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A review on DC/DC converter architectures
for power fuel cell applications
(review article)
Abdelfatah Kolli, Arnaud Gaillard, Alexandre De Bernardinis, Olivier Bethoux, Daniel Hissel,
Zoubir Khatir
DOI: 10.1016/j.enconman.2015.07.060
Reference:
Publisher: ELSEVIER
To appear in: Energy Conversion and Management
Received date: 9 April 2015
Accepted date: 25 July 2015
Date of Publication: 15 November 2015
Please cite this article as: Abdelfatah Kolli, Arnaud Gaillard, Alexandre De Bernardinis, Olivier
Bethoux, Daniel Hissel, Zoubir Khatir, A review on DC/DC converter architectures for power
fuel cell applications, Energy Conversion and Management, Volume 105, 15 November 2015,
Pages 716‐730, ISSN 0196‐8904, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.07.060.
(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0196890415007116)
doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2015.07.060
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1
A Review on DC/DC Converter Architectures 1
for Power Fuel Cell Applications 2
Abdelfatah KOLLI(2,4), Arnaud GAILLARD(1,4), Alexandre DE BERNARDINIS(2,4), Olivier 3
BETHOUX(3,4), Daniel HISSEL(1,4) and Zoubir KHATIR(2,4) 4
(1) FEMTO-ST Institute/Energy Department, (UMR CNRS 6174), UBFC, UFC, UTBM, 5
ENSMM, 90010 Belfort Cedex, France 6
(2) SATIE (UMR 8029), IFSTTAR, CNRS, ENS Cachan, CNAM, Université 7
Cergy-Pontoise, F-78000 Versailles, France 8
(3) GeePs, UMR CNRS 8507, France 9
(4) FCLAB Research Federation, FR CNRS 3539, France 10
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR 11
Email: [email protected] 12
Tel: +33130843991 13
Fax: + 33130844001 14
ABSTRACT 15
Fuel cell-based power sources are attractive devices. Through multi-stack architecture, they offer 16
flexibility, reliability, and efficiency. Keys to accessing the market are simplifying its architecture 17
and each components. These include, among others, the power converter enabling the output 18
voltage regulation. This article focuses on this specific component. The present paper gives a 19
comprehensive overview of the power converter interfaces potentially favorable for the 20
automotive, railways, aircrafts and small stationary domains. First, with respect to the strategic 21
development of a modular design, it defines the specifications of a basic interface. Second, it 22
2
inventories the best architecture opportunities with respect to these requirements. Based on this 1
study, it fully designs a basic module and points out the outstanding contribution of the new 2
developed silicon carbide switch technology. In conclusion, this review article exhibits the 3
importance of choosing the right power converter architecture and the related technology. In this 4
context it is highlighted that the output power interface can be efficient, compact and modular. In 5
addition, its features enable a thermal compatibility with many ways of integrating this component 6
in the global Fuel cell based power source. 7
KEYWORDS 8
Fuel Cell, PEMFC, Multi-stack architecture, DC/DC converter, wide-bandgap semiconductors. 9
NOMENCLATURE 10
D shoot-through duty cycle 11
Eoff switching-off energy of the semiconductor, J 12
Eon switching-on energy of the semiconductor, J 13
Erec. reverse recovery energy of the semiconductor, J 14
fsw switching frequency, Hz 15
IFC fuel cell current, A 16
PFC fuel cell power, W 17
IL average value of the inductor current, A 18
Ipk switching peak current, A 19
Itest reference current at the test condition provided in datasheet, V 20
Kswitch semiconductor utilization factor 21
N number of legs of the converter 22
Pcon. conduction losses of the switch, W 23
Poff switching-off losses of the switch, W 24
3
Pon switching-on losses of the switch, W 1
Prec. reverse recovery losses of the switch, W 2
Psw. switching losses of the switch, W 3
Ron dynamic on-state resistance of the switch, 4
Tj Junction temperature, °C 5
VDC DC link voltage, V 6
Vpk switch peak voltage, V 7
Vs0 saturation voltage of the switch, V 8
Vd0 forward voltage of the diode, V 9
Vtest reference voltage at the test condition provided in datasheet, V 10
I fuel cell current ripple, A 11
d duty cycle 12
1. INTRODUCTION 13
To reduce the greenhouse gas effects on the environment, many manufacturers from automotive, 14
railway, aircraft applications have developed hybrid or electric powertrain based essentially on the 15
utilization of batteries or fuel cell. The better example is the automotive domain where Plug-in / 16
Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV-HEV), Electric Vehicles (EV) or Fuel Cell Vehicle (FCV) were 17
developed in parallel to the traditional car based on the Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) by many 18
manufacturers over the past ten years. In [1], a comparison of characteristics between EV, HEV 19
and FCV have been explained. The main advantages and drawbacks of each of them are resumed 20
in Tab. 1. 21
Tab. 1: Advantages and drawbacks of EV, HEV and FCV 22
23
4
1
It has been shown that EVs and PHEVs can contribute to a reduction of approximately 30% in 2
light-duty vehicle CO2 emissions by 2050, assuming the deployment of 20 million EVs/PHEVs 3
and FCVs by 2020 [2]. In [2], authors give comparison and the complementarity of batteries and 4
fuel cells for electric driving. In fact, this paper summarizes different current and emerging power 5
train technologies (ICE, EV, HEV, FCV and FC-Range Extender) and provides a comparison 6
Advantages Disadvantages
EV
Zero CO2 emissions
High energy efficiency
Independence of crude oils
Relative short driving range
Charging time
High initial cost
Battery management (SOH)
HEV
Very low CO2 emissions
Higher fuel economy compared to
ICE vehicles
Long driving range
Higher cost compared to ICE
vehicles
Dependence of crude oil (for non
Plug In Hybrid)
FCV
Zero CO2 emissions
High energy efficiency
Independence of crude oils (if
hydrogen is not produced with oil)
High driving range
Fast charging time
Cold start capability
High cost
Hydrogen infrastructure
Reliability and lifespan
5
within a techno-economic framework, especially for the architectures of range-extender power 1
trains. The economic comparison between the vehicles is based on the Total Cost of Ownership 2
(TCO), which describes all the costs during the lifetime of the vehicle. The economic benefits for 3
the TCO are based on forecasts for the major TCO influencing parameters up to 2030: electric 4
driving distances, energy (fuel, electricity, hydrogen) prices, batteries and fuel cell costs. The TCOs 5
of all the vehicles become similar in 2030, given a 200 km battery range for EVs and for yearly 6
mileages of 30,000 km. A FCV with a fuel cell cost of 40 €/kW will be competitive with a similar 7
ICE car for a 1.75 €/l fuel cost and ca. 7 €/kg hydrogen cost for a high driving range [2]. 8
