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INFORMATION GUIDE STATEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iBFI NATIONAL LIBRARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iiACCESSING RESEARCH MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iiiAPPROACHES TO RESEARCH, by Samantha Bakhurst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iv

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

GENERAL REFENCES

BOOKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2JOURNAL ARTICLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3PRESS ARTICLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

CASE STUDIES

TRAINSPOTTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8FOUR WEDDINGS AND A FUNERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9THE BLAIR WITCH PROJECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9STAR WARS EPISODE 1 THE PHANTOM MENACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10TITANIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

WEBSITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13GLOSSARY OF TERMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Compiled by: Tess ForbesMatt Ker

Sean Delaney

Design/Layout: Ian O’Sullivan

Project Manager: David Sharp

© 2000 BFI National Library, 21 Stephen Street, London W1T 1LN

16 + Source Guide

BFI National Library i

16+ MEDIA STUDIES

INFORMATION GUIDE STATEMENT

“Candidates should note that examiners have copiesof this guide and will not give credit for mere reproduction of the information it contains. Candidates are reminded that all research

sources must be credited”.

BFI National Library

All the materials referred to in this guide are available for consultation at the BFI National Library.If you wish to visit the reading room of the library and do not already hold membership, you willneed to take out a one-day, five-day or annual pass. Full details of access to the library andcharges can be found at:

www.bfi.org.uk/filmtvinfo/library

BFI National Library Reading Room Opening Hours:

Monday10.30am - 5.30pmTuesday10.30am - 8.00pmWednesday 1.00pm - 8.00pmThursday10.30am - 8.00pmFriday10.30am - 5.30pm

If you are visiting the library from a distance or are planning to visit as a group, it is advisable tocontact the Reading Room librarian in advance (tel. 020 7957 4824, or email [email protected]).

BFI National Library British Film Institute21 Stephen StreetLondon W1T 1LNTel. 020 7255 1444

www.bfi.org.uk/filmtvinfo/library

The library’s nearest underground stations are Tottenham Court Road and Goodge Street. For amap of the area please see:

www.bfi.org.uk/filmtvinfo/library/visiting

BFI National Library ii

Accessing Research Materials

Copies of articles

If you are unable to visit the library or would like materials referred to in this guide sent to you,the BFI Information Service can supply copies of articles via its Research Services. Research ischarged at a range of hourly rates, with a minimum charge for half an hour’s research – full de-tails of services and charges can be found at:

www.bfi.org.uk/filmtvinfo/services/research.html

For queries about article copying or other research, please contact Information Services at theabove address or telephone number, or post your enquiry online at:

www.bfi.org.uk/filmtvinfo/services/ask

Other Sources

Your local library

Local libraries should have access to the inter-library loan system for requesting items they do nothold and they may have copies of MONTHLY FILM BULLETIN and SIGHT AND SOUND. Some recentnewspaper items may be held by your local reference library. Larger libraries will hold other rele-vant materials and should offer internet access.

Your nearest college/university

Universities may allow access to outside students, though you may not be able to borrow books orjournals. Ask your reference librarian, who should be able to assist by locating the nearest collegelibrary holding suitable material. The BFI Film and Television Handbook lists libraries with signifi-cant media collections.

Your school library

Local bookshops

Some of the books mentioned in the bibliography will be in print and your bookshop should beable to order items for you.

The British Library Newspaper Library

The Newspaper Library will have all the newspaper items referred to in this guide. Contact the li-brary first if you wish to visit. 16+ students under the age of 18 will need to make an appoint-ment.

The British Library Newspaper LibraryColindale Avenue London NW9 5HE Tel. 020 7412 7353Email:[email protected]

www.bl.uk/collections/collect.html#newsBL

BFI National Library iii

Approaches to Researchby Samantha Bakhurst

Why do research?

You cannot simply rely on your existing knowledge when approaching essays in Media Studies.Although you will have some understanding of the area being explored, it is not enough to enableyou to examine the area in depth. If you were asked to write about the people in your street in de-tail, you might have some existing information about names, faces, relationships, issues and ac-tivities but this knowledge would not offer you details such as every single one of their names,who knows who, who gets on with whom, how people earn a living, what has happened to themin the past and so on. This extra information could change your opinions quite dramatically. With-out it, therefore, your written profile would end up being quite shallow and possibly incorrect. Thesame is true of your understanding of media texts, issues and institutions.

Before researching any area, it is useful to be clear about what outcomes you are hoping toachieve. Research is never a waste of time, even when it doesn’t directly relate to the essay youare preparing. The information may be relevant to another area of the syllabus, be it practicalwork or simply a different essay. Also, the picture you are building up of how an area works willstrengthen your understanding of the subject as a whole. So what outcomes are you hoping toachieve with your research?

A broad overview of the area you are researching: This includes its history, institutions, conven-tions and relationship to the audience. Research into these aspects offers you an understanding ofhow your area has developed and the influences that have shaped it.

An awareness of different debates which may exist around the area of study: There are a range ofdebates in many subject areas. For example, when researching audiences you will discover thatthere is some debate over how audiences watch television or film, ranging from the passive con-sumption of values and ideas to the use of media texts in a critical and independent way. Any dis-cussion about censorship, for example, will be extremely shallow if you have no knowledge ofthese different perspectives.

Some knowledge of the work of theorists in the area: You need to demonstrate that you have readdifferent theorists, exploring the relevant issues and investigating the area thoroughly in order todevelop your own opinion based on acquired knowledge and understanding.

Information relevant to all key concept areas: You should, after research, be able to discuss all keyconcept areas as they relate to that specific subject area. These are the codes and conventions,representation, institutions and audience.

Types Of Research

Primary: This is first-hand research. In other words, it relies on you constructing and conductingsurveys, setting up interviews with key people in the media industry or keeping a diary or log ofdata (known as quantitative information) on things such as, for example, what activities womenare shown doing in advertisements over one week of television viewing. Unless you are equippedto conduct extensive research, have access to relevant people in the media industry or are thor-ough in the up-keep of your diary or log, this type of research can be demanding, complex andsometimes difficult to use. Having said that, if you are preparing for an extended essay, then it isexactly this type of research which, if well used, will make your work distinctive and impressive.

Secondary - printed sources: This is where you will be investigating information gathered by otherpeople in books, newspapers, magazines, on radio and television. All of these sources are excellentfor finding background information, statistics, interviews, collected research details and so on.This will form the majority of your research. Some of these will be generally available (in public li-braries for example); others such as press releases and trade press may only be available throughspecialist libraries.

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Secondary - online sources: Online sources are also mainly secondary. You will need to be able tomake comparisons between sources if you intend quoting online information, and to be wary ofthe differences between fact and opinions. Don’t necessarily assume something is a fact becausesomeone on a website says it is. Some websites will be “official” but many will not be, so you needto think about the authority of a site when assessing the information found on it. The structure ofa website address (URL) can indicate the site’s origin and status, for example, .ac or .edu indicatean academic or educational institution, .gov a government body, .org a non-profit organisation, .coor .com a commercial organisation. Websites sometimes disappear or shift location - make sureyou can quote a URL reference for a site, and perhaps keep a note of the last date that youchecked it.

Other Media: When considering one area of the media or one particular product or type of prod-uct, it is very important that you compare it with others which are similar. You will need to be ableto refer to these comparisons in some detail so it is not enough to simply watch a film. You willneed to read a little about that film, make notes, concentrate on one or two scenes which seemparticularly relevant and write all of this information up so that you can refer to it when you needto.

