-Gegend in Siidfinnland. 11. Spezietler Teil. 370 S. (1951).

51. M. R. Droop: On the ecology of Flagellates from some brackish and fresh water rockpools of Finland. 52 pp. (1953).

52. Bans Luthera Ober Vaucheria arrhyncha Beidinger und die Heterokonten-Ordnung Vaucheriales Bohlin. 24 S. (1953).

53. Ernst Bayrena Wasser- und Uferpflanzen aus dem Piiijiinne-Gebiet. 42 S. {1954). 54. Lars Fagerstroma Viixtgeografiska studier i Stromfors-Pyttis skiirgard i ostra

Nyland med specietlt beaktande av loviingarna, artantalet samt en del arters for­delning och invandring. 296 s. (1954).

55. Bans Luther1 Ober Krustenbewuchs an Steinen fliessender Gewiisser, speziell in Siidfinnland. 61 S. (1954).

56. Dmari Busticha Notes on the growth of Scotch Pine in Utsjok.i in northernmost Finland. 13 pp. (1956).

57. Benrik Skult: Skogsbotaniska studier i Skiirgardshavet med speciell hiinsyn till forhltllandena i Korpo utskiir. 244 s. (1956).

58. Roll Gronblad, Gerald A. Prowse and Arthur M. Scoua Sudanese Desmids. 82 pp. (1958).

59. Mu: von Schantza Ober das iitherische 01 beim Kalmus, Acorns calamus L. Phar­makognostische Untersuchung. 138 S. (1958).

60. Barald Lindberg: Viixter, kiiuda fran Nordeu, i Linnes herbarium. Plantae e septen­trione cognitae in herbario Linnaei. 133 pp. (1958).

61. Alvar Palmgrena Studier over havsstrandens vegetation och flora pa Aland. I. Vegetationen. 268 s. (1961).

62. Bans Luthera Veriinderungen in der Gelasspflanzenflora der Meeresfelsen von Tviir­minne. lOO S. (1961).

63. Roll Gronblada Sudanese Desmids 11. 19 pp. (1962). 64. Veikko Lappalainen1 The shore-line displacement on southern Lake Saimaa. 125 pp.

(1962). 65. J, J, Donnera The zoning of the Post-Glacial pollen diagrams in Finland and the

main changes in the forest composition. 40 pp. (1963). 66. Roll Gronblad, Arthur M. Scou and Bannah Croasdale: Desmids from Uganda

and Lake Victoria, collected by Dr. Edna M. Lind. 57 pp. (1964). 67. Car) Erie Soncka Die Getasspflanzenflora von Pielisjiirvi und Lieksa, Nordkarelien

311 s. (1964). 68. F. W. Klingstedta Ober Farbenreaktionen von Flechten der Gattung Usnea. 23 S.

(1965). 69. Arthur M. Seott, Roll Gronblad and Hannah Croasdalea Desmids from the Amazon

Basin, Brazil, collected by Dr. H. Sioli. 94 pp. (1965). 70. Teu"Yo Ahtia Parmelia olivacea and the allied non-isidiate and non-sorediate cor­

ticolous lichens in the Northern Hemisphere. 68 pp. (1966). 71. Simo Juvonena Ober die die Terpenbiosynthese beeinflmsenden Faktoren in

Pinus ailvealria L. 92 S. (1966). 72. Leena Biimet-Ahti: Some races of JuncJU aniculatus L. in Finland .. 22 pp. (1966). 73. Max "YOn Sehanbl und Simo Ju-yonena Chemotaxonomische Untersuchungen in

der Gattung Picea. 51 S. (1966). 74. llkka Kytovuori and Juha Suominena The flora of lkkalanniemi (commune of

Virrat, Central Finland), studied independently by two persona. 59 pp. (1967). 75. Leena Bilmet-Ahtia Tripleurospermum (Compositae) in the northern parts of

Scandinavia, Finland and Russia. 19 pp. (1967).

ACTA BOTANICA FE NICA 98 EDIDIT

SOCIETAS PRO FAUNA ET FLORA FENNICA

HUMAN INFLUENCE ON THE VEGETATION OF KATINHANTA BOG, VIHTI, S. FINLAND

IRMELI VUORELA

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY A ' D PALEONTOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI

HELSINKI - HELSI GFORS May 1972

ISDN 951-661-005-6

Abstract

IRMEr.r VUOREI.A (Dept. Geol. Paleontol., Univ. Helsinki): Human influence on the vegetation of Katinhanta bog, Vihti, S. Finland. -Acta Bot. Fennica 98: 1-21. 1972.

From slides previously used (VUOREI.A 1970) additional pollen counts were made to obtain 100 NAP per sample. Thus a detailed and reliable interpretation of the youngest parts of the pollen diagram from Katinhii.nnii.nsuo could be made.

On the basis of the settlement history of the area, the decisive influence of advanced agriculture on the pollen spectra may be estimated to have begun around A.D. 1700, corresponding to the 45 cm level in the peat samples taken.

The species encountered are divided into three groups according to the relationships between their pollen curves and that of Cerealia. In sub-zone 1Xb 28% of the NAP species are seen to profit from the rise of advanced agriculture, 22% are unaffected by the state of human activity and 50 % are forced into decline or total disappearance.

Where the trees are concerned, the early clearances can be seen to favour the deciduous species, chiefly at the expense of Picea, while a rapid increase in the conifers is observed in subzone IXb. In addition to climatic causes, this must be connected with the extension of the area under cultivation.