[AG1]Moreover, it is clearly indicated that in the horizon 2020-2050, the main cars of the automotive 9
world market will be EV and FCV. As illustrated in the Tab. 1, the main drawback of EVs is the 10
relative short driving range due to the small energy density of batteries. In [3], characteristics of 11
commonly used batteries in EVs have been presented. The actual better technology of batteries is 12
the Lithium Ion with its high energy density up to 150 Wh/kg regarding the two others 13
technologies: Lead Acid (40 Wh/kg) and NiMH (80Wh/kg). However, the Lithium Ion technology 14
is the most expensive. In [3], the Lithium Air technology for future batteries in EVs has been 15
presented. This technology could significantly increase the range of EVs because of their high 16
energy density, which could theoretically be equal to the energy density of gasoline. Unfortunately, 17
this technology is always under development in some manufacturers like Toyota Motor 18
Corporation and BMW. 19
Due to the high energy density of the hydrogen (many times greater than for a Lithium Ion battery), 20
FCV can reach a high driving range [4,5]. In order to increase the global efficiency of the 21
powertrain and to respond to sudden changes in the load, a storage element like a battery or a super 22
capacitor have to be added to recover the kinetic energy during braking and to provide energy 23
during acceleration of the vehicle [6]. As it has been mentioned in [3], due to issues related to cost, 24
6
manufacturing, robustness of the technology, hydrogen production, and the hydrogen 1
infrastructure, in few years, the fuel cells could be used as range extenders instead of the internal 2
combustion engine-driven generators in series hybrid vehicles. These plug-in fuel cell vehicles 3
(PFCV) consisting of a smaller fuel cell and a larger battery (battery dominant) may be the future 4
direction for automobiles [7,9]. 5
Among the five existing Fuel Cell (FC) technologies : Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell 6
(PEMFC), Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC), Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC), Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell 7
(PAFC), and Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC), PEMFC are specially and intensely 8
investigated when considering transportation applications [10]. Indeed PEMFC presents high-9
power density, low weight and volume, compared with other FC technologies [11,12]. Regarding 10
commercialization, the U.S Department of Energy has reported that near 30,000 FCS have been 11
marketed in 2012 [13]. Nevertheless, the stationary market represents 83% of the overall sales. 12
Regarding the transportation area, the PEMFC is the dominant technology, representing 88% of 13
transportation units shipped in 2012 [14]. 14
PEMFCs operate at relatively low temperatures, around 80°C. Hence, low-temperature operation 15
allows them to start quickly (i.e. less warm-up time) and results in less thermal stress on system 16
components, enabling a better durability [15]. Generally speaking, FCSs need to meet severe 17
technical requirements regarding operating temperature, energy efficiency, weight / volume and 18
reliability [16]. Once all these conditions are met, the FC market will be certainly promoted and 19
will help to move from a very small-scale industry to a mass-produced manufacturing. 20
One way to improve at least a part of these requirements is to consider Multi – stack Fuel Cell 21
(MFC) architectures. Indeed, those architectures can improve efficiency, reliability and cost [17] 22
although still efforts on the MFC design should be done. In fact, the design of MFC architecture 23
has to be optimized as a whole rather than optimizing individually each specific subsystem. It is 24
7
within this perspective that the FC and its output power converter have to be designed out jointly 1
to create a so-called optimized power module. Thus, this leads to meet the three following 2
requirements of a win-win integration, namely: (i) a thermal compatibility between the FC and the 3
power converter; (ii) a compact converter by improving the power efficiency and increasing the 4
switching frequency; and (iii) an extended thermal ability of the “FC – converter” module to cover 5
severe environments. 6
Despite power converters become commonly used in mass-market products like cars, railways and 7
aircrafts, semiconductor technologies are critical factors necessary for meeting the above 8
requirements and demands. Multiple power converters grouped in non-isolated and isolated 9
topologies have been studied for FC interfacing [18]. As well, intensive material research has led 10
to new Wide-BandGap (WBG) components such as Silicon Carbide (SiC) and Gallium Nitride 11
(GaN) semiconductors. This technological advance has significantly changed the tradeoff in 12
achieving the final DC/DC converter design, especially for the MFC architectures based on 13
PEMFC technology [19]. 14
This paper surveys possible power converter candidates for interfacing PEMFC in MFC 15
architectures. The discussion deals with the topological and technological characteristics of the 16
power converter for various environments (automotive, railway, aircraft and stationary) requiring 17
high compactness. 18
This paper is organized in four parts. After this introduction, section 2 provides a state-of-art of the 19
different studies and applications of the technology, configuration, and required power levels in 20
MFC architectures. In section 3, an exhaustive comparison is done regarding the electronic 21
topologies candidates for FC output power converter. In section 4, the actual market of power 22
switches based on WBG semiconductors enabling the design of an efficient power converter will 23
be presented. Conclusions will be drawn in a final section. 24
8
2. MULTI–STACK PEMFC ARCHITECTURES FOR MODULARITY AND RELIABILITY OF 1
EMBEDDED POWERTRAINS 2
A FCS is first-of-all a multi-physics system; it combines electrochemical, fluidic, electric and 3
thermal sub-systems (Fig. 1). The electrochemical part (cells) provides electric power, whereas 4
water and heat are obtained from the chemical reaction between oxygen and hydrogen. The fluidic 5
sub-system is dedicated to supply the cells by the reactants (O2 and H2 in case of PEMFC) [20]. 6
The power converter ensures the connection of the FC stack to the DC bus. The cooling is intended 7
for the heat removal due to the electrochemical reaction and the power converter losses. Although 8
the discovery of FCs dates back nearly 150 years [21], the interest in MFC architectures is new. 9
These last ones are the association of multiple FCS. The MFC architectures have been proposed in 10
order to improve the efficiency and to increase the power [22]. In 1968, Liebhafsky and al. have 11