History and development: Having an understanding of the history and development of the mediatext which you are researching will provide a firm foundation and context for contemporaryanalysis. There is a difference between generally accepted facts and how theorists use these facts.

Theory: This is the body of work of other critics of the media. Most of the books and periodical ar-ticles which you will read for research will be written by theorists who are arguing a particularviewpoint or position with regard to an issue within the media. It is this which forms the debatessurrounding the study of the media, in which you, as a media student, are now becoming in-volved.

Using Research

Organising your research: Before rushing headlong to the local library or web search engines, thefirst stage of research is to plan two things. When are you able to do your research and how areyou going to organise the information gathered? You may, for example, wish to make notes underthe headings listed above.

Applying your research: Always return to the specific questions being asked of the text. The mostobvious pitfall is to gather up all of the collected information and throw it at the page, hoping toscore points for quantity. The art of good research is how you use it as part of your evidence for ananalysis of the text. The knowledge you have acquired should give you the confidence to explorethe text, offer your own arguments and, where appropriate, to quote references to support this.

Listing your research: It is good practice, and excellent evidence of your wider reading, to list allreferences to secondary research, whether mentioned within the essay or not, at the end of yourwork.

References are usually written in this way:

1. Len Masterman, Teaching About Television, London, Macmillan, 1980. 2. Manuel Alvarado and Bob Ferguson, “The Curriculum, Media Studies and Discursivity”, Screen,Vol.24, No.3, May-June 1983.

Other media texts referred to in detail should be listed, with relevant information such as the di-rector, date of release or transmission, production company and, where possible, scene or episodenumber. Where you have compiled primary research, it is useful to offer a brief summary of thisalso at the end of your work.

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BFI National Library 1

Film marketing is undoubtedly a topic of increasing interest to students of film, the media and business, aswell as to their syllabus-setters. Particularly with relation to Hollywood cinema of the past decade, it is anarea that has seen its significance, and hence its budgets, inflate greatly. It is, however, also a topic that is dif-

ficult to get to grips with, and tougher still to find hard facts or primary research materials on. It must be remem-bered, too, that some of the desired information will be considered commercially sensitive and will not be avail-able in published sources.

Unfortunately students of film marketing will have to accept that they will not necessarily find statistics detailingproduction or advertising budgets for just any film title they chose to look at, nor will they be able to lay theirhands on first-hand information of a Hollywood studio’s marketing strategies or intentions. Generally speaking,the more recent a film, the more likely it is that there will be relevant material available to the researcher and theeasier it will be to trace box office information. To this end, this guide will focus largely on recent examples ofBritish and American cinema for which materials and case studies are more readily available.

The materials we have selected for inclusion within this guide were all published in English and date from themid-1990s onwards (fortunately, most book titles we have listed were still in print as of May 2000). Alongside asection of references covering the topic of film marketing in general, we have also looked in detail at a selection offilms that seem to exemplify a particular segment of the market or represent the implementation of a particularmarketing approach. TITANIC and STAR WARS EPISODE 1 THE PHANTOM MENACE are included as examples of bigbudget Hollywood blockbusters whose releases are trailed by a lengthy stream of media attention and whose mar-keting is carefully managed by a major studio. TRAINSPOTTING and FOUR WEDDINGS AND A FUNERAL are bothcomparatively low budget British productions employing differing marketing approaches, but both finding greatsuccess at the box office. THE BLAIR WITCH PROJECT, on a tiny production budget, also found large audiencesaround the world, raising its profile through ingenious use of the internet. Included at the end of the guide is aglossary of terms used in connection with film marketing and details of useful websites.

In addition to the published materials we focus on here, new technology is now offering researchers and studentsincreasing access to promotional material and can grant the opportunity to witness the marketing process inaction. For example, film releases on DVD will sometimes carry useful additional footage, trailers, interviews, andso on, and, as a promotional tool, most major film releases will now have an accompanying website.

All items marked thus “ * “ are particularly recommended. If your time, or access to resources is limited we sug-gest you at least look at this material.

introduction

books

BART, Peter The gross: the hits, the flops – thesummer that ate Hollywood.New York: St Martin’s Press, 1999.

The editor-in-chief of Variety givesa brisk week-by-week, blow-by-blow account of the summer of1998. It follows the fortunes ofblockbusters like GODZILLA,LETHAL WEAPON IV and ARMAGED-DON in the all important summerseason for US releases. If thereader is prepared to read througheach un-indexed chapter, they willbe rewarded by ample facts andfigures. The interviews andreported conversations give aninsight into the perceptions anddealings of Hollywood.

DALE, MartinThe movie game: the film busi-ness in Britain, Europe andAmerica.London: Cassell, 1997.

Very useful reference work on thefilm industry in America andEurope. The author argues thatEurope plays an important role inAmerican cinema and industryand this informs his analyses ofthe workings of the Americanmajors and their European coun-terparts. The book contains manytables and diagrams to highlightpoints and is full of brief but densepassages on the production andmarketing of independent suc-cesses such as FOUR WEDDINGSAND A FUNERAL.

The author studies cinema audi-ences, how the major playersoperate, ‘commercial’ and ‘art-house’ sectors, and how theEuropean and American filmindustries have a symbiotic rela-tionship. Author warns of the cul-tural ghetto that results from a“subsidy trap” mentality fromwhich Europe might not be able toescape. The media interests of themajors are also examined andmany tables, diagrams and statis-tics are provided.

* DURIE, John (ed) (written byAnnika Pham and Neil Watson) The film marketing handbook: apractical guide to marketingstrategies for independent films.Madrid: Media Business School, 1993.

Packed with easily digested andrelevant sections on all aspects ofmarketing. The book is aimed atstudents of the European filmindustry. It identifies 5 key ele-ments of marketing (stars; direc-tor; genre; awards; box office). Itexamines the nature of cinema-going in Europe and the impor-tance of when and how a film isreleased (e.g. “day & date” releasevs. platform release). A sample P& A budget is provided and itnotes the great difficulties inobtaining accurate marketing datawhich due to spiralling costs istreated as commercially sensitive.

ILOTT, TerryBudgets and markets: a study ofthe budgeting of European film.London: Routledge, 1996.

Study of the budgeting and mar-keting of European film in theearly 1990s aimed at industryinsiders. Part One looks at invest-ment, markets, audiences, output,television, subsidies and the deci-sion making processes. Part Twocontains case studies of 13 films.These contain varying amounts ofdata on budgets, P & A costs, boxoffice figures and ancilliary salesas well as some brief commentaryand concluding remarks. PartThree lists the conclusions, con-taining some cautionary advice forthe budding film producer.

LITMAN, Barry R.The motion picture mega-indus-try.Boston; London: Allyn & Bacon, 1998.

Dense work about the economicsof the US film industry and looksat recent developments as well asthe history of the industry.Chapter 9 by Indre de Silva exam-ines how consumers choose whatfilms to see. Barry Litman andAhn Hoekyn look at how themajors attempt to predict com-mercial success. Chapter 12includes a section on current mar-keting practices and looks at STAR

WARS in some depth.

* LUKK, Tiiu Movie marketing: opening the pic-ture and giving it legs.Los Angeles: Silman-James Press,1997.