Author's address: Mrs. Irrneli Vuorela, M.A., Department of Geology and Paleontology, University of Helsinki, Snellmaninkatu 5, SF-00170 Helsinki, Finland.

Contents

I. Introduction . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . .. .. .. . . . . .. . . .. .. .. .. . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. . . . .. .. . . . . . . . .. . . . 3

II. History of settlement in the \ ihti area . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . .. 4

III. Vegetation history in recent times ........... .... ... .. . . ... .. .... . ................ ... ... 6

1. Forests . .. . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . 6

2. Indicators of advanced agriculture .. . . . . ........................ ... . ..... . .. . . . . .. 7

3. Negative indicators of advanced agriculture . .. ................. ......... ...... . 13

IV. Pollen diagram evidence for early agriculture . . . . . .. .. . . . .. .. . . .. . .. . . . . . .. . . .. .. . . . 14

V. Conclusions ........... . .. . ... ... .. .... ... ..... .. .. ... ............. ... . .... .... .. . .. . .. ...... ...... 18

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 9

I. Introduction

This study of Katinhanta bog, in Finnish Katinhannansuo, is intended to augment an earlier paper on the vegetational history of southern Finland (VuORELA 1970). In this present assessment the diagrams are based on a count of 100 grains of non-arboreal pollen (NAP) per sample, whereas the basis in the previous paper was 1000 arboreal pollen grains (AP) per sample, corresponding to 10-50 NAP grains. The counting of 100 NAP, involving some 2000-10000 AP, is intended to eliminate irregularities arising from the smallness of the basic NAP figure in the previous work, where the ratio of randomly occurring pollen grains tended to be exaggerated and rare pollen regular in occurrence remained undetected. The 100 NAP were counted from samples taken at intervals of 2 cm from 0 to 45 cm, of 4 cm from 45 to 140 cm and of 10 cm from 140 to 360 cm. As a result of this more accurate treat­ment the sub-zone IXa/IXb boundary,which is defined on the basis of cul­tural indicators, is placed at the 45 cm instead of the previous 40 cm level. Vill/IX boundary is on the bases of the Picea curve placed at the 305 cm instead of the previous 180 cm level.

Since pollen present in the peat samples may possibly have decayed as a result of oxidation during the intervening three years, the slides prepared for the previous paper were recounted here, even though this resulted in NAP figures of less than 100 for the 12 samples with lowest total pollen. Some decay has nevertheless been noted previously in pollen preparations (DONNER & VUORELA 1966), so that the amounts of certain pollens may have varied to some extent, especially amongst the dominant NAP groups, Cyperaceae and Gramineae. These slight variations, however, are of little practical significance here.

The principal aim here is to concentrate upon the culturally conditioned changes observable in the composition of the vegetation in zone IX and as far as possible to compare these with what is known of the settlement of the area in question during the historical era. The historical data are based chiefly upon the documents referred to by SOIKKELI (1929, 1932).

The grouping of non-arboreal pollen is based upon the reaction of the different pollen types to the development of agriculture and the increase in land under cultivation during the last 300 years. The group 'A' includes those pollen types whose occurrence is clearly concentrated to the sub-zone IXb and follows the Cerealia curve, this group approximately corresponds with

4 Irmeli Vuorela: Human influence on the vegetation of Katinhiinta bog

the concept of hemerophilous species in the terminology of LINKOLA (1916) see, however also ]ALAS (1955). The group 'B' is composed of those pollen types whose occurence is chiefly concentrated in zone IX as a whole, but is apparently unaffected by the marked intensification in human activity in sub-zone IXb (hemeradiaphores and mesohemerobes). The group 'C', primary and secondary hemerophobes, is formed by pollen types which appear from the diagrams to decrease with the rise in human activity. Since the criterion used is the behaviour of each pollen type at and after the subzone IXafiXb boundary, some species, which are generally regarded as cultural indicators, e.g. Urtica, Polygonum, Artemisia, Epilobium (Chamaenerion angustifolium) (FRIES 1961, 1963, Gonwm 1968, BERGLUND 1969) and even the Cannabaceae (Humulus and Cannabis) are included in group 'C'.

Some indication of earlier cultural periods (Bronze Age, Iron Age) are found in the diagram. The impact of human activity on the vegetation in Finland (V ASARI 1960, LAPPALAINEN 1960, 1965, ALHONEN 1965, 1970) is, however, extremely slight, especially in the first of these periods. An exa­mination of the pollen spectra of the Cerealia phases may lead to certain conclusions concerning the early cultural indicators in southern Finland, and may enable a comparison to be made with the pollen spectra from the cul­turally more advanced sub-zone IXb. The examination of the pollen diag­ram is confined to the homogeneous Sphagmtm stratum. The presence of Gra­mineae pollen associated with the natural development of the hydrosere adds to the difficulty of formulating comparative observations from the 360 cm level downwards.

The examination of trends in tree pollen (Betula, Pimts, Almts, Picea and Corylus) is concentrated upon those from which human influence in the area may be inferred most directly. The AP values presented in the diagram are based on the earlier pollen counts (VuoRELA 1970).

Acknowledgements The author records her gratitude to pro£. J. Donner for his invaluable suggestions

and prof. Y. Vasari for his criticism regarding the preparation of the manuscript. Thanks are also due to Mr. and :r.us. Malcolm Hicks for the translation.