proposed a new arrangement to increase the output power by 5% compared to a classical 12
configuration [23]. Since then, MFC architectures have evolved steadily to be improved through 13
efforts focused in fluidic circuitry design and distribution, stack splitting and thermal management 14
[24,25]. 15
9
1
Fig. 1: Example of a PEMFC system 2
From literature, three configurations for fluidic circuitry can be found; parallel distribution (Fig. 2-3
a), series distribution (Fig. 2-b) or combination series – parallel (Fig. 2-c) [26]. In the series 4
distribution, the gas compressors can be located whether at the inlet of each FC module (case of 5
Fig. 2-b) or only at the inlet of the first FC module. The parallel configuration simplifies the fluidic 6
circuit by using a common compressor, and significantly improves the compactness and cost of the 7
system [24][27]. The series configuration allows reducing the fuel exhausts and achieves higher 8
power output [28], this makes it interesting for use in MFC architectures. 9
10
1
Fig. 2: Fluidic circuits in MFC architectures. (a) Series distribution. (b) Parallel 2
distribution. (c) Series – parallel distribution. 3
The MFC approach has been adopted both in the embedded and stationary domains. For instance, 4
in the automotive environment, the MFC is used as the main power source for vehicle propulsion 5
in rail-road [29] and vehicular applications [30]. Classically, relatively high power applications are 6
considered, as in [31,33] where MFC architectures with total powers of 60kW and 80kW have been 7
proposed. In these applications, several FC modules presenting a power of up to 30kW have been 8
developed and tested. In [31] three 20kW modules have been developed in order to supply a 60kW 9
Electric Vehicle (EV) powertrain. In [32] a 80kW modular PEMFC (2 stacks of about 40kW 10
nominal electrical power) have been designed and tested in two distinct environments; the first one 11
is a railway application where the FC is integrated into a hybrid shunting locomotive of the French 12
National Railways Company (SNCF). The second one is a heavy-duty mobile test bench [33]. 13
Recently, MFC systems for railway applications have been also patented [34], where two 150kW 14
PEMFC modules based on Ballard Power System Mk903 have been used for locomotive traction. 15
11
In aeronautics applications, modular FC architectures are used to meet the reliability and 1
redundancy needs [35]. For example, in [36] three FC modules are incorporated in the supply chain 2
of an aircraft. The MFC architecture has been also used for marine [37,38] and submarine 3
applications [39]. In this area, the most well-known MFC application has been developed by the 4
German shipyard Howaldtswerke-Deutsche Werft and Siemens AG Company for a submarine 5
propulsion [40,41]. The power supply of 306kW is equipped with different FC power modules, 6
each one featuring a unitary power of 34kW. 7
The multi-stack approach has been also used in Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS), auxiliary 8
power unit and storage of renewable energy in stationary applications. For power plant 9
applications, Bloom Energy Company commercializes modular and flexible design consisting of 10
several FC modules rated at 100kW and 200kW [42,43]. Roche and al. [43] have proposed MFC 11
composed of several 100kW PEMFCs and combined with a storage unit and developed an efficient 12
system design in order to minimize the global costs. In [44] and [45], MFC architecture associated, 13
in parallel, with battery and super-capacitor modules have been adopted for utility-scale power 14
plants. Besides the fault tolerance benefits, the proposed modular concept has improved the total 15
output power by 10% compared to the conventional FC association (stacks in series). 16
Today, the multi–stack approach is an interesting solution covering the reliability and modularity 17
issues for the association of FCs with power converters [46]. Indeed, in a conventional PEMFC, if 18
one or more cells are faulty, the whole system becomes unusable. Conversely, in case of a MFC 19
architecture, continuity of service is ensured by isolating the incriminated stack and the power 20
system continues to operate with the remaining healthy stacks [47,48]. This feature is also valid in 21
case of electrical power converter faults like power switch fault for example [45]. 22
From an electrical point of view, concept of MFC architectures consists in an association of several 23
“FC – power converter” modules to provide a part or the full DC bus voltage [49], as shown in Fig. 24
12
3. For a serial association (Fig. 3-a), it is mandatory to isolate and short-circuit (bypass) the faulty 1
module by using the relevant switches (noted K in Fig. 3-a). However, the additional switches are 2
not required in a parallel association. The advantage of a serial association is mainly the reduction 3
of the voltage constraint applied to each power converter. On the contrary, the power converters 4
assembled in parallel association should sustain two voltage constraints, low FC voltage and the 5
high DC bus voltage. 6
7
Fig. 3: “FC – power converter” modules association in multi-stack architectures. 8
Despite its assets and potentials for these reported applications, the MFC architectures still remain 9
at a primitive stage of development. Moreover, to move FCS from a very small-scale industry to a 10
mass-produced manufacturing, one of the attractive perspectives consists in a standardization of 11
the “Fuel Cell system” power module to meet different application specifications : automotive 12
(light–duty and heavy–duty vehicles), railway, aircraft or even small stationary applications (e.g. 13
micro-cogeneration units). For such environments, the installed power level is: 14
13
20kW to 100kW for Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV) and urban cars [31][50,53] 1
40kW to 700kW for aircrafts [54,57] 2
100kW to 200kW for heavy-duty vehicles such as buses, light trams or even locomotives 3
[58,59] 4
Considering these examples, a unit FCS power module of 20kW seems to be a judicious choice. In 5
fact, such a unit could be used as a base power module for reaching higher power levels thanks to 6
MFC architectures in these different application areas. For example, the commercialized PEMFC 7
module proposed by Ballard® Company, is a potential candidate. The features of this stack are 8
described in Tab. 2. 9
Tab. 2: Ballard PEM FCvelocity electrical features. 10
Parameter Value
Rated power 21kW
Rated current 300A
Rated voltage @ 300A 70V
11
Similarly, the power converter interfacing the FC module should have the same power level. In the 12
specific case of a Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle, the FC current is generally high while the input voltage 13
is fairly low. In addition, the output voltage has to be adjusted to a fixed DC bus value regardless 14