Very useful and most recent workavailable on the art and science ofmovie marketing. Aimed at indus-try insiders it is very readable andpacked with figures. Chaptersfocus upon the marketing of par-ticular genres and contain vitalbreakdowns of P & A budgets.Marketing styles discussed rangefrom the corporate efforts of thestudios to the DIY efforts of theindependents. Genres coveredinclude action-adventure, roman-tic comedy, documentary, sus-pense, African-American featuresand ‘foreign’/UK films. Theseinclude FOUR WEDDINGS, PULP FIC-TION, THE BROTHERS McMULLEN,GOLDENEYE, HOOP DREAMS, WEL-COME TO THE DOLLHOUSE,HOWARDS END, CRUMB,CARNOSAUR, MALICE, BROTHER’SKEEPER, MENACE II SOCIETY, HOUSEPARTY and WAITING TO EXHALE.There are also other chapters onthe making of trailers and thelucrative business of merchandis-ing.

MURPHY, Robert (ed)British cinema of the 90s.London: BFI Publishing, 2000.

Recent and wide-ranging study ofcontemporary British cinema.

In Chapter 2, The British filmindustry in the 1990s, the bfiNational Library’s own Peter Toddreviews the current trends includ-ing the poster campaigns forTRAINSPOTTING and LOCK, STOCKAND TWO SMOKING BARRELS. Italso contains tables on admissionsand budgets

In chapter 8, Hollywood UK, NeilWatson notes the increasingimportance of marketing film. Themodest distribution and releasestrategies of HEAR MY SONG arecontrasted with a majorHollywood film.

In Chapter 10, Here and then:space, place and nostalgia inBritish youth cinema of the 1990s,

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general references

Karen Luny analyses howTRAINSPOTTING was marketed andexplores the importance of theposters, logos, soundtrack and anaesthetic that contributed to a‘brand’ sparking wide appeal andintense interest.

PETRIE, Duncan J.Creativity and constraint in theBritish film industry.Houndmills; London: Macmillan,1991.

Reading list classic on the Britishfilm industry. In Chapter 5, theauthor explores sales, distributionand marketing. Even in the 1980scompanies needed to look moreclosely at the marketing end of theproduction process. The chaptercontains interesting comments byinterviewees on poster design,marketing strategy and theincreasing importance of popmusic in promoting films.

POSNER, MichaelCanadian dreams; the making andmarketing of independent films.Vancouver; Toronto: Douglas &McIntyre, 1993.

Case studies of 10 Canadian filmsfrom conception to release.Author examines how audienceswere targeted and commercial tie-in’s arranged. Distribution is alsodiscussed and how well the filmsperformed at the box office inNorth America.

REID, Mary AnneLong shots to favourites:Australian cinema successes inthe 90s.Australian Film Commission, 1993.

Detailed case studies of PROOF,ROMPER STOMPER and STRICTLYBALLROOM. Includes data on P & Abudgets, box office figures andhow the films were marketed inAustralia and abroad.

ROSEN, David (with PeterHamilton)Off-Hollywood: the making andmarketing of independent films.New York: Grove Weidenfeld, 1990.

Contains 13 case studies dealingwith the development, production,distribution, marketing and ancil-liary sales of such films as ELNORTE, MY DINNER WITH ANDREand STAND AND DELIVER. Costsand box office are quoted whereknown and it is remarkable tonote how much needs to be spenton promoting an independent filmin the US.

SQUIRE, Jason E. (ed)The movie business book (2nd ed).New York; Fireside/Simon &Schuster, 1992.

Contains sections written by USfilm industry insiders on allaspects of the business includingmarketing by the majors and theindependents as well as the lucra-tive world of merchandising.

TAYLOR, ThomThe big deal: Hollywood’s milliondollar spec script market.New York: William Morrow, 1999.

This “behind the scenes” look atHollywood contains a section‘Making the final cut’ (pp.179-182),which reveals the successes andfailures of test screenings by themajors as well as the ‘textbook’platform releases used by ‘art-house’ independents, most notablyPLATOON. Word of mouth is asvital to the majors as it is to theindependents.

* WYATT, Justin High Concept: movies and market-ing in Hollywood.Austin, TX : University of TexasPress, 1994.

Seminal text. The author analyseswhy the high concept movie domi-nates Hollywood. ‘High concept’ isdefined and how it is constructedand adapted for the marketthrough the increasing use of mar-ket research. Author argues thatcontemporary Hollywood films arefully integrated with their market-ing and that a single image, phraseor theme song is the quintessenceof its product appeal. Authorstates that the most importantingredients of a “high concept”film are: ‘mass appeal’; star;soundtrack; pre-sold property (i.e.well known book or play) and theall important oneword/image/symbol which is focusfor marketing e.g. JAWS, GREASE,BATMAN. The only slight flaw iswith this work for contemporaryresearch is that it is based on1980s Hollywood cinema.

journal articles

CINEMA JOURNALVol. 29.no.3. Spring 1990, pp.3-31

Announcing Wares, WinningPatrons, Voicing Ideals: Thinkingabout the History and Theory ofFilm Advertising, by Janet Staiger

Examines the history of the eco-nomic practices of producing filmadvertising in the United Statesand how the film industry usedadvertising practices for their ownends. In six sections, Staigertraces the development of filmadvertising from before the begin-

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ning of the 20th century, how itappealed and communicated toconsumers and learnt to targetspecific audiences after 1950.

CREATIONDecember 1999, pp.28-31

Trailer for Sale or Rent. If there isa profession within the productionworld that requires a psycholo-gist’s skills, it is that of the trailerdirector, by Brant Drewery

Article discusses the skillsrequired of a trailer director tocapture the attention of an audi-ence as quickly as possible andsell the film. Drewery refers to theediting skills required and the dif-ferent techniques employed by agood trailer. Also compares andcontrasts TV and cinema trailerswithin the marketing process.

FILMMAKERVol.7. No.4. Summer 1999, pp.18-22,68-69, 92

Cars, Soap and Celluloid.Marketing Independent Film in aStudio Film Age, by David Geffner

Geffner points out that though afilm may receive good reviews atfestivals, many independent filmsare considered unmarketable andare not picked up by distributors.Since promoting stars and direc-tors will not always createdemand, independent films areusing other tactics such as theinternet, developing corporatepartners or targeting niche audi-ences to sell a film. Using THEBLAIR WITCH PROJECT as an exam-ple of creating interest independ-ently of film reviews, Geffner alsoshows how some films are sold viathe film company’s name and thattargeting niche audiences may bethe marketing style of the future.

FILMMAKERVol.5 No.3. Spring 1997, pp.31-34

Clip Art. The Art of TrailerProduction, by David Geffner

Geffner discusses how trailers canbe crucial to a film’s success andthe importance of the relationshipbetween the trailer and theprospective audience. Using WEL-COME TO THE DOLLHOUSE as anexample, the article examines the

interaction between the trailer-producers, the distributors and theexhibitors and how independentfilm need to use trailers to demon-strate an originality missing inmainstream films.

HOLLYWOOD REPORTERVol.347. No.32. 27 May 1997

Movies and the Media. SpecialIssue. s1-s35.

1. s4, s26.Launch Pads: Sneak peaks, teasersand savvy skewing of what mightappeal to audiences marked thepast year’s film campaigns, byJerry Robert

Overview of the most successfullymarketed US films of 1996, identi-fying why certain campaignsworked and providing table of top20 US films comparing box officeand media budget spent.

2. s7-s9, s30Where the money went. NetworkTV spending zooms as movie dis-tributors invest $1.7 b6illion inmedia buys in 1996, by MichaelBurgi

Article provides statistics onadvertising spending by major dis-tributors, and discusses howmoney was divided using differentforms of media, eg: radio and TVnetworks..

