Acid Gas Injection

7/29/2019 Acid Gas Injection

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ContentsPrefaceAcknowledgementChapter 1 Introduction

1.1

1.21.3

1.4

1.51.6

1.71.8

1.9References

Acid G as1.1.1 Hy drogen Sulfide1.1.2 Carbon DioxideAnthropogenic CO,Flue Gas1.3.1 Sulfur Oxides1.3.2 Nitrogen OxidesStand ard Volumes1.4.1 Gas Volumes1.4.2 Liquid VolumesSulfur EquivalentSweetening Natural Gas1.6.1 Com bustion Process G as

1.6.1.1 Post-Combustion1.6.1.2 Pre-CombustionAcid Gas InjectionW ho U ses Acid G as Injection?1.8.1 W estern Ca nada1.8.2 United States1.8.3 Other Locations1.8.4 CO, FloodingIn Summary

Append ix 1A Ox ides of NitrogenAppendix 1B Oxides of Sulfurvii

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viii CONTENTSChapter 2 Hydrogen Sulfide and Carbon Dioxid e2.1 Properties of Carbon Dioxide

2.2 Properties of Hydrogen Sulfide2.3 Estimation Techniques for PhysicalProperties2.3.1 Thermodynamic Properties2.3.1.1 Ideal Gas2.3.1.2 Real Gas

Densities2.3.2.1 Liquids2.3.2.2 Corresponding States

2.3.2 Saturated Liquid and Vapor

2.3.3 Thermodynamic Properties2.3.4 Transport Properties2.3.4.1 Low Pressure Gas2.3.4.2 Gases Under Pressure2.3.4.3 Liquids2.3.5 Viscosity Charts2.4 Properties of Acid Gas Mixtures

2.4.1 Thermodynamic Properties2.4.2 Transport Properties2.4.3 Word of Caution

2.5 Effect of Hydrocarbons2.5.1 Density2.5.2 Viscosity

2.4.1.1 Corresponding States

2.6 InSummaryReferencesAppendix 2A Transport Properties of Pure Hydrogen

Sulfide2A.1 Viscosity2A.1.1 Liquid2.A.1.2 Vapor2A.2 Thermal Conductivity

ReferencesAppendix 2B Viscosity of Acid Gas Mixtures2B.1.1 Correcting for High Pressure

2B.1.2 Carbon Dioxide28.1.3 Generalization

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CONTENTS x2B.1.4 Mixtures2B.1.5 Final Comments

ReferencesAppendix 2C Equations of Stat?2C.l.l Soave-Redlich-Kwong Equation

of State2C.1.2 Peng-Robinson Equation of State2C.1.3 The Patel-Teja Equation of State

Chapter 3 Non-Aqueous Phase Equilibrium3.1 Overview3.2 Pressure-Temperature Diagrams

3.2.1 Pure Components3.2.2 Mixtures3.2.3 Binary Critical Points3.2.4 Effect of Hydrocarbons

3.2.4.1 Methane3.2.4.2 Ethane and Propane3.2.4.3 Butane and Heavier3.2.4.4 In Summary

3.3 Calculation of Phase Equilibrium3.3.1 Equations of State3.3.2 K-Factor Charts

3.4 InsummaryReferencesAppendix 3A Some Additional Phase Equilibrium

Calculations3A.l.l Hydrogen Sulfide+Hydrocarbons3A.1.2 Carbon Dioxide +Hydrocarbons3A.1.3 Multicomponent Mixtures

ReferencesAppendix 3B Accuracy of Equations of State for

VLE in Acid Gas MixturesReferencesChapter 4 Fluid Phase Equilibria Involving Water

4.1 Water Content of Hydrocarbon Gas4.2 Water Content of Acid Gas

4.2.1 Carbon Dioxide4.2.2 Hydrogen Sulfide

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x CONTENTS4.2.3 Practical Representation

4.2.3.1 In Summary4.3 Estimation Techniques4.3.1 Simple Methods

4.3.1.1 Ideal Model4.3.1.2 McKetta-Wehe Chart4.3.1.3 Maddox Correction4.3.1.4 Wichert Correction4.3.1.5 Alami et al.

4.3.2 Advanced Methods4.3.2.1 AQUAlibrium4.3.2.2 Other Software

4.4 Acid Gas Solubility4.4.1 Henrys Law4.4.2 Solubility in Brine

4.4.2.1 Carbon Dioxide in NaCl4.4.2.2 Hydrogen Sulfide in NaCl4.4.2.3 Mixtures of Gases4.4.2.4 Effect of pH

4.5 InSummaryReferencesAppendix 4A Compilation of the Experimental

Data for the Water Content of Acid GasReferencesAppendix 4B Comments on the Work of Selleck et al.Appendix 4C Density of Brine (NaC1) SolutionsChapter 5 Hydrates