of FC voltage variations. This DC bus voltage can reach up to ten times the value of the FC voltage; 15
it varies regarding each specific environment [60]: 16
270V – 350V for aircrafts [56] 17
270V– 540V for Hybrid Electrical Vehicles (HEV) [61] 18
350V – 750V for railway and heavy-duty vehicles [62] 19
14
48V – 480 V for stand-alone grids [63,64] 1
Hence, the power converter topology is submitted to severe constraints in terms of current (FC 2
side) and voltage (DC bus side). Therefore, the required semiconductor devices should be able to 3
sustain these electrical stresses. In general, the judicious choice of the power converter topology is 4
a key to reducing these critical constraints, and also to obtaining a satisfactory efficiency. For this 5
purpose, the following section reviews the power converter topologies candidates for use in MFC 6
architectures. 7
3. COMPETITIVE POWER ELECTRONIC INTERFACES 8
The power electronic interface aims at increasing the low FC voltage to a fixed DC bus voltage. It 9
is also mandatory to maintain the FC current ripple at a lower level in order to expand FC lifespan 10
[65,69]. For MFC architectures for powertrains, the specifications for design of the power converter 11
are well known [70,72]: 12
high power efficiency 13
fast tuning performances avoiding large passive storage components 14
low current ripple avoiding FC damage and ageing 15
compactness 16
modularity 17
reliability and redundancy enabling continuity of services 18
Various competitive topologies can thus be suitable for FC interface. The next paragraphs will be 19
devoted to analyze the advantages and drawbacks of different possible topologies. 20
3.1. Non–isolated DC/DC converters topologies 21
Non-isolated DC/DC converter topologies are widely used in medium and high power applications 22
[73]. Among them, step-up converters as the conventional Boost (BC), the Buck-Boost (BBC), the 23
15
Interleaved Boost (IBC), the Floating-Interleaved Boost (FIBC) are the most popular architectures 1
for FC interfaces, as shown in Fig. 4 [74] because of their interesting features such as simplicity, 2
simplified control, compactness and low cost. 3
These power converters are well suited for applications requiring low and medium DC bus 4
voltages. When the required DC bus voltage is higher, multiple converters placed in cascade are 5
strongly recommended [75]. Other works have proposed the use the Single Ended Primary Inductor 6
Converter (SEPIC) [76], where the output voltage is non-inverted and the voltage ratio is similar 7
to the BBC [77]. The majority of studies select multi-leg non-isolated architectures [78,79]. For 8
example, in [80], using Silicon (Si) semiconductor components, a 1.2kW multiphase IBC keeping 9
a FC current ripple close to zero has been proposed. The full load efficiency of the converter is 10
around 90% at a switching frequency of 25 kHz. Similar 1.2kW 4-phase IBC for PEMFC interface 11
has been proposed in [81]. This proposed converter achieves efficiency around 85 %– 95% at the 12
same switching frequency of 25 kHz. However in these both applications, the low DC output 13
voltage of the converter (60V) presents significant disadvantage for automotive and aircraft 14
applications where the DC link voltage is fixed between 300V to 400V [82]. This disadvantage has 15
been tackled later in [83], where authors advocate using a cascaded boost converter interfacing a 16
500W PEMFC in order to obtain a high voltage ratio. Recently, Toyota has developed for MIRAI 17
FC vehicle a 114kW 4-phase IBC converter achieving a maximum DC Bus voltage of 650V [6]. 18
The IBC input voltage varies from 370 V (no-load voltage) to 240 V (full-load voltage). 19
16
1
Fig. 4: Competitive non-isolated converters for FC interface. (a) Boost Converter. (b) Buck-2
Boost Converter. (c) Interleaved Boost Converter. (d) Floating-Interleaved Boost 3
Converter. 4
Boost topologies meet the requirement of Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) analysis 5
aiming to monitor the FC state of health [84]. Multiphase topologies are very suitable for 6
improvement of the cycle efficiency [85,87] since their possibility to fragment the power demand 7
depending on the required level. This strategy, called part-load operation, is achievable by a proper 8
phase shedding (phase dropping) of the multiphase topology. At full load conditions, all the 9
converter phases are activated, therefore the different power converter losses (switching, reverse-10
recovery, inductor core losses, etc.) still exist in each phase. At light load conditions, the number 11
of active phases is reduced according to the power demand; that decreases the converter power 12
losses and improves the efficiency. The part-load technique has been adopted in the 4-phase IBC 13
of Toyota MIRAI, and has led to reduce the converter losses to approximately 10% at 15kW [6]. 14
VDC
VFC
C
LiIFC
(c) Interleaved Boost Converter
VDC
VFC
CLIFC
(a) Boost Converter
VDC
VFC
C
L
IFC
(b) Buck-Boost Converter
VDC
C1LiIFC
C2Li
(d) Floating-Interleaved Boost Converter
-
+
-
+
VFC
17
In addition, the interleaved converters are able to operate under soft-switching techniques [88]. For 1
this, an auxiliary capacitor should be added across the switches to obtain a soft turn-on and turn-2
off. 3
Particularly, the FIBC and IBC topologies are the most attractive converters because of their ability 4
to [69][85][89]: 5
reduce the FC current ripple; 6
manage the high FC current by a relevant sharing between legs; 7
reduce the electrical stresses applied on the semiconductors devices; 8
soft-switching by quasi-resonance technique; 9
operate under part-load mode for efficiency improvement; 10
fault-tolerant capability under power switch fault. 11
As shown in Fig. 4, both converters require multiple legs in parallel to handle high currents. 12
Moreover, they allow the reduction of the FC current ripple due to the interleaving technique. 13
Structurally, both power converters are similar, except the DC link capacitor segmented in two 14
parts for the second one (C1 and C2 in Fig. 4-d). The interleaved input legs are placed in parallel 15
while the DC link capacitors are connected in series. However, this series connection of the output 16
imposes to use of even number of input legs. 17
Regarding the voltage ratio, for the same duty cycle the FIBC reaches higher voltage ratio than the 18
BC, IBC and BBC topologies. The electrical constraints applied on the switching devices by the 19
FIBC and IBC structures are different (see Tab. 3). In fact, in order to obtain the same DC bus 20
voltage, the voltage stress is reduced by 60% for the FIBC regarding the IBC, while the current 21
stress is 120% higher than the IBC one. Certainly, the latter leads to use high current 22