3. s15 – s 16, s33Scratching a Niche. Carefully tai-loring film marketing to specialaudiences can add big dollars to afilm’s box office take, by AlanWaldman

Discusses the marketing of filmsat specific audiences, eg: ethnic,female, youth, gay etc. Focusing onfilms targeted at African-Americanaudiences, the article outlinescompanies’ strategies via radio,cinema theatres and magazines.Waldman argues that the Latinomarket is underdeveloped and dis-cusses alternative media cam-paigns.

4. s18-s20.Net Results. Baby-boomer hitsdraw the biggest movie ad dollars,but the MTV generation is movingin, by Michael Burgi

Burgi discusses how film market-ing uses TV to promote film titles,analysing the TV shows used andalternatives, such a cable and theinternet. Contains tables of top TVprogrammes targeted for filmadvertising in 1996.

4.s22, s35.Setting Sail. Charting foreign terri-tories, movie marketeers find itoften pays to raise different colors,by Jerry Roberts

Discusses how advertising cam-paigns for films are altered for dif-ferent countries in order to appealto different audiences. As interna-tional returns for Hollywood filmscan produce more than half itsbox office take, suiting the promo-tion of films to different culturesmakes sense.

JOURNAL OF POPULAR BRITISHCINEMANo.2. 1999, pp.83-99

Promotional activities and show-manship in British film exhibition,by Alan Burton and Steve Chibnall

Aware of a gap in British scholar-ship in relation to the study ofBritish film publicity and market-ing, the authors provide anoverview of British film promo-tional activities. Focusing on dif-ferent tactics from the 1940s. Thearticle examines the developmentof ‘showmanship,’ trailers, productplacement, business co-operation,stunts and the influence ofHollywood’s publicity tactics.

PREMIEREVol..13. No.4. Dec 1999, pp.39-40

Don’t Believe the Anti-Hype, byRaphael Simon

Discusses the new marketingmethods, conventional and uncon-ventional, behind recent advertis-ing campaigns. Refers to how theinternet was used to promote THEBLAIR WITCH PROJECT and hownew forms of marketing need tobe used for a public distrustful ofadvertising campaigns.

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PACT MAGAZINENo.8. Sept 1999, pp.12-14

Marketing Movies Matters.Identifying your key audience is ofparamount importance in makingany movie successful, by LouiseBateman

Article discusses the importanceof knowing the audience targetedin film marketing and usesHUMAN TRAFFIC, THE BLAIR WITCHPROJECT and THE FULL MONTY asexamples of successful campaigns.Understanding the audience andusing various marketing strategiesare shown as imperative in pro-moting low budget films.

SCREEN INTERNATIONALNo. 1067. 19 July, 1996, pp.10-11

For a Few Dollars More. In a cli-mate of extravagant marketingspends, some UK majors aresearching for new advertisingopportunities and looking to curbunnecessary spending, JohnHazelton reportsHazelton discusses the variousforms of film advertising, includ-ing TV ads, trailers, newspapercoverage and merchandising andhow they operate to create audi-ences. Discussing how differentstrategies are used for different

films, the authorshows how filmslike INDEPENDENCE DAY, SE7ENand THE CABLEGUY are promotedto capture newconsumers.

SCREEN INTERNA-TIONALNo. 1067. 19 July,1996, p.12

Multiplicity. As filmmarketing in vari-ous territoriesbecome moresophisticated andidiosyncratic, stu-dios’ internationaldepartments are nolonger just beingfed US campaigns,John Hazeltonreports

As US producedfilms are exceedinglocal box office tak-ings on the inter-

national stage, marketing chiefsare finding it profitable to alter afilm’s promotion to suit differentaudiences. Films such as GOLDEN-EYE and SPECIES used new adver-tising material to relate toEuropean markets. In addition,titles are often launched different-ly, using alternative aspects of afilm to those used in the US pro-motion.

SIGHT AND SOUNDVol.9. Supplement. No.3.Mediawatch 99, March 1999, pp.10-13

Shotguns and Weddings. HowPolyGram sold its two big hits of1998, ‘Elizabeth’ and ‘Lock, Stockand Two Smoking Barrels’, by NickRoddick

After providing a profile of thecompany PolyGram, Roddick con-trasts the marketing campaigns ofELIZABETH and LOCK, STOCK ANDTWO SMOKING BARRELS. Using dif-ferent marketing strategies andaiming at different audiences, bothfilms did well at the box office.The article shows the differentways the media is used to targetaudiences and provides statisticaltables on box office takings forboth titles.

SIGHT AND SOUNDVol.8. No.7. July 1998, pp.24-26

The Big Tease. Trailers often out-class the movies they promote,but is there a perfect formula?asks Andy Medhurst

Commenting on how trailers haveto work to get audiences back intothe cinema, Medhurst shows howediting, genre, use of stars and sto-rylines are used to create audiencedemand. Trailers can also alienatepotential audiences and alter theirpolitical message depending onwhich audience is being targeted.Lastly, Medhurst points out thatthe voice-overs for trailers arealways male.

SIGHT AND SOUNDVol.8. No.7. July 1998, p.26

Coming Attractions. Sight andSound sees how trailers are tai-lored for the UK

Discusses the recent rise in popu-larity of trailers and how Americancampaigns are altered to suit theUK market. Article analyses trail-ers used for LAND GIRLS andTRAINSPOTTING and how the gov-ernment is funding a projectwhich will collate informationabout former advertising cam-paigns for companies to access.Notes that trailers are being usedin new venues apart from cinemasto gain specific audiences.

SIGHT AND SOUNDVol.7. No.6. June 1997, pp.38-41

Marketing, by Justin Wyatt

Wyatt analyses the different areasin which a film can be marketedvia stars, genre, the technologyinvolved in the film or the attitudeof the film. Also discusses howfilms are sold in relation to theirmarketability versus playability(popularity) factor and the variousnecessary promotional strategiesused.

VARIETY19 December 1999, pp. 9, 22

U.S. pics ride o’seas seesaw; stu-dios still searching for keys to int’lsuccess, by Don Groves

Article discusses the success of USfilms abroad and how various fac-

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tors, such as genre, awards, starsand subject matter contribute to afilm’s box office potential.Considers why some films do wellinternationally and why some failand how both films and marketshave to be approached individuallyif campaigns are going to be suc-cessful.

VARIETY8 November 1999, pp. 9-10

The preshow must go on… andon; lengthier ads, trailers pushproduct and auds’ patience, byDade Hayes

Discussion on the recent increaseof time spent on the preshow tofilms shown in cinemas, how trail-ers have increased in numbers andhow more advertisements arebeing screened. Article considersboth the arguments for andagainst this development, citingaudience approval for trailers andadverts, but also audiences’ shortattention span and dislike of‘burnout’ before the showing ofthe main film.

VARIETY18 October 1999, pp. 1, 57

Geek gab freaks film biz; sprout-ing webs heighten din of disinfor-mation, by Marc Graser and ChrisPetrikin

Graser and Petrikin discuss theinfluence of various web sites onthe success of films at the boxoffice. The article outlines howvarious web sites dedicated to filmalso spread rumours concerningfilms. Such information plus feed-back from filmgoers can have adetrimental effect on a film.Article also includes examples ofhow web information affected filmproduction and how film studioshave developed their own sites forviewers’ personal opinions.

press articles

* INDEPENDENT ON SUNDAY(‘CULTURE’ SECTION)26 December 1999, p. 7

May your release be merciful; whodecides what comes out when –and why? by Matthew Sweet

Warts ‘n’ all break down of themethods employed by distributorsto entice a paying audience totheir films. The ten secret rules bywhich they are alleged to operateinclude “if your film is rubbish, tryto stop people finding out” and“you can sell the same thing twiceto the same people.”