Financial aid from the Finnish Cultural Foundation (Suomen Kulttuurirahasto) is gratefully acknowledged.

11. History of settlement in the Vihti area

Very little is known of the settlement of ihti during the Stone Age. The nature and e-'Ctent of settlement in the area may best be inferred from the history of its place-names. It is probable that the earliest inhabitants were of Lapp origin {SoiKKELI 1929). As a result of certain archeological discoveries (c. f. UOREW 1970:5) the boat-axe culture

ACTA BOTANICA FENNICA 98

• • §

El ~

D r---, j -- I 4 .... - , .._-__ - _.J

m 0

The bourdory of VIllage Ojokkolo

Cultivated area 1840

Cult ivoted area 1906

Cultivated area 1923 (odd.)

Cultivated area 1954 (odd.)

Burnt-over clearings 1773

Burnt-over morshlond 1906

Treeless bog 1773

Treeless bog 1925

Sample

5

FrG. 1. The extention since 1773 of cultivated area near Katinhannansuo, parish of Vihti {6697.38 x 526.12 on the Finnish topographical map, 1:20 000). The map is based on historical maps from the General Survey Archives.

is believed to have extended to the Vihti area. Since this culture spread to Finland from the southern shores of the Baltic (KlviKosKI 1961) where there is early evidence of the practise of agriculture (IvERSEN 1941, 1949), it is possible that this settlement brought with it the beginnings of farming.

By 1300 at the latest Vihti was a well developed parish (SOIKKELI 1929). Detailed local land records which have been preserved from the 16th century onwards show that Vihti was at that time an established agricultural area, for the conditions described in the 1500's must have required several centuries of continuous development. By the middle of that century the villages embraced three houses at Salrnenkyla situated about 2 km SE of Katinhiinniinsuo, 4 houses at iemenkyla (present Ojakkala) about 3 km SW of the sampling site and 7 houses at Tervalammenkyla a couple of kilometers further south. From the accompanying map (fig. 1) it can be seen that the fields attached to Salrnenkyla and Niemenkyla did not extend as far as the immediate surroundings of Katinhiinniinsuo until in the late 1700's. Occasional remote clearings might have been used by the village for farming, but the fields would be situated immediately adjacent to the village itself. The road which follows the shore of Lohjanselka and forms the western edge of the map was, according to SoiKKEU, already in existence. Katinhiinniinsuo was thus within the range of human influence, though the area itself was almost entirely forested at that time, which would have hindered the passage of cultural indicator pollen from the surroundings towards the sampling site.

The proportious of grain crops cultivated in the parish of Vihti in the middle of the 16th century were: Secale 45 %, H ordeum 45 %, with Avena and Pisum each 5% of the total yield (SOIKKELI 1929). Ht,mulus is known to have been cultivated for domestic use. There is no mention of Triticum at that time, nor has any record survived of the cultiva­tion of Cannabis. In the latter part of that century the yields of Secale exceeded those of Hordeum, the former establishing itself as the most common grain crop, so that while

6 Irmeli Vuorela: Human influence on the vegetation of Katinhanta bog

in 1558 they were harvested in the proportion 49:51, this had become 78:22 by 1594. This development is contemporary with that which took place in the parish of Nurmi­jarvi (TOMMILA 1958, SAI.MINEN 1958), in the same way that the corresponding later figures for the proportions of grain crops cultivated in Vihti follow those previously published for the parish of Nurmijiirvi (VUOREI.A 1970).

From the above description one may conclude that agriculture in the parish of Vihti was more progressive than that practised in the parish of Nurmijiirvi. Even though the farming of woodland clearings was practised as a separate means of livelihood up until the last century, the farmers had as their major occupation cattlerearing, which was well-developed by the 18th century, taking advantage of efforts at drainage and fertilization. The map shows clearly the increase in area under cultivation in the vicinity of Katinhiinniinsuo during recent centuries.

The Hyvinkiiii-Hanko railway line which passes through the area was completed and began operation in the year 1873.

The cultivated area immediately adjacent to the sampling site decreased in the 1940's, when Katinhiinniinsuo was taken over as a site for the peat industry, while the introduction of root crops in recent decades has further reduced the field area devoted to grain.

Ill. Vegetational history in historical times

l. Forests

At the beginning of sub-zone IXb the tree pollen diagram (fig. 3) shows certain features in common with a period encountered at a level140-220 cm which is later to be interpreted as an Iron Age clearance phase. The considerable though shortterm rise in the Betula and Alnus curves at the expense of Picea is one com­mon feature. From the map depicting the increase in area under cui ti vation (fig. 1) it may be seen that in the 18th century the forest to the west of the sampling site was cleared and _burned while permanent cultivation was established farther off. As the permanent fields were extended to include the rich land surrounding the mire, the proportion of deciduous trees decreased. Principally due to the disappearance of the rich, moist forests, but also partly for climatic reasons, the proportion of Qtlercetftm mixttt.m gradually dwindles to nothing. Specimens of Fraxinus and Corylus still found growing naturally in the parish of Vihti at the beginning of the present century (WECKSELL 1932) suggest that climatic factors are not the only reason for the disappearance of the components of the Quercett.m mixtum. This becomes obvious, too, when it is noted that the length of the growing season has hardly changed in recent centuries (KERANEN 1928, KOLKKI 1959).