semiconductors, but their utilization factor is still higher compared to the IBC switches. Indeed, 23
18
the switched power (or semiconductor utilization factor, Kswitch) is defined as the ratio between the 1
input power, PFC and the transmitted power by the overall switches: 2
∙ ∙
(1)
Choi et al. demonstrated that the switched power (in diode and transistor) is more important in case 3
of a two-phase FIBC [90]. It represents 280% and 150% respectively of the values obtained for the 4
conventional BC and the two-phase IBC architectures. 5
Tab. 3: Electrical stresses applied on semiconductors in non-isolated DC/DC converters 6
7
3.2. DC/AC topologies: Z-Source converters 8
Other power converter topologies such as isolated and Z-source inverter (ZSI) ones have been also 9
studied. These topologies are devoted to the electric drives supplying AC loads [18]. The ZSI 10
topologies comprise impedances between the DC source and the 3-phase inverter. Fig. 5 shows the 11
scheme of the unidirectional ZSI used in FCS-based powertrains. The impedance network is 12
composed of two identical inductors (L1, L2) and two similar capacitors (C1, C2). These latter are 13
placed in the depicted manner to achieve any desired AC voltage. The ZSI topologies are single 14
stage converter with similar features to BBC topology [68]. Indeed, the voltage ratio, Bf obtained 15
during the shoot-through zero state is defined as follows [75][91]: 16
Voltage ratio Voltage stress
Vpk
Current stress
Ipk Switched power (Kswitch)
IBC 1
1 Δ
P∙ ∙ Δ
FIBC 1 d1
1
21
Δ P ∙ 1
∙21 ∙ Δ
19
1
1 2 (2)
where D is the shoot-through duty cycle. The output AC voltages are monitored via two control 1
variables; the shoot-through duty cycle and the modulation index of the 3-phase inverter [92,93]. 2
3
Fig. 5: Unidirectional Z-Source Inverter (ZSI) topology. 4
The ZSI is an interesting candidate for feeding adjustable speed drives powered by FC, especially 5
in automotive applications [94]. However, the boost operation mode is obtained during the dead 6
times intervals of the inverter switches, this makes it very difficult to control [71][95]. The ZSI can 7
keep a low FC current ripple but at the expense of large passive elements [96]. This fact has led to 8
develop another variant of ZSI topologies named the quasi ZSI and depicted in Fig. 6-a. It permits 9
reducing the rating of the capacitor (C2 in Fig. 6-a), thus also the converter cost and volume [96]. 10
This topology allows DC link voltage improvement but with different characteristics in terms of 11
operating principle. It presents two operating states; shoot-through and non-shoot-through states. 12
As the conventional ZSI, the boost operation is achieved in the shoot-through times. The quasi ZSI 13
is also a two-port structure, the converter in Fig. 6-b shows a FC association with battery [97]. 14
VFCTo AC load
Z-source impedance
Fuel cellstack
3 phase inverter
VDC
L1
C1
L2
C2
20
1
Fig. 6: Unidirectional quasi Z-Source Inverters. (a) Single port topology. (b) Two-port 2
topology. 3
Tab. 4 summarizes the features of the discussed non-isolated converters. The comparison also 4
includes the number of power elements required by each topology. From the structural point of 5
view, the classical IBC and the FIBC converters show similar features with a slightly complexity 6
of the FIBC. In addition, the latter has less degree of freedom in that it must operate with an even 7
number of legs. This constraint limits its ability to operate in post-failure mode or in the part-load 8
strategy [90]. The ZSI permits to reduce the number of active switches but requires large and 9
voluminous passive elements due to their high RMS currents. In terms of control, the FIBC remains 10
VFC
L1
C1
L2
To AC load
Z-source impedance
D
C2
VDC
(a)
VFC
L1
C1
L2
To AC load
Z-source impedance
D
C2
+
VDC
(b)
21
complex since both capacitor voltages should be balanced [89][98]. The same accounts for the ZSI, 1
which is hardly controllable during the mandatory dead-time of the inverter. 2
In this respect, the IBC topologies seem to be potential candidates for interfacing with medium 3
power FC stacks. Their flexibility in terms of architecture and control permits to achieve 4
satisfactory performances. 5
Tab. 4: Summary of the non-isolated converters features 6
7
22
1
Advantages Disadvantages Complexity
IBC
Interleaving technique, current
sharing and low current ripple
Part-load operation mode
regardless of the number of
legs
Fault–tolerant converter, even
with one leg
Easy control
Medium voltage ratio
High voltage stress
Low semiconductor
utilization factor
2 Switch
2 Diode
2 Inductor
1 Capacitor
FIBC
High voltage ratio
Low voltage stress and high
semiconductor utilization
factor
Interleaving technique, current
sharing and low current ripple
Fault–tolerant converter
with minimum of two legs
Part-load operation mode
only using even number of
legs
Complex control
2 Switch
2 Diodes
2 Inductors
2 Capacitors
ZSI Reduced number of switches
Low current ripple
Only for AC loads
High RMS currents in the
passive elements
Large passive elements
Complex control
1 Diode
2 Inductors
2 Capacitors
23
3.3. DC/AC/DC topologies: isolated converters 1
The isolated DC-DC converters have an intermediate AC stage composed of a single phase inverter 2
and a transformer (Fig. 7). In general, the latter is a planar transformer operating at high frequency 3
[99]. The transformer enables having low voltage for the input converter and low currents for the 4
output converter. The main advantage of these architectures are the high voltage ratio [100]. The 5
electrical isolation provided by the HF transformer is mainly required to protect the FC stacks under 6
overload conditions [18]. The AC stage can be half-bridge [101], full-bridge [102] or multi-channel 7
interleaved [79]. The output DC stage is generally a diode rectifier, a combined diode-capacitor 8
rectifier [103], or multi-stage voltage source inverter [104]. To resume, the different features of 9
these topologies are listed below [104, 108]: 10
high voltage ratio; 11
galvanic isolation; 12
soft switching operation improving converter efficiency; 13
size reduction of the transformers through rising the operating frequency. 14
15
Fig. 7: Concept of isolated DC/AC/DC converter. 16
m
VFC
AC stage(inverter +
transformer)
DC stage(rectifier)
DC stage(fuel cell)
VDC
24
The isolated topologies are mainly popular in low and medium power applications. However, the 1
planar transformer becomes less compact for the medium power applications. For example, Fig. 8 2
shows the volume of the only available (on 2014 market) 20kW-100kHz planar transformer [109] 3
compared to a 21kW 6-phase IBC [110]. In addition, the converter efficiency is relatively poor due 4
to the use of three serial conversions which makes it unsuited for medium and high power 5
applications [111]. 6
7
Fig. 8: Volume of 20kW high frequency planar transformer [109] 8