GUARDIAN (SECTION 2)14 December 1999, pp. 6-7

Out of the picture; TV and bookspitch at the ‘modern woman’ mar-ket. So why aren’t we up on thebig screen? by Hettie Judah

Brief piece suggesting that theworld of mainstream film criticismis male-dominated and thatfemale audiences will often placemore faith in word-of-mouth opin-ions when choosing a film to see.FANNY & ELVIS is cited as anexample of a film with potentialappeal to the female market thatsank without trace at the boxoffice.

DAILY TELEGRAPH(‘ARTS AND BOOKS’ SECTION)11 December 1999, p. A7

The dubbing down of foreign film,by S. F. Said

Report on the decline of the mar-ket in Britain for foreign languagefilm that has led to a reluctanceon the part of distributors torelease even award-winning non-English language titles. Dubbinginto English is quoted as oneapproach to attract a mainstreamaudience.

GUARDIAN (SECTION 2)10 December 1999, p.13

Home to roost; when East is Eastwas released in cinemas, it wasvirtually ignored by the popularpress. And it isn’t the first time ahit British film has been given thecold shoulder. Exactly what is the

media’s problem? by Danny Leigh

On the decision by Film Four tospend heavily on marketing thelow-budget EAST IS EAST as amainstream comedy and theantipathy of the tabloid presstowards British film releases.

EVENING STANDARD2 December 1999, pp. 58-59

East is East: how the BBC lost theplot, by Neil Norman

Detailed history charting the film’sconception and financing, includ-ing an account of a successful testscreening which indicated that thefilm would have broad appeal.

* OBSERVER (‘SCREEN’ SECTION)28 November 1999, pp. 8-9

‘That can’t be my film they aretalking about’; debutant Britishdirector Julian Farino got a shockwhen he delivered his film, andsaw its trailer. Those selling TheLast Yellow wanted to play up itssimilarities to a host of otherBritish films, by Julian Farino

Interesting account - from thedirector’s point of view as a frus-trated outsider - of the marketingprocess of a film that did not fiteasily into the well-used stereo-types of the British film industry.Also brief notes on the disingenu-ous trailers for EAST IS EAST andVELVET GOLDMINE.

FINANCIAL TIMES (‘WEEKEND FT’ SECTION)9 October 1999, p. VI

Armageddon for the art film, byNigel Andrews

How the changing demands ofaudiences have led to a decline inthe arthouse culture and the mar-ket for foreign language film.

TIMES9 August 1999, p. 43

Everyone’s wild about Harry, byLesley O’Toole

Brief profile of Harry Knowles “theman Hollywood fears the most”and his Ain’t It Cool News website.The site has acquired an increas-ing role in influencing the pre-

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release publicity for Hollywoodmovies through its unauthorisedreviews of test screenings and pre-release tapes.

TIMES16 April 1999, p. 35

Forget the steak, we’re sold on thesizzle, by Richard Morrison

On the growing spend on advertis-ing by Hollywood studios - quotedas $25.3 million per movie in theUS alone – which, more than thesize of production budgets, meansthat British films are unable tocompete in the market place.

GUARDIAN (SECTION 2)9 April 1999, pp. 2-3

To the Max; ten years ago, twosmall-time independent directorshad their first hit. Today theircompany, Miramax, is to theOscars what Disneyland is totheme park rides, by BrianPendreigh

The history of US distribution andproduction company Miramax – asubsidiary of Disney since 1993 –and the commercial business meth-ods they brought to the independ-ent film world. Includes details oftheir successful handling of THECRYING GAME, PULP FICTION andSHAKESPEARE IN LOVE in the US.

INDEPENDENT(‘REVIEW’ SECTION)30 March 1999, p. 12

Taking a leaf out of Hollywood’sbook; British film-makers need tolearn that great quality doesn’tguarantee box-office success, byDarius Sanai

Peter Buckingham of distributorFilm Four is quoted to identify themarketing considerations essentialfor the success of a British film atthe box office.

GUARDIAN(‘THE GUIDE’ SUPPLEMENT)15 August 1998, pp. 4-6

Restricted view, by Danny Leigh

On the raw deal dealt to Britishaudiences who only get to see thebig Hollywood blockbusters manymonths after their US release, andthe opportunity this gap in theschedules gives studios to gener-ate revised marketing strategies.

* GUARDIAN (‘THE GUIDE’ SUPPLEMENT)1 August 1998, pp. 16-19

The Awful Truth, articles by DannyLeigh and Andrew Pulver

Humorous unravelling of the art ofthe poster campaign. Features a

detailed break-down of the layout of theARMAGEDDONposter, whichincludes con-tractual require-ments regardingbilling and let-tering sizes, etc.

VILLAGE VOICE(FILM SPECIAL)21 May 1996, pp.18, 20

The birth of amarket; whosays it’s so hardto sell Blackfilms abroad? byCraigh Barboza

Analyses thereasons whysuccessful USBlack films haveoften not found

a market overseas, even when fea-turing globally-known names.

TIMES4 November 1995, p. 17

Hollywood is just toying with us,by Richard Morrison

The primary importance of mer-chandising in the kid’s movieindustry, with release dates sched-uled to tie-in with the Christmasshopping calendar, viewed fromthe position of the beleagueredparent.

DAILY TELEGRAPH10 July 1995, p. 19

Holy merchandising! by DavidGritten

The style and content of BATMANFOREVER (the third film of theBatman franchise) are seen tohave been driven by merchandis-ing considerations, following theprevious failure of the nihilisticBATMAN RETURNS to generate toysales.

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Trainspotting(dir. Danny Boyle, 1996)

books

CARTMELL, Deborah andWhelehan, Imelda (eds)Adaptations: from text to screen,screen to text.London: Routledge: 1999.

Collection of essays exploring thecurrent debates and approaches inadaptation. In Chapter 10,‘Speaking Out: the transformationsof Trainspotting’, Derek Paget looksat the relationship between thebook, play and film and whyTRAINSPOTTING became such ahit.

* FINNEY, Angus The state of European cinema: anew dose of reality.London: Cassell, 1996.

Important study of the Europeanfilm industry. Author examines itsstructure and financing and thetraining required for the future. Aswell as tackling Europe’s decliningstar system, the author also exam-ines the corporate players with acase study of PolyGram.

TRAINSPOTTING is one of tenexcellent film case studies whichexamines funding, distribution,production, the importance ofediting and casting, and not leasthow to market and release theproduct.

journal articles

EMPIRENo.91. January 1997, pp. 108-109

Runaway Train. Trainspotting; themovie, the money, the marketingcampaign… by Caroline Westbrook

Westbrook traces the progress ofthe marketing campaign ofTRAINSPOTTING from its inceptionin July 1995, outlines the tacticsdevised by the publicists and con-cludes that both timing and con-trol were essential to the successof the campaign.

EMPIRENo.83. May 1996, p.20

Just The Ticket

Short article discussing how theTRAINSPOTTING poster was so suc-cessful that it was copied by othercompanies in their advertisingcampaigns, eg Feature FilmCompany and LondonUnderground.