5.1 Introduction to Hydrates5.2 Hydrates of Acid Gases5.3 Estimation of Hydrate Forming Conditions

5.3.1 Shortcut Methods5.3.2 Rigorous Methods

5.4 Mitigation of Hydrate Formation5.4.1 Inhibition with Methanol5.4.2 Water-Reduced Cases

5.4.2.1 Carbon Dioxide5.4.2.2 Dehydration

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CONTENTS i5.4.2.3 To Dehydrate or Not to

Dehydrate? -That is theQuestion!5.4.3 Application of Heat

5.4.3.1 Line Heaters5.4.3.2 Heat Tracing5.4.3.3 Final Comment

5.5 Excess Water5.6 Hydrates and AGI5.7 InsummaryReferences

Chapter 6 Compression6.1 Overview6.2 Theoretical Considerations6.3 Compressor Design and Operation6.4 Design Calculations6.4.1 Compression Ratio

6.4.2 Ideal Gas6.4.3 Efficiency6.4.4 Ratio of the Heat Capacities

6.5 Interstage Coolers6.5.1 Design6.5.2 Pressure Drop6.5.3 Phase Equilibrium6.6.1 Additional Cooling

6.6 Compression and Water Knockout6.7 Materials of construction6.8 Advanced design

6.8.1 Cascade6.8.2 CO, Slip6.9.1 Wayne-Rosedale6.9.2 Acheson6.9.3 West Pembina

6.9 Case studies

6.10 In SummaryReferencesAppendix 6A Additional Calculations

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xii CONTENTSChapter 7 Dehydration of Acid Gas

7.1 Glycol Dehydration7.1.1 Acid Gas Solubility7.1.2 Desiccant

7.2 Molecular Sieves7.2.1 Acid Gas Adsorption

7.3 Refrigeration7.3.1 Selection of Inhibitor

7.4 Case Studies7.4.1 CO, Dehydration7.4.2 Acid Gas Dehydration

7.4.2.1 Wayne-Rosedale7.4.2.2 Acheson

7.5 InsummaryReferences

Chapter 8 Pipeline8.1 Pressure Drop8.1.1 Single Phase Flow

8.1.1.1 Friction Factor8.1.1.2 Additional Comments

8.1.2 Two-Phase Flow8.1.3 Transitional Flow8.2.1 Carroll's Method

8.2 Temperature Loss8.3 Guidelines8.4 Metering8.5 Other Considerations8.6 InSummary

ReferencesAppendix 8A Sample Pipeline Temperature Loss

Calculation8A.1 AQUAlibrium 3.0

8 A . l . l Acid Gas Properties8A.1.1.1 Conditions

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8A.1.1.2 Component Fractions 2128A.1.1.3 Phase properties 2128A.1.1.4 Warnings 212


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CONTENTSxiiiChapter 9 Injection Profiles

9.1.1 Gases9.1 Calculation of Injection Profiles

9.1.1.1 Ideal Gas9.1.1.2 Real Gas9.1.2 Liquids9.1.3 Supercritical Fluids9.1.4 Friction9.1.5 AGIProfile9.2 Effect of Hydrocarbons9.3 Case Studies9.3.1 Chevron Injection Wells

9.3.1.1 West Pembina9.3.1.2 Acheson9.3.2 Anderson Puskwaskau

9.4 Other Software9.5 InsummaryReferences

Appendix 9A Additional ExamplesChapter 10 Selection of Disposal Zone

10.1 Containment10.1.1 Reservoir Capacity10.1.2 Caprock10.1.3 Other Wells10.2.1 Liquid Phase10.2.2 Gas Injection10.2.3 Fracturing10.2.4 Horizontal Wells

10.2 Injectivity

10.3 Interactions With Acid Gas10.4 In Summary

ReferencesChapter 11 Health, Safety and The Environment

11.1 Hydrogen Sulfide11.1.1 Physiological Properties11.1.2 Regulations11.1.3 Other Considerations

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xiv CONTENTS11.2 Carbon Dioxide11.2.1 Physiological Properties

11.2.2 Climate Change11.2.3 Other Considerations11.3.1 Accidental Releases11.3.2 Planning Zones11.3.3 Other Considerations

11.3.3.1 Sour vs. Acid Gas11.3.3.2 Wind11.3.3.3 Carbon Dioxide11.3.3.4 Sensitive Areas

11.3 Emergency Planning

ReferencesChapter 12 Capital Costs12.1 Compression12.1.1 Reciprocating Compressor

12.1.2 Centrifugal12.2 Pipeline12.3 Wells12.4 In SummaryReferencesChapter 13 Additional Topics

13.1 Rules of Thumb13.1.1 Physical Properties13.1.2 Water Content13.1.3 Hydrates13.1.4 Compression13.1.5 Pipelines13.1.6 Reservoir13.2.1 Pressure-Temperature13.2.2 Water Content13.2.3 Operation13.2.4 Summary

13.3 The Three Types of Gas13.3.1 Example Gases

13.2 Graphical Summary

Index

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Acid Gas Injection