and 21kW 6-phase IBC [110]. 9
There are many configurations of isolated converters; the forward, the fly-back [112], the push–10
pull [113,115], the half bridge and the full bridge [116]. A state-of-art reveals that the half-bridge 11
and the full bridge are the most popular isolated topologies for connection to FC stacks [71][117]. 12
For the FC diagnosis issues, the isolated converters offer the possibility to perform an EIS analysis 13
of the FC through the isolated converter [95]. This feature can be performed when the output DC 14
stage is controllable through MOSFET or IGBT power switches. 15
25
3.3.1. Half-bridge Isolated Converter (HIC) 1
The AC stage of the converter is a two-phase interleaved boost allowing current sharing and 2
keeping low FC current ripple. The converter is isolated by the use of a transformer between the 3
inverter and the diode rectifier (Fig. 9). The interleaving aspect of the converter avoids using large 4
passive components and enables degraded operation mode. The HIC control is identical to the IBC 5
one. However in HIC, it is mandatory to keep duty cycle higher than 50% to prevent voltage peaks 6
damaging the switches [118]. The converter is operating on hard-switching mode leading to severe 7
voltage stresses applied to the semiconductors devices because of the influence of transformer 8
leakage inductance. To address this issue, the HIC converter requires auxiliary clamping circuit 9
which generally consists of capacitor and a switch or diode, a capacity and a resistor [107]. 10
The soft-switching operation of the HIC topology becomes possible by introducing additional 11
components. As reported in [118], two switches and a capacitor can be used for applying Zero 12
Voltage Switching (ZVS) operation while a single capacitor is placed on the secondary side of the 13
transformer to realize the Zero Current Switching (ZCS) operation (Fig. 9). It is also possible to 14
obtain the ZCS operation by adding capacitors across the semiconductors devices [119,120]. In 15
both cases, the leakage inductance of the transformer is used to build a resonant circuit. The ZCS 16
operation still remains subject to limitations of the duty cycle while ZVS operation is possible 17
below 50% of the duty cycle. However, the ZCS HIC is more suitable for a FCS because of its 18
simplicity [121]. 19
26
1
Fig. 9 : Half-bridge Isolated Converter (HIC). 2
3.3.2. Full-bridge Isolated Converter (FIC) 3
The Full-bridge Isolated Converter (FIC) converter is composed of a full-bridge stage at the 4
primary side. Such an approach has two variants: voltage-fed converter (Fig. 10-a) with DC link 5
input capacitor operating as VSI [117][122], and current-fed converter (Fig. 10-b) with input 6
inductor operating in boost converter [102][123]. In the voltage-fed case, the control of the primary 7
converter is identical to the single-phase VSI [103][124]. For the current-fed converter, the control 8
is characterized by two steps: first, the input inductor is magnetized by turning-on either the 9
switches (S1 & S3) or (S2 & S4) or (S1 & S2 & S3 & S4) shown in (Fig. 10-b) [125]. Similar to the 10
HIC, the duty cycle must be higher than 50% to prevent switches damaging [126]. Hence, the gate 11
signals of the two legs are identical and shifted by a half period. 12
In both cases, the FC current sharing is not realized; each switch has to withstand the overall FC 13
current [127]. For the current-fed converter topology, the electrical stress across the switches is 14
important due to the effect of the transformer leakage inductance [128]. In general, a passive 15
VFC
C
m
Czvs
Czcs
Additional components for ZVS operation
Additional components for ZCS operation
VDC
27
clamping circuit (resistor, capacitor and diode), or an active clamping circuit (switch and capacitor) 1
is added in order to reduce the voltage peaks across the switches [129]. 2
3
Fig. 10 : Full-bridge Isolated Converter (FIC). (a) Voltage-fed FIC. (b) Current-fed FIC. 4
The FIC topologies are able to operate under soft-switching mode. To achieve this, the converter 5
circuit should be modified. The ZVS operation can be obtained by adding capacitors across the 6
switches of the primary stage [120][122][130]. The additional circuit for the ZCS operation is less 7
complex as a single capacitor is used in the secondary side of the transformer to form a resonant 8
circuit with the leakage inductor (Fig. 11) [131]. The so modified converter, called Resonant 9
Isolated Boost (RIB), permits reducing the leakage inductor effect and improving the converter 10
efficiency [107][132]. Recent studies [22][126] have assess the relevance of using RIB topology 11
to be used in MFC architectures. For a specific MFC application (PFC=10kW, VDC=540V, FSW=40 12
kHz), Frappé et al. advocated the RIB topology for its high power efficiency, reduced switching 13
L
C
m
VDC
(a)S1 S2
S3 S4
L
VFC
C
m
VDC
(b)S1 S2
S3 S4
28
devices stresses and modularity characteristics [22][126]. However, the converter is unable to flow 1
low power, 500W in this example, but well is suited to high power FC applications. 2
3
Fig. 11 : Resonant Isolated Boost (RIB) converter. 4
In short, Tab. 5 gives a qualitative synthesis of the discussed isolated converters. The RIB topology 5
differs from the other isolated converters by its ability to operate under ZCS without an additional 6
clamping circuit. This topology drawback lies in the high current rating required for its switches. 7
For the voltage-fed topologies, particularly in case of FIC and RIB converters, it is mandatory to 8
protect the FC against negative values of current by adding a diode in series. Additional losses 9
occur in this latter because it submitted to the severe current constraint of the FC. 10
Tab. 5: Summary of the isolated converters features 11
Advantages Disadvantages Complexity
HIC
Reduced number of
switches
High voltage ratio
Clamping circuit is
necessary due to the
leakage inductance
2 Switches
4 Diodes
2 Inductors
1 Capacitor
L
VFC
C
m
VDCcp
29
High voltage stress in the
primary inverter side
Unable to flow low power
High current rating of
switches
1 HF transformer
FIC
Low voltage stress
Requires only one
inductor
Easy control
High voltage ratio
Clamping circuit is
necessary due to the
leakage inductance
High current rating of
switches
4 Switches
4 Diodes
1 Inductors
1 Capacitor
1 HF transformer
RIB
ZCS operation
Clamping circuit not
necessary
Control structure similar
to the one adopted for
boost converter (see,
non-isolated)
High voltage ratio
High current rating of
switches
Unable to flow low power
4 Switches
8 Diodes
1 Inductor
2 Capacitors
1 HF transformer
1
The selection of the power-interface should respect technical issues as high efficiency, low current 2
ripple, compactness and reliability, but also economic factors like lower cost. The reviewed 3