EMPIRENo.81. March 1996, p.99

The Writing On The Wall, byCaroline Westbrook

Article follows the development ofthe unique poster that helpedmake TRAINSPOTTING so success-ful, pointing out the early schedul-ing in the campaign, how the ideadeveloped and how posters can

reach a core audience.

EMPIRENo.81. March 1996, p.100

‘From the Makers of ShallowGrave…’ Making a movie trailer isan art in itself. Trainspotting’s isthe work of The CreativePartnership, by Caroline Westbrook

Westbrook outlines how the trailerfor TRAINSPOTTING was made andthe decisions involved whichincluded showing the film was a‘socio-realistic comedy’ and notjust about a group of drug takers.The producers tried to both makethe trailer accessible and also trueto the quality of the film.

SIGHT AND SOUNDVol.9. Supplement. No.3.Mediawatch. September 1999,pp.10-11

Well Hyped. With a great sound-track and a big, cheeky campaign,an unlikely movie does well

Article traces the successful pro-motion of TRAINSPOTTING throughan effective and much imitatedposter campaign, creating a cultstatus for the film and producing agreat soundtrack. As a follow up tothe film SHALLOW GRAVE, pro-duced by the same film-makers,the film was exhibited as a com-mercial movie, not a small Britishart film, and consequently reacheda wider audience.

press articles

INDEPENDENT ON SUNDAY26 May 1996, p. 8

‘Trainspotting’ made easy – forAmericans, by Milly Jenkins

US distributors Miramax haveasked the film’s producers to dubsections of dialogue to make thefilm more comprehensible to theAmerican audience.

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case studies

EVENING STANDARD23 April 1996, p. 19

Movie-maker gets tough overposter parody, by Jane Flanagan

Brief article on PolyGram’sresponse to the wave of advertise-ments parodying their iconicTRAINSPOTTING poster campaign.

* FINANCIAL TIMES27 January 1996, p. 5

Small budget movie with bigambitions: PolyGram is marketingTrainspotting as the next cult hitwith crossover appeal, by AliceRawsthorn

Outlining PolyGram’s approach tomarketing the film, which is seenas more akin to that of a block-buster than a low budget release.

Four WeddingsAnd A Funeral(dir. Mike Newell, 1994)

journal articles

MOVING PICTURES INTERNATIONALNo.185. 12 May 1994, p.17

Wedding bliss

Concentrating on the marketingcampaigns for FOUR WEDDINGSAND A FUNERAL, the article showshow the premiere in London, theinterviews by the stars, local andnational promotional tie-ins andtelevision coverage helped createthe film’s success. In addition, anearly marketing campaign in Paris,focusing on posters and radio ads

to generate word of mouth, result-ed in far greater box office admis-sions than for any other release atthe same time.

press articles

* MAIL ON SUNDAY (‘NIGHT AND DAY’ SUPPLEMENT)1 January 1995, pp. 27, 29

by David Thomas

Covers the film’s success from itshumble beginnings and initialunexpected popularity at a US testscreening. Also details how itstakings were subsequently dividedbetween the parties involved.

EVENING STANDARD1 November 1994, p. 12

Four Weddings and a Fortune, byAlison Roberts

Article on the financial repercus-sions of the film’s success, includ-ing some figures.

GUARDIAN (SECTION 2)16 May 1994, p. 16

Hyping for a hit, by Anna Blundy

On the successful press and pub-licity campaign engineered prior tothe film’s UK release.

DAILY TELEGRAPH22 April 1994, p. 19

Bells ring for a British marriage,Hugh Davies

On the unique success, being aBritish film without major studio

backing, of FOUR WEDDINGS AND AFUNERAL in the US.

The Blair WitchProject(dir. Daniel Myrick, 1999)

booksPOTTON, Ed and COWAN, AmberInto the woods: the definitivestory of the Blair Witch Project.Southwold: ScreenPress Books, 2000.

Slim paperback but must-read fora concise and packed history ofthe making and innovative mar-keting of THE BLAIR WITCH PROJ-ECT (published as a promotionalpaperback to accompany itsrelease in DVD/VHS?).

It details the involvement of thedistributor Artisan and howthrough the use of the filmmakers’own website with other willinginternet and cable television“accomplices” they created a ‘leg-end’ and ‘buzz’ around the film.The release strategy and dates,which augmented the word ofmouth wave of interest in the film,are also examined. (Initially a nar-row release on 27 screens thenbroadened to 1,100). The impor-tance of the stick man logo is alsodiscussed as well as the merchan-dising phenomenon it caused. Thefilm’s impact on the flat-footedmajors is also explored.

STERN, D.A.The Blair Witch Project: a dossier.London: Boxtree, 1999.

Paperback containing the “com-plete story” of the events of the‘Project’ and its aftermath, and thelegend of the Blair Witch.

journal articles

IFNo.20. Dec.1999, pp.28-30

The Blair Witch Project, by MeganSpencer

Analysing the unprecedented suc-cess of THE BLAIR WITCH PROJECTfor a low budget film, Spencershows how the use of variousmarketing strategies contributed

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to its status as the most profitablefilm of all time. By using theInternet, their web site and postercampaigns at colleges to producefictional folklore stories on thefilm, the directors exploited bothnew and traditional media to pro-mote their film. Their success hasforced Hollywood to reassess itsown advertising and marketingcampaigns.

SCREEN INTERNATIONALNo.1228. 1 October 1999, p.11-12

Blair Witch: The InternationalProject, by Mike Goodridge

Goodridge discusses how the origi-nal marketing strategy of THEBLAIR WITCH PROJECT, which useddocumentary style trailers andmixed fact and fiction, affected thepromotion of the film internation-ally. Aware that the film appealedmainly to the youth market, andusing merchandising and licensingdeals, the film was generally mar-keted by distributors as a spe-cialised title. The article includesprofiles of the campaigns used indifferent countries internationallyand shows how the internet andnew promotional techniques madethe film successful.

VARIETY (SUPPLEMENT)21 February 2000, p. 26

‘Blair Witch’ wins inBritain, by Julie Richard

Richard analyses the UKmarketing campaign forTHE BLAIR WITCHPROJECT. The film hadbeen widely seen in theUS and the element ofsurprise had been dif-fused. As a result themarketing strategyinvolved taking the film‘underground’ again. Thewebsite was redesignedwith new footage andclosely connected to thecampaign; and prints ofthe film were restrictedin the first week ofrelease. The result washuge interest and astrong second week atthe box office.

VARIETY9 August 1999, pp. 7-8

Spooked by ‘Witch’; low-budgetpic turns studio mind-set upsidedown, by Charles Lyons

Article examines the phenomenalsuccess of THE BLAIR WITCH PROJ-ECT and questions whether its useof the internet and clever market-ing strategies will revolutionise theways films are promoted and dis-tributed. Although studios havecommissioned studies to under-stand its success, Lyons arguesthat the film needed an independ-ent company to create interest viathe internet and limited theatricalrelease.

press articles

GUARDIAN (SECTION 2)29 October 1999, p. 10

Sense and Sensibility: The BlairWitch Project made it big with nobudget but big hype. Was it inten-tional that The Sixth Sense did theopposite, asks a spooked-outStuart Husband? by StuartHusband

Contrasts the marketing approach-es of the two releases in the US,detailing Buena Vista’s ‘anti-mar-keting’ strategy that did not pres-ent THE SIXTH SENSE as a Bruce

Willis film.