The rise in the Pinus curve during the later half of Sub-Atlantic is partly the result of the cooler climate compared with that of earlier periods, a point which is evident from several Finnish and Swedish pollen diagrams (FRms 1951,

ACTA BOTANICA FENNICA 98 7

Cult iva t ed area ha Cereo lio %/NAP

X~

1900 X--X

c.1900

\ IX b

X

1800 I c.1800 X

ha 200 100 0 20 40 "'o

Frc. 2. Comparison between the extention of cultivated area near Katinhannansuo (according to the map, fig. 1) and the Cerealia pollen curve.

Do:t·mER 1963, TOLONEN 1967, SAARNISTO 1970). It is generally true, however, that Pinus, which commonly grows in barren areas, prospers comparatively well from forest clearance. The distinctiveness of the sub-zone IXb in the Pinus curve may be connected with the settlement of the district.

2. Indicators of Advanced Agriculture

A certain correspondence may be observed between the total Cerealia pollen curve and that representing the increase in area under cultivation in the vicinity of Katinhannansuo presented above (fig. 2). Since the latter is derived from the map in fig. 1 it bears a direct relationship to absolute time. Assuming the correspondence between the curves to be real, then the sub­zone boundary IXafiXb would be located around the year 1700 A.D. A uniform rate of accumulation is suggested by the extremely low degree of compression and humification of the homogeneous Sphagnum peat when examined macroscopically. Since the samples for the top 50 cm were horizontally cut from a vertical peat face, there is no danger that the peat could have been compressed during sampling. Although, for the reasons stated above, the dating of the Cerealia curve is no more than an approximation, one's attention is drawn by a decline in cereal pollen which may possibly correspond to the reduction in area under cultivation in the mid 1800's. In the same way there is a clear correlation between the two curves in the latter part of the same century. There is a noticeable decline in Cerealia pollen in the three samples taken from nearest to the surface. It can be seen from the map that the last recorded extension of the field area in the vicinity of the sampling site took place prior to 1923, since which time the industrial

#

8 Irmeli Vuorela: Human influence on the vegetation of Katinhantii bog

exploitation of the mire has reduced the level of agricultural activity in the surrounding fields. The majority of the forest cleared between 1923 and 1954 was situated to the south of the research area. The transport of pollen in a south-north direction is probably much more restricted than in the direction of the prevailing westerly winds.

Further research into the proportions of the individual cereal species represented has shown that Avena retains the dominant position which it occupied according to VuORELA 1970.

It is possible that the differing pollination mechanisms of the cereal species affect their probabilities of occurrence in pollen diagrams. Secale is apparently in the most advantageous position, for its habitual cross-pollination by wind enables a relatively large quantity of pollen to be released for transport {VALLE 1964). The almost overwhelming proportion of Secale in the results of FruEs (1961) from Aland may be the result of this effect. The reason for the low proportion of Secale in the layers from the 17th and 18th centuries in Katinhiinniinsuo may lie in the smallness of the cultivated field area.

After Secale the pollen dispersal process functions most efficiently in the cases of Avena and Triticum, which, although selfpollinated, also release pollen from open flowers in fine weather, whereas in the case of Hordeum self-pollination always occurs in closed flowers (V ALLE 1964). Pollen trap investigations carried out by the author (not yet published) suggest that the main pollen dispersal of Avena, Hordeum and Triticum will take place during the harvest and not during the blooming period.

Against this background it may be possible to account for the large pro­portion of A vena within the Cerealia pollen, especially from the 20 cm level upwards. This may be a reflection of the decisive increase in area under cultiva­tion, coupled with the rise in the proportion of Avena cultivated, which took place in the 19th century (ToMMILA 1958, SALMINEN 1958).

With the exception of one isolated case, the occurrence of Triticum~ pollen is confined to the upper part of sub-zone IXb. Triticztm, which failed to appear at all when the samples were counted to a base of 1000 AP, now occurs in a clearly defined manner.

Hordeum is known to have been cultivated in the 16th and 17th centuries. The species is most abundant in the early part of the Cerealia pollen curve. Its subsequent decline in favour of first Secale and later Avena is consistent with the history of the cereal species as set out earlier (c.£. VuORELA 1970:7).

An analysis of the Iron Age and pre-Iron Age Cerealia phases will be under­taken later in connection with early culture.

It appears from the pollen diagrams that Elytrigia (Agropyr01l) repens became widespread at the same period in the middle of sub-zone IXb when a substantial increase in Cerealia pollen may be noted. The species is held

ACTA BOTAJ.'ITCA FENNICA 98 9

to be a weed typical of developing agriculture. Although Elytrigia repens is by no means unknown from the prehistoric era (BERGGREN 1956, HIITONEN in ]ALAS 1958b, TuJULIN 1966), its spread has been very rapid in the historical period. Its grains are known to have been used in Sweden and Fin­land in the 18th century and even later to eke out the supply of bread flour. Nowadays it is one of the most common weeds of agriculture.

The Cruciferae species similarly form part of the natural vegetation of fields. There is a clear concentration of such pollen in sub-zone I Xb.

The Labiatae include many common weed species. The appearance of Labiatae pollen is confined to the upper portion of the diagram, a fact which strengthens one's impression of some connection with the increase in area under cultivation. A further investigation (still proceeding) into the recent pollen rain of the agricultural areas immediately bordering on Katinhannansuo and of their surroundings indicates a large proportion of Labiatae pollen.