structures offer the opportunity to attenuate the severe electrical constraints resulting from the high 4
FC current and the high DC bus voltage (at the input and output sides, respectively). The discussed 5
30
non-isolated converters reveal the interesting characteristics of the IBC topology, such as 1
simplicity, continuity of service and ability to optimize its efficiency over a wide range of power. 2
For their part, isolated converters are able to improve the voltage ratio and the operating switching 3
frequency, therefore reducing the volume of the passive elements. Among them, the RIB converter 4
offers relevant features like the high voltage ratio and the FC protection by the galvanic isolation. 5
Tab. 6 gives a qualitative comparison between the two most interesting converters, namely IBC 6
and RIB. Clearly, for the medium power and DC voltage as EV and aircrafts, the IBC topology 7
should be potential solution for interfacing with the power FC. It predominantly combines the 8
requirements of FC power conditioning, in particular simplicity, performances (compactness [110] 9
and efficiency [6]) and reliability. 10
Increasing the efficiency and reducing the volume of the FC system as a whole require a specific 11
effort on the power converter. This challenge concerns explicitly the reduction of the various losses 12
(i.e. switching, conduction…etc.) while improving the switching frequency of the converter. For 13
instance, the current sharing offered by the interleaved converters is a relevant manner to reduce 14
the conduction losses. Indeed, the conduction losses can be minimized by reducing the usage of 15
components achievable by part-load operation, or by reducing their operating ranges. The 16
switching losses can be handled by using classical soft-switching techniques in case of silicon 17
semiconductors due to their poor switching characteristics (recovery energy, switching losses). 18
This requirement is also reachable by using high efficiency WBG semiconductor devices. The 19
following section aims highlighting the recent technological advances in semiconductor devices 20
which might improve the efficiency of the DC/DC converters. A representative quantitative 21
comparison is conducted in order to illustrate the contribution of these new devices, particularity 22
for the promising solution of IBC. 23
Tab. 6: Comparison between IBC and RIB converters 24
31
Features IBC RIB
Voltage ratio Medium High
Stress on switches Medium
Current sharing depending
on the number of legs
High
Requires twice current
rating of switches
Current ripple Low Low
Galvanic isolation No Yes
Soft-Switching Yes
Needs additional capacitor
Yes
Without clamping circuit
Complexity Simple
2 switches, 2 diodes, 2
inductors, 1 capacitor
Complex
4 switches, 8 diodes, 1
inductor, 2 capacitors, 1
HF transformer
Part-load operation Yes No
Fault-tolerant operation Yes No
Control Easy Easy
1
4. SIGNIFICANT OPPORTUNITY OF WIDE-BANDGAP TECHNOLOGY FOR FUEL CELL 2
DC/DC OUTPUT CONVERTER 3
Silicon Carbide (SiC) and Gallium Nitride (GaN) semiconductors have recently emerged on the 4
market of power semiconductors. From functional point of view, these power semiconductor chips 5
are able to handle severe operating conditions of temperature, high voltage and high switching 6
frequency [133]. Fig. 12 summarizes the relevant material properties of WBG semiconductors 7
32
compared to the silicon technology. All these benefits make them attractive candidates for the 1
power, frequency and thermal rising required in transportation applications. In the last decade this 2
has been confirmed by several studies investigating the use and the reliability of these technologies 3
in different power converters [134,137]. Currently, the packaging remains the weak point in this 4
area in limiting their potential performance and progress must still be done in order to benefit of 5
their intrinsic capabilities. 6
7
Fig. 12 : Properties of Si, SiC, and GaN materials [138,139]. 8
Although WBG manufacturing process still matures, several products have already been marketed 9
and can be used in high efficiency power converters. When considering power modules and 10
devices, SiC components are the most available on the WBG market (see Tab. 7). Several 11
manufacturers are competing for improving power density and thermal capability. Tab. 7 shows 12
existing power modules current range that reaches 285A at a temperature of 25°C. APE Company 13
modules achieve currently the best performances because of high power density and large thermal 14
limits (225°C). But their high unit cost remains a major handicap especially for the multi-phase 15
0
1
2
3
4
5
Energy gap(eV)
Electric field(MV/cm)
Thermalconductivity
(W/cm/K)
Maximaltemperature
(x200 °C)
Electronvelocity (x1E7
cm/s)
Si
SiC
GaN
33
power converter topologies. As shown in Tab. 7, the Z-FETTM MOSFET module from CREE 1
manufacturer offers attractive price associated with a relatively good power density. 2
Introduced in 2001 with Schottky diodes, SiC technology has grown slowly in maturity due to 3
crystal growth difficulties (stacking faults, micro-pipes,…) [140,141]. Conversely GaN devices 4
were considered for power applications more recently but are in a rapid development, relatively to 5
SiC devices, due both i) the mastering of the RF technology and ii) the opportunity to make the 6
crystal grow on Si substrates and thus to use the silicon process technology leading to lower prices. 7
Nevertheless, GaN components are mainly still in the development phase and available devices are 8
limited to low power applications due to low current range (see Tab. 7). 9
Tab. 7: Commercial WBGs devices – year 2014. 10
Manufacturer - Product Range Price per Ampere
SiC
tech
nolo
gy
APE international (module) 1200V-285A 4.36 €/A
ROHM-SiC Power (module) 1200V-120A 4.25 €/A
CREE-Z-FETTM SIC MOSFET (module) 1200V-100A 3.35 €/A
CREE-Z-FETTM MOSFET (device) 1200V-45A 0.6 €/A
ROHM-SiC Power MOSFET (device) 1200V-40A 0.75 €/A
GaN
tech
nolo
gy
microGAN- 3D-GaN Switch (device) 600V-30A In production
Trasphorm - GaN low-loss Switch (device) 600V-17A In production
EPC- GaN FET PC2010 (passive die) 200V-12A 0.8 €/A
11
Hence, to achieve significant power level needs, many parallel associations of components have to 12
be done. In this sense a comparative study reported in [142] shows the required components for a 13
modular 19.2kW isolated converter. The DC/DC converter based on GaN requires 128 GaN FET 14
34
components (EPC 1001), while the one based on SiC is composed only of 64 SiC MOSFET 1
(CREE-Z-FETTM MOSFET). Despite a high system complexity and poor compactness, the 2
proposed design approach with numerous components seems to be attractive regarding the 3
achieved rated power efficiencies (95%96.5%). 4
Despite the advantages of the WBG technology which might be relevant in the design of the FCS 5