DAILY TELEGRAPH (‘WEEKEND’ MAGAZINE)18 September 1999, pp. 58, 60, 62

Black Magic, by Quentin Curtis

Charts the film’s history from itspurchase at the Sundance FilmFestival by Artisan Entertainmentfor $1million to the creation of itsinfamous website and the market-ing success that created a ‘syner-gy’ between the film itself and itssurrounding materials.

OBSERVER (‘SCREEN’ SECTION)1 August 1999, pp. 6-7

Season of the Witch, by AkinOjumu

THE BLAIR WITCH PROJECT is seenas opposing the way independentcinema is usually marketed, rely-ing on public interest generatedvia its website and word-of-mouthrather than critical acclaim.

Star Wars Episode 1The Phantom Menace(dir. George Lucas, 1999)

journal articlesEMPIRENo.116. February 1999, pp. 44-45

Force Red. The most anticipatedtwo minutes of film ever finallyhits the big screen, by LizoMzimba, and The PhantomMeaning, by William Thomas

Mzimbo discusses the huge appealof the trailer for STAR WARSEPISODE 1 THE PHANTOM MENACE,shows how demand was increasedvia the Internet and how fans inan unprecedented move, paid fullticket prices to see a two-minutetrailer. Thomas analyses the trailershot by shot, outlining the narra-tive and themes included in orderto create maximum interest.

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ENTERTAINMENT WEEKLYNo.493. 9 July 1999, pp.6-7

Toy Crazy, by Jeff Jensen

Jensen reports on the lack of salesof merchandising in connectionwith STAR WARS EPISODE 1 THEPHANTOM MENACE. He also putsthe figures in context in relation tosales expectations and previousfigures for film merchandise tie-ins.

VARIETY22 March 1999, pp. 3, 54

Distribs’ ‘Menace’: Playtimes, byAndrew Hindes

Article discusses the relationshipbetween Fox, the studio of STARWARS EPISODE 1 THE PHANTOMMENACE, and the theatres showingthe film. The director George Lucasstipulated how the film should beshown and Fox initially demandedthat the film remain on the samescreen for its entire run, ratherthan moving to smaller screens.The theatre exhibitors argued thatsize of audience would dictate onwhich screen the film would beshown and Fox could not makesuch demands of cinemas.

press articles

GUARDIAN (‘THE GUIDE’ SUPPLEMENT)3 March 2000, p. 13

On the money, by Mark Morris

Highlights the young GeorgeLucas’ canny decision to insist onretaining merchandising rights tothe STAR WARS franchise beforethe subsequent explosion in scaleof the merchandising industry.

INDEPENDENT25 January 2000, p. 5

‘Star Wars’ failure leaves blackhole where publisher’s’ profitsused to be, by JoJo Moyes

Brief article on the over-optimisticmove by publisher DorlingKindersley to print 13 million StarWars books, their loss of an esti-mated £18m on merchandising forSTAR WARS EPISODE 1 THE PHAN-TOM MENACE leading to financialdifficulties.

DAILY TELEGRAPH16 July 1999, p. 23

Farce that led to the press turningon the Star Wars studio, by JessicaCallan

An account of the bad publicity20th Century Fox generated bytheir strong-armed dealings withthe UK press covering the releaseof the film.

INDEPENDENT15 July 1999, p. 3

Is the phantom menace of hypeovershadowing the art of cinema?by Steve Boggan and Paul McCann

Brief article on the increasingimportance studios place on hyp-ing a film prior to release.Includes word counts of the presscoverage of STAR WARS EPISODE 1THE PHANTOM MENACE and EYESWIDE SHUT in the UK and shortnotes on “Hollywood’s Most HypedMovies”.

TIME OUT12-19 May 1999, pp. 12-13

Hyperspace, by Andrew Johnston

Documents the anticipation build-ing up prior to STAR WARS EPISODE1 THE PHANTOM MENACE’s releaseand George Lucas’ skill at manag-ing hype.

SUNDAY TELEGRAPH2 May 1999, p. 29

The marketing force is with us tolaunch Star Wars toys, by JamesLangton

Notes that licensing deals for mer-chandising are expected to bringin £2.5 billion, at least twice thefilm’s projected box office takingsworldwide.

GUARDIAN (‘THE GUIDE’ SUPPLEMENT)24 April 1999, pp. 8-10

Buyer beware, by Jon Wilde

Sardonic piece on the machina-tions and secrecy surrounding thelicensing of STAR WARS EPISODE 1THE PHANTOM MENACE merchan-dise, also touching on other recentHollywood merchandising drives.

OBSERVER28 March 1999, p. 7

Billion-dollar market force will bewith us, by Melinda Wittstock

On the ubiquity of STAR WARSEPISODE 1 THE PHANTOM MENACEproducts and imagery, and thestrict control of their use byGeorge Lucas.

SUNDAY TIMES (SECTION 11)10 January 1999, p. 14

Feel the force, byChristopher Goodwin

The success of the StarWars films and their mon-eymaking merchandisingis seen as having alteredthe course of Hollywoodfilmmaking, with therelease of STAR WARSEPISODE 1 THE PHANTOMMENACE described as “thebiggest marketing event inthe history of the world.”

TIMES14 December 1998, p. 13

Two minutes and the forcewas with me: the latestUS box-office hit is a trail-er, by Giles Whittell

Fans queue to see the twominute trailer for STAR

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WARS EPISODE 1 THE PHANTOMMENACE, described as the first ever“must see” film trailer. EVENING STANDARD8 September 1997

Toy giants in battle for Star Warsrights, by Michael Shanahan

The competition for, and heavyprices attached to, licenses to pro-duce STAR WARS EPISODE 1 THEPHANTOM MENACE toys are expect-ed to bring about knock-on pricerises in toy shops world-wide.Figures quoted.

GUARDIAN26 August 1997

Toy soldiers vie for Star Wars, byMark Tran

Brief item on the bidding for therights to produce STAR WARSEPISODE 1 THE PHANTOM MENACEtoys.

Titanic(dir. James Cameron, 1997)

booksSANDLER, Kevin and STUDLAR,Gaylyn (eds)Titanic: anatomy of a blockbuster.New Brunswick, NJ; London: RutgersUniversity Press, 1999.

Collection of thirteen essays onTITANIC. It examines the criticalreaction, the film’s wide appeal, itscult status, the blockbuster asgenre and the perennial feature ofTITANIC films, the representationof class. TITANIC as a mass mediaevent is also explored as is theimportance of its soundtrack.

MARSH, Ed W.James Cameron’s Titanic.New York: HarperPerennial, 1997.

Glossy coffee table book on themaking of the film.

journal articles

SCREEN INTERNATIONALNo.1164. 26 June, 1998, p.9

Big Boat, small screen, by NickJamgocyan

The US video release of TITANICwas accompanied by the mostexpensive marketing campaign invideo history. Article includesdetails of the advertising cam-paign, how the female audiencewas targeted and how the crosspromotions with Max Factor andthe telecommunications companySprint operated.

SCREEN INTERNATIONALNo.1164. 26 June, 1998, p.9

Face Value, by Nick Jamgocyan

Includes details of how Max Factorhas created the largest promotion-al tie-in to date in relation to therelease of the video of TITANIC.Campaign involves giving awayfree copies of the bestselling nov-elisation of Titanic and copies ofthe video to anyone who buys $10worth of Max Factor cosmetics.

press articles

GUARDIAN (SECTION 2)16 December 1998

And the franchise plays on

Short article on the Titanic OfficialMovie Tour – a touring exhibitionof props and displays relating tothe film - arriving in the UK.