Centaurea cyanus occurs only in sub-zone IXb of the Katinhannansuo diagrams. The species is known to have come to Finland with the introduction of Secale (]ALAS 1958a) and to have declined in recent times with the decline in importance of the cereal. It is interesting to note that Centaurea cyanus pollen occurs at almost exactly the same levels as the Secale pollen.

Of Succisa pratensis only one pollen grain was found. According to the observations of LINKOLA (1916) the species can be regarded as a cultural indicator.

The Chenopodiaceae pollen very clearly follows the development of agri­culture. The importance of counting a large sample of pollen grains becomes evident when one compares the present results with those obtained on the basis of 1000 AP (VuoRELA 1970). In the latter case it did not seem possible from the pollen curve to consider the Chenopodiaceae as indicative of agri­culture, even though the occurrence of this pollen reached its maximum relative density in sub-zone IXb. From the present results this feature is indisputable. Chenopodiaceae pollen appears at the same time as Cerealia pollen almost without exception, so that their pollen curves are practically identical. The same pattern may be seen in many pollen diagrams for agri­cultural phases, e.g. the work of FRIEs (1958) from southern Sweden.

Exactly the same may be said of the Rumex acetosella pollen curve. In addition to its significance for early culture to be discussed later, the develop­ment of agriculture in the research area during the historical period is reflected very clearly in the form of this pollen curve in sub-zone IXb. The tendency of this species to follow agriculture has been mentioned by e.g. J ALAS (1958a, 1965), NILSSON (196/ib) and VASARI & VASARI (1968). It may be that the extension of hay production has led to an increase in the proportion of Rumex acetosella, while the species remains extremely common as a weed in moist

10 Irmeli Vuorela: Human influence on the vegetation of Katinhii.nta bog

soils and peats, e.g. Katinhiinniinsuo and its environs, to the present day (MUKULA 1964).

Compositae pollen is regarded as closely associated with regions under human influence. Several scholars have reached this conclusion, among them I VERSEN (1949) in Denmark, FRIES (1961) in Aland and GoDVliN (1948, 1968) in England. In the present work the Compositae are grouped into tubuliflorae and liguliflorae. The former group may be seen to profit from developing agriculture. It includes many species which occur in Finland as weeds, such as Cirsium arvense, Tussilago farfara and also Chrysanthemum and Achillea species which are found in abundance in areas of human interference. The group is represented in sub-zone IXb principally by Achillea and secondly by Cirsium-type pollen (ERDTMAN et al. 1961). ]ALAS (1958a) observes that Achillea ptarmica has increased at a phenomenal rate during the period of more advanced agriculture.

The correspondence between the pollen curve for wild Gramineae and that for the cultivated Cerealia indicates clearly that in the conditions pre­vailing in southern Finland agriculture has the effect of increasing the pro­portion of Gramineae. In subzone IXb Gramineae constitute an average of 50 % of the total herbaceous pollen, while the corresponding figure for Cerealia is 20 % -There was a gradual increase in the proportion of Gramineae in earlier centuries after its average of 25 % in the first Cerealia phases. The recent decline in agriculture in the western part of Katinhiinniinsuo, however, is reflected in a sharp fall in the Gramineae curve at the 6-0 cm levels. The rise in the Gramineae curve in connection with Cerealia phases noted here is repeated almost without exception in dia..,orams depicting cultural inter­ference. Those of M-B. Fr.oRIN (1957), NILSSOX (1964b) and BERGLUND (1966, 1969) from southern Sweden, FRIES (1969) from central Sweden and the same author (1961, 1963) from Aland may be mentioned as examples of this.

The emergence of cattle-rearing may indirectly affect the proportion of Gramineae pollen through the cultivation of hay crops. Although the cattle which grazed in the forests in early cultural periods served to maintain the lushness of the lower vegetation and influenced the growth of the trees (HEI­KINHEIMO 1915), Gramineae cannot be regarded as reflecting the grazing of cattle under Finnish conditions in the same sense as it is shown to do in England (SMITH & WILLIS 1961), for example.

Pollen from group B is similarly concentrated in zone IX, but cannot be deemed to profit from the development of agriculture. On the contrary, many species or genera show a decrease in actual quantity of pollen grains in sub­zone IXb, though because of the large numbers of grains counted their occurrence is comparatively uninterrupted.

In this group appear pollen types whose introduction in Finland is connected

ACTA BOTANICA FENNICA 98 11

with the presence of man, e.g. Plantago lanceolata and Plantago maior (]ALAS

1958a). An increase in Plantago lanceolata pollen appears in connection with the Cerealia phase that dates from the Iron Age. Since that Plantago lanceolata has appeared in the local flora continuously, although it has occu­pied no more than a very modest position amongst the herbaceous plants. Plantago major may be considered with equal certainty to be associated with human activity. Since the species is by nature a garden rather than a field weed, the reason for the scarcity of its pollen in the diagram may be seen to lie in the almost total absence of dwellings in the region of Katin­hannansuo. The fields which border on the mire are chiefly cultivated from farms situated further away. The houses built in the 19th and 20th centuries to the north of the mire may be the reason for the greater frequency of Plantago major pollen in sub-zone IXb.

The family Caryophyllaceae includes many weed species (e.g. Stellaria media). These pollen types are not, however, seen to increase in frequency with the extension of the area under cultivation.

Similarly the numbers of pollen grains of Galium, Umbelliferae and Compo­sitae liguliflorae are greatest in the later half of zone IX. Umbelliferae species are particularly common on land left fallow and around dwellings. In view of the high standard of agriculture in Vihti it is obvious that the use of fertilizers has meant that since the 1700's no fields have been left fallow. This is a probable reason for the decrease in Umbelliferae pollen on the sub-zone IXa/IXb boundary.

There are fewer weeds among the Compositae liguflorae than among the tubuliflorae. This fact is reflected in the pollen diagrams. While the liguli­florae pollen is also concentrated at those levels where other indicators of settlement may be obser;ed, the development of agriculture does not lead to any increase in quantity.

3. egative indicator of advanced agriculture

It is possible from the pollen diagrams to establish a group of species or genera whose numbers are substantially reduced in areas given over to agri­culture (primary and secondary hemerophobes in the terminology of LINKOLA

1916). Many of the species can be seen to form part of the vegetation associated with early culture or to appear during those periods of time when, due to the low level or absence of human activity, the flora could be considered entirely natural in character. On the sub-zone IXa/IXb boundary one finds a distinct reduction in quantity or even a complete disappearance, of the pollen of these species, obviously connected with the rapid rise and advancement of agri­culture in the vicinity of Katinhannansuo.

.. .. KATINHANNANSUO

% /1000AP PERCENTAGES OF a

"' ., :e b'

., "' ~ ..... ~ ~:ri ~ "' nsg>~9 :0 b' G'> .. ~- " ;;- "- "< ~2: - ftA

c ~ c c ~ .. i az, ~~ 2 :;: ~ 3

0 "' "' c " "'~a "' :0: !1" g· 6 "8 jj" "' 3 3 0 a2; -s !e. ,. .. " " :0 .. . j z i ,. 0~ Q.; n 0 .. .. .. .:! -- i~JU .g ~ ~ 0 ... a ., ~ c g. a~ ~ ~ ~. ~ 0 ~ "8 " a "' ..

if 2.

" ~ ;;;

~ 8 .. FIG. 3. Katinhiinniinsuo: pollen diagram. The dark zone in the stratigraphy column at

the left is dated t o 1650 ± 140 B. P. Hel-253.

Filipendula-t ype Rosaceae pollen constitutes an intermediate stage between the hemerophiles and hemeradiaphores mentioned above and the local hemero­phobes. Its pollen occurrences in sub-zone IXb are, with the exception of the surface layers which were laid down in more unusual circumstances, entirely comparable to those in preceeding zones. The true maximum for Filipendula is situated quite distinctly in the strata which dates from the Iron Age. Filipendula may be regarded as an indicator of the presence of man {LINKOLA

1916, } ALAS 1958a, SJORS 1967). LINKOLA divides the apophytes into four groups according to the extent to which their distribution and abundance

M n il " ~ [ 8 ~ "

b

TOTAL NAP EXCL. ERICALES

' ~ I •• ~ I I

I V I I I> '

'

1 1

I . '

I I

I I

l..J...LL..J w LJ LJ LJ LJ LJ LJ LJ LJ LJ LJ LJ LJ LJ LJ

165CH 140 aP. Het-253

may differ from those prevailing under natural conditions. Filipendula be­longs to the fourth group: those which profit least from human influence.

Cyperaceae, Artemisia, Ranunculaceae, Rosaceae (excl. Filipmdula-type), Salix and Rumex acetosa pollen all react in an identical manner towards the rise of agriculture; a very clear fall may be observed in their pollen curves on the sub-zone IXa/IXb boundary. The same trend prevails consistently up to the surface strata. Although there is a clear fall in relative pollen, ad­vanced agricultural methods contribute to the occurrence in absolute terms of Artemisia and Ranunculaceae as weed species (cf. VuoRELA 1970).

H. Irmeli Vuorela: Human influence on the vegetation of Katinhantii bog

The ditching and draining of the mire may be a contributory factor in the decline in Cyperaceae pollen. The corresponding increase in Ericales pollen supports this assumption. The Cyperaceae peak found at the 80 cm level is due to the presence of a stamen or part of a stamen in the sample.

An analysis of the pollen occurrences of the species and genera of group C which have not been discussed and which are not found in sub-zone IXb

will be presented later during the examination of the early and pre-historic phases.

IV. Pollen diagram evidence for early agriculture

The evidence for early agriculture in North-West European pollen diagrams

is often distinct and allows a comparatively specific interpretation (IVERSEN 1941, 1949, M-B. FLoRIN 1957, MoRRISON 1959, S. Fr.ORDr 1961, PENNINGTON

1963, NrCHOLS 1967, GODWIN 1968, MOORE 1968, BERGLUND 1969, DAN"IELSEN 1970, HICKs 1971). Such clearly visible changes presuppose a comparatively intensive settlement and a forest cover which will not with its greater capacity

for pollen production obscure from the diagrams any variations in the herbaceous vegetation. Fraxinus, Quercus, Ulmus and Tilia which form an essential part of mixed oak forests belong to moderate pollen contributors (group B) according to FAEGRI-lVERSEN 1964.

On the other hand the weak reflection of human influence in Finnish pollen diagrams (LAPPALAINEN 1960, VASARI 1960, ALHoNE~ 1965, 1970, VuoRELA 1970), e.g. compared with those produced in Denmark, may be due to a large

extent to the gross over-representation in the diagrams of the closed, heavily pollinating forest (Pinus, Betula and Alnt~s appear in the group A of FAEGRI­IVERSEN 1964). Compared with North-West European results, the evidence for early cultural phases in Katinhannansuo, which leans heavily on the occurrences of Cerealia pollen, is vague and demands the support of a certain amount of subjective speculation.