* NEWSWEEK23 February 1998, pp. 45-50

Our Titanic Love Affair, by DavidAnsen

Substantial US article on thereception of TITANIC by audiences,including some demographic andfinancial information.

GUARDIAN (SECTION 2)5 February 1998, p. 7

Money peculiar, by Derek Malcolm

With reference to TITANIC,Malcolm suggests that “the filmsthat make money are either veryexpensive or very cheap,” also cit-ing THE FULL MONTY as an exam-ple.

FINANCIAL TIMES2 February 1998, p. 5

Titanic album setsnew records, by AliceRawsthorn

Brief item on thegrowth of the filmsoundtrack industry,with TITANIC becom-ing the fastest-sellingsoundtrack album ofall time.

TIMES30 May 1997, p. 17

Titanic adrift in battleof blockbusters, byGiles Whittell

Short piece on the USrelease of TITANICbeing pulled from thekey summer block-buster slot it had beenscheduled for due tocostly productiondelays.

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Websites

Independent Film & TelevisionAlliance(formerly the American FilmMarket Association)

www.ifta-online.org.

IFTA is a trade association provid-ing the independent motion pic-ture and television industry withmarketing support services suchas the American Film Market(AFM), government relations, inter-national affairs advocacy, an arbi-tration programme, statisticaldata, and information services.Based in Los Angeles with a satel-lite office in London, IFTA wasfounded in 1980 - as the AmericanFilm Market Association - by inde-pendent distributors who soughtto build and protect their busi-nesses through the creation of aworld-class motion picture tradeshow.

Entertainment Resources andMarketing Association

www.erma.org

The Entertainment Resources andMarketing Association site pro-vides information on the profes-sion of product placement. It hasprofiles of production companieswho are members of the associa-tion and helps to represent com-panies and find them prod-uct/service brand names for pro-motion.

British Film Office

www.britainusa.com

Site of the British Film Office inLos Angeles to encourage theshooting of films in the UK. Alsoprovides assistance in marketingUK’s film and television productswithin the US. Lists recent filmsshot in the UK such as STAR WARSEPISODE 1 THE PHANTOM MENACE,THE MUMMY, NOTTING HILL andENTRAPMENT, and has informationon filming in Britain, studios, loca-tions and the financial advantagesand financial infrastructure.

Ain’t-It-Cool-News

www.aintitcool.com

Film critic site, run by HarryKnowles, credited by some studioswith the ability to make or break afilm. Visited by more than 400,000movie fans a day. Contains gossipand unofficial previews of filmsabout to be released.

Variety

www.variety.com

Daily Variety and Weekly Variety.Holds box office information oncurrent top 6 US films, and currentnews and reviews. Also provides asubscription service (Variety Extra)which provides a unique box officedatabase for more than five yearsof weekly box office charts, plus aReviews and Credits databasewhich contains more than 11,000original Variety film reviews. Thesite also has a section called

‘Slanguage’ - a dictionary of termsused in Variety articles andreviews.

Glossary of termsancilliary marketsdistribution markets supplemen-tary to theatrical release, eg. homevideo, television (terrestrial TV, payTV, overseas, etc).

arthouseterm used to describe films seento appeal to a specialised ratherthan mainstream audience, gener-ally produced outside of theHollywood studio system. Alsoused to describe cinemas at whichsuch product is exhibited.

back-enddeal struck, usually by lead actor,whereby earnings are based on apercentage of the gross box officetakings for a film rather than afixed payment.

block-bookingpractice under which large distri-bution companies negotiate guar-anteed exhibition for their lessdesirable titles through the supplyof their more marketable releasesto cinema chains. Can also lead toindependent cinemas being unableto book major releases in theiropening weeks.

box officeliterally, the place where ticketsare sold in a cinema or theatre.Generally used to refer to the totaltakings through ticket sales (beforeany deductions) for a film.

budgetterm used to describe both theamount of money the productionof a film is scheduled to cost andthe amount it subsequently doescost (also known as the negativecost). Production budget figuresdo not usually include the P & A(prints and advertising) budget.

cross over filma film originally thought to appealonly to a specialised audience (seealso arthouse) which succeeds inattracting a broader audience.

distributionthe link between the productionand exhibition of a film. The dis-tributor buys the rights to exploitthe product in particular markets(eg. theatrical, home video, etc).

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The distributor is usually responsi-ble for the marketing and promo-tion of the film as well as handlingthe physical distribution of thefilm prints.

exhibitionthe screening of a film; relating tothe cinema industry.

feature filmfull-length film, for contemporaryreleases this means a runningtime of approximately 72 minutesor above.

focus grouprepresentative group of membersof the public questioned to assesstheir reactions to a film prior to itsrelease. The feedback receivedmay subsequently be used to re-edit a film or to guide its market-ing strategy (see also test screen-ing below).

franchisethe exclusive right to sell a partic-ular product, used in the contextof the film industry to refer to anongoing series of films (eg. the DIEHARD or STAR WARS films) andtheir intellectual copyright.

Hollywood majorsthe US studios MGM/UnitedArtists, Paramount, Sony(Columbia Tri-Star), 20th CenturyFox, Disney and Warner Bros. Thenewcomer Dreamworks SKG isnow often added to this list.

independentfilm, or company working in theindustry, not financially connectedto a studio (see Hollywood majorsabove) or large corporation.

international sales agentcompany selling or licensing dis-tribution rights on behalf of pro-ducers to distributors in particularterritories around the world.

limited releasefilm opening on only a few select-ed screens (see also platormrelease below)

mainstreamterm describing a film seen ashaving wide commercial appeal.

merchandisingconsumer items (toys, CDs, cloth-ing, etc) exploiting the licensedimage of a film or character.

Platform releasefilm opening on a small number ofscreens with the hope that a posi-tive audience reaction will lead toa wider interest and hence widerdistribution.

press kitpublicity material supplied to themedia to assist in the coverage ofa film’s release, usually includingcast and credit details, as well asbiographies and filmographies ofcast, director and producer. Thisinformation is now often suppliedin an electronic format, when it isknown as an EPK (electronic presskit).

prints & advertising (P & A)the P & A budget covers the cost ofreleasing a film: producing themultiple prints required for distri-bution, advertising, publicity, pro-motion, etc.

printspositive copies of a film distrib-uted for screening at cinemas.Most theatrical releases will be ofprints in 35mm format.

public relations (PR)the practice of presenting animage or product to the public in adesired light. Distributors willusually handle the publicity for afilm’s release, but may sometimesalso hire a PR company to raisethe profile of the release in themedia, and to organise promo-tions, premieres, etc.

sell-throughreferring to the domestic purchas-ing of video and DVD.

taglinekey phrase or wording featured ona film’s posters or other publicitymaterial used to project a memo-rable idea of the film to the poten-tial audience.

test screeningpre-release screening arranged togauge audience reactions to a film.Audiences are requested to ratethe film within a number of cate-gories and the feedback receivedmay subsequently be used to re-edit a film or to guide its market-ing strategy (see also focus groupabove).

theatricalrelating to film exhibition in cine-mas.

tie-inpromotional campaign surround-ing the release of a film arrangedin conjunction with the media orcommercial partners (eg. con-sumer products, publications,competitions, fast food chain pro-motions, etc).trade papersmagazines devoted to businesscoverage of the film and mediaindustries, for example ScreenInternational and Variety.

trailershort promotional film used toadvertise a feature film release(theatrical or video) or broadcast.

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