Although it is possible that the earliest Cerealia occurrences in the present diagram, situated at the levels of 340--350 cm and 310 cm may belong to the Bronze Age cultural period, one must, in the absence of 14C datings, remain content with a discussion of these as cultural phases in general and an examination of the features that these have in common with the phase

found at the 140-220 cm level. This latter cultural period, dated at the level of 176-184 cm to 1650 ± 140 B. P. is the most clearly distinguishable and corresponds to the Iron Age strata.

As far as tree pollen is concerned, a clear decline in conifers, especially Picea, with a corresponding increase in the proportion of Betula and Alnus

ACTA BOTANICA FENNICA 98 15

is observable during the Cerealia phases. Corylus can be seen to decline at the same periods and increase again, in accordance with its 'pioneer spirit' (e.g. lVERSEN 1949, 1960, BERGLUND 1966, 1969) in the intervening phases.

HEIKINHEIMO (1915) considers this entirely typical of conditions on Finnish burned clearings. Since the clearings were made firstly in the rich moist forests and secondly in the wild marshlands, it was mostly deciduous trees and Picea which came under the axe (AHTr & HAMET-AHTI 1971). The felling and burning of trees was repeated every 20-30 years in the same area. The type and composition of the regenerated forest depended on several factors, among them the species which constituted the forest surrounding the clearing and their capacity for producing and dispersing seeds, the trees' toleration of a substrate containing wood-ash, the type and age of the trees felled, the degree to which the soil was tilled etc. Spruce was in the least advantageous position according to HEIKINHEIMO (1915) and KUJALA in }ALAS 1958b, for Picea tends to avoid soils containing ash, and because of its poor self­seeding properties would need more than 30 years to form a homogenous forest of young trees, during which time Betula, Alnus and Salix could have established healthy stands over the area from suckers or seeds. Pine is slower than the deciduous trees, also taking 20-30 years to form an even cover of young trees. The clearings were often used for pasturing cattle, a further factor which led to the destruction of young conifers and favoured deciduous species. The high preponderance of Alnus and Betula and the decline of Picea during the Cerealia phases in the diagram, especially at the 140-220 cm levels might be presumed to indicate frequently recurring periods of forest clearance. The simultaneous intensification of Salix stands is similarly considered by HEr­KINHEIMO to be closely connected with clearance conditions. The rapid growth rate of willows means that a clearing abandoned after cultivation could soon be heavily overgrown with bushes. On the other hand the pollen of juniper, which M.-B. FLoRIN (1957) and FRIEs (1961, 1963), for example, consider as an early cultural indicator, and which species HEIKINHEIMO (1915) includes among those typical of early clearances, are absent from Katinhannansuo. No definite conclusions may be drawn, however, from the absence of this species since its pollen is especially difficult to recognise. Should reforestation proceed undisturbed, birch, owing to its short life-span and its biological weakness, gives way either to spruce or to pine depending upon soil quality (SARVAS 1938).

The behaviour of the trees in the main clearance phase is compared in fig. 4 with that observed in sub-zone IXb which represents the rise of advanced agriculture. The various tree species can be seen to react in an entirely opposing manner in the early clearance with their associated pasturing of cattle, from that observed on the establishment of permanent fields in the area. The

16 Irmeli Vuorela: Human influence on the vegetation of Katinhanta bog

20 40 60"/o I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

~~ ~ -- ~ 20 ~r...~--.., IX b

B 30 ~-;;f -40 '£' /;!. ~ c.1700 A.D. 50 /~ IXa

130,~

140\~ ~0 150 ~\ \

160 li j I I I

A~;~ t /__o-I, I

190 \ 7 200 li 0\ 210 ~~ /0 220 ' 40

1650 ± 140 B.P.

o-o-o

Pie eo /1000AP

Betu la lndic. of ogriculture/100 NAP

FIG. 4. Arboreal pollen reaction to A: clearing of woods and B: permanent fields.

favourable effect of the early clearances on the deciduous trees is clearly visible here. It is scarcely possible to suggest a change in the mutual proportions of representation of the various trees arising from climatic causes, for the steep fall and subsequent recovery of the Picea curve between the 140 cm and 220 cm levels could not correspond to a natural development (cf. DoN­

NER 1963). The phase is also evidently too extensive in time to be the out­come of a natural forest fire. The settlement history of Vihti (SOIXKELI 1929) shows us that agriculture was the principal source of livelihood in the parish even in the Iron Age. Thus it is historically possible that the phase in question is a reflection in the pollen diagram of such an agricultural period. On examina­tion of the pollen of herbaceous plants one's attention is drawn to the very modest reflection of this early cultural period in the AP/ AP ratio. The NAP total, which reaches its maximum of 4 % of the total pollen during the Cerealia phase would recuire the counting of a very large number of grains before any definite conclusions could be drawn concerning individual species.

In addition to the agricultural phase mentioned above the occurrence of Cerealia pollen may be grouped into three phases: 220---250 cm, 310 cm and 340---350 cm. Avena pollen is present in all these phases, Hordeum in the earliest and the latest. H ordet{m is known to have been the most common

ACTA BOTANICA FENNICA 98 17

of the grain species in the Stone Age (HJELMQVIST 1955), while, according to the same source, the cultivation of Avena in Southern Sweden began in the Bronze Age. Since Secale was only introduced to Finland in the Iron Age (FRms 1961, VALLE 1964) the Secale grain found at the 310 cm level must be either a case of misidentification or of contamination.

The Cannabaceae-type pollen found chiefly in the sub-zone IXa is pro­bably that of Humulus. This species is known to have existed in Finland since the very earliest times (SoiKKELI 1929, }ALAS 1965). The first pollen analytical records of the type from the different Scandinavian countries are relatively synchronous. Cannabaceae-type pollen (identified as Humulus pollen) has been found in southern Norway dating from the time of the birth of Christ (DANIELSEN 1970), in eastern Sweden from 150 A.D. and in SW Sweden from 400 A.D. (Fru:Es 1962). It was even obligatory to cultivate hops at various times during the Middle Ages (KAux:ovALTA 1931). It was still found to a greatly reduced extent up till the end of the last century (HJELT 1902), after which time the few stands found are in most cases earlier cultivated ones which have been allowed to run wild. Hemp was still grown throughout Finland at the beginning of the last century, but by the end of that century this had almost entirely ceased in S and SW Finland (HJELT 1902) . By reference to the agricultural history of Vihti mentioned above it is possible to suggest that the Cannabaceae pollen grains found in sub-zone IXa are occurrences of cultivated or wild Humulus rather than of Cannabis.

Also of interest is the clear presence of Chenopodiaceae, Rumex acetosella, R. acetosa and Rosaceae pollen on the 140-220 cm level. A comparatively large number of scattered occurrences of the same pollen types are found at lower levels probably connected with human activity, though this is difficult to prove. Such a connection is often clearly discernible in the case of these pollen types. Chenopodiaceae species, which were associated with Stone Age settlements, are found in abundance in central Sweden, for example (HJELMQVIST 1955, BERGGREN 1956). }ALAS (1958) and SAARISALO-TAUBERT (1963) similarly demonstrate the connection between Stone Age settlement in southern Finland and the occurrence of the Chenopodium and Rumex. Underground parts of Rumex acetosella are known to live through forest fires, a property which would have increased its capacity for survival during the clearing and burning phases (WARMING 1914). In the description of the flora of individual recently-abandoned burned clearings by WAINIO (1878) Rumex acetosella appears in first place in the quantitative lists in almost every case.

Rumex acetosa also shows up in the diagrams as a species which thrived on early agriculture. This may also be said of Urtica, Polygonum, Sedum, Thalictrum and Epilobit~m (probably Chamaenerion angustifolium), though

18 Irmeli Vuorela: Human influence on the vegetation of Katinhanta bog

such a hemerophilous group appea~s to decline at the onset of advanced agriculture (secondary hemerophobes, LD."1WLA 1916). This preference for the conditions prevailing in the early agricultural phases has previously been noted by LINKOLA (1916), BERGGREN (1956) and SAARISALO-TAUBERT (1963).

Within the group C, Pyrola uni jlora, Drosera, Valeriana, Campanula, Parnassia pahtstris and ConHts suecica may be regarded as plants which were originally native to the area but which have been later destroyed.

V. Conclusions

The above discussion is based on those changes in vegetation observable during historical time which are reflected in the pollen diagrams. By reference to the settlement history of the area it is possible to estimate the decisive effect of advanced agriculture upon the pollen spectra as beginning around A.D. 1700. This point is situated at the 45 cm level in the diagrams.

The species are classified according to the relationship between their curves and that of Cerealia, which follows most closely the development of agri­culture.

The following are seen to profit from the rise of advanced agriculture (group A): Gramineae, Elytrigia (Agropyron) repens, Cruciferae, Chenopodia­ceae, Compositae tubuliflorae, Centaurea cyamts, Labiateae, Ru.mex acetosella and Succisa pratensis.

Those which profit from the presence of man while remaining indifferent to the state of development of his culture (group B) are the Compositae liguli­florae, Caryophyllaceae, Plantago lanceolata, P. major, Galium, Rwnuu; acetosa and Umbelliferae pollen groups.

The group C consists of those pollen types whose occurrences are con­centrated in the strata representing early human interference and whose proportion of the total herbaceous pollen falls dramatically with the rise of human activity. There are Cyperaceae, Artemisia, Cannabaceae, Epilobiwm (probably Chamaenerion angustijolium), Ranunculaceae, Urtica, Polygonwm, Sed·um, Thalictntm and Lycopodiwm selago some of which are mentioned in some connections as early cultural indicators (LINKOLA 1916, HJELMQVIST 1955, SAARISALO-TAUBERT 1963) plus some which have subsequently dis­appeared from their natural habitats due to the agency of man (hemero­phobes): Pyrola ~mijlora, Drosera, Valeriana, Campamtla, Pamassia palustris and Con~us suecica.

KALLIOLA (1961) states that 42 % of the Finnish flora reacts favourably to human interference. Of the present material 2 % of the non-arboreal species profit considerably from human activity, 50 % if group B is included.

ACTA BOTAKICA FE:l\TNICA 98 19

Where the tree species are concerned one may compare the sequence of Iron Age clearances with the changes in the proportions of the various species, those occurring as a result of the clearing of fields which has taken place in recent centuries. The deciduous trees can be seen to have profited most from the early clearances, mostly at the expense of Picea, while in sub-zone IXb a sharp increase in conifers can be observed. This latter effect may be partially accounted for by climatic conditions, although the principal factor must be the change in human activity.

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