interface, a state-of-art does not reveal the existence of FC converters based only on the WBG 6
semiconductors. The literature reports the development of several converters using exclusively the 7
SiC diode. Indeed, Seyezhai et al. [86] have proposed to use SiC Schottky diodes for three-phases 8
IBC in order to reduce the reverse recovery losses occurring with Silicon diode. In [102] and [116], 9
the output rectifier of the proposed 6kW FIC topology is composed of four SiC Schottky diodes. 10
The measured power converter efficiency is about of 97.8% at a switching frequency of 40 kHz. 11
In order to give a quantitative comparison of the SiC technology efficiency, three different power 12
modules are evaluated for a BC application. The three selected semiconductors are two MOSFET 13
based on Silicon Carbide materials from Cree (Z-FETTM SIC MOSFET CAS100H12AM1) and 14
Rohm (SiC Power module BSM120D12P2C005) manufacturers and one Silicon IGBT 15
(FF100R12RT4) from Infineon Company. Although illustrating this technological issue, notice that 16
this comparison cannot yet be exhaustive due to a still emerging market. The study is indeed based 17
on two different semiconductors: bipolar device (IGBT based on Si) and unipolar devices (SiC 18
MOSFET). Indeed, in case of unipolar devices, the conduction losses are the most important ones 19
because of the temperature effect on the device on-state resistance. In case of bipolar device, the 20
switching losses are the most important ones, and highly impacted by the temperature. 21
The BC specifications are: 22
Input current, IL = 50A with current ripple of 7%; 23
35
Input voltage, VFC = 70V ; 1
Switching frequency, FSW = 40 kHz; 2
DC bus voltage, VDC = 350V. 3
Tab. 8 lists the mains equations considered in the losses computations in BC topology. Noting for 4
the other topologies, references [22][71][117] gives formulas for losses calculation and converters 5
design 6
Tab. 8: Equations for computing semiconductor losses in BC topology [89][143][144]. 7
Losses Equation
Transistor/IGBT
Conduction . ∙ ∙ ∙
Switching . ∙
∙∙
Diode
Conduction . ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 )
Reverse
recovery
. ∙ . ∙∙∙
8
Fig. 13 gives the total loss obtained with the SiC and Si technologies for two different junction 9
temperatures (Tj), and the switching frequencies. The SiC devices improve greatly the global 10
efficiency of the converter. As depicted, the results present the same trends for the both junction 11
temperatures regardless of the switching frequency. Compared to the Si materials, at junction 12
temperature of 25°C, the SiC devices show a gain in term of losses of 47% with the Cree module, 13
and 33% with the Rohm semiconductor. This gain becomes more significant at junction 14
temperatures of 125°C, where the Cree and Rohm modules losses are respectively reduced by 69% 15
and 64% compared to the Si IGBT. Noting that the computed losses of the Si IGBT at 100kHz are 16
36
given only for illustrative purposes. The Si devices cannot withstand the high thermal stress 1
resulting from this high losses level. 2
3
Fig. 13 : Comparison of semiconductor losses of different technologies (Si, SiC) at different 4
switching frequencies and temperatures 5
The difference between the components losses are justified by the losses distribution following the 6
operating phases of the semiconductors, depicted in Fig. 14. The switching losses are mostly 7
variable from one technology to another. The switching losses of the Si IGBT are the most 8
important, and represent the main part of the device losses. It is noted that the Cree and Rohm 9
modules allow close to zero the reverse recovery losses [145]. The conduction losses are quite 10
similar between the three technologies. The Cree SiC MOSFET keeps lower conduction losses 11
because of the lowest on-state resistance (Ron = 20m) compared to the Rohm module (Ron = 12
30m). 13
This preliminary assessment of the three technologies clearly demonstrates the interest of the SiC 14
devices, particularly the ability of the Z-FETTM SIC MOSFET from Cree Company to improve the 15
converter efficiency. 16
37
1
Fig. 14 : Losses distribution of different technologies (Si, SiC) at different temperatures 2
Recently, a compact fully SiC 21kW IBC has been proposed for the power conditioning of PEMFC 3
[110]. The efficiency assessment includes the more significant losses (semiconductors, gate driver 4
losses and inductor). Fig. 15 depicts the optimal efficiency obtained by adopting the part-load 5
control[AG2] strategy. The IBC converter operates at a frequency of 100kHz, with a 93% optimal 6
power efficiency. Moreover, it features a good power efficiency (better than 92%) over a wide 7
power range [0.05 p.u. ; 0.9 p.u.]. 8
9
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 10.7
0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
0.93
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.91
Fuel Cell Power [pu]
Eff
icie
ncy
Optimal part-load operation6 leg operation
38
Fig. 15 : Optimal global efficiency using the part-load strategy in six-phase IBC topology 1
based on SiC semiconductors. 2
5. CONCLUSION 3
The paper has presented literature review on different power converter solutions for multi-stack 4
PEMFC applications. The statement of several studies, investigations and examples has dealt with 5
the main requirements of multi-stack architectures, in particular on power level of FC module and 6
design criteria of the stack output power converter. For this last, the topological and technological 7
aspects have been reviewed. The non-isolated multi-phase step-up converters are greatly suitable 8
for the applications requiring low DC bus voltage. The interleaved technique meets the requirement 9
of keeping low FC current ripple. The classical IBC and the FIBC converters show similar features. 10
The Z-sources converters have been also exposed. Their features make them interesting candidates 11
for the electric drives, such as automotive and railway applications. The literature survey has shown 12
the isolated converter based on high frequency planar transformer. The latter is advantageous in 13
high DC link voltage configurations such as railway. The isolated converters show a poor 14
efficiency for the medium power applications. However, the soft-switching operation allows the 15
improvement of the converter efficiency but at the expense of using additional components in the 16
converter configuration. Particularly, the current-fed full-bridge resonant isolated converter is an 17
attractive candidate due to the efficiency performances achievable by the zero current switching 18
operation. The technological review has then been focused on the new wide-bandgap 19
semiconductor materials. Indeed, the use of Silicon Carbide and Gallium Nitride devices could lead 20
to a significant improvement in the converter performance. Today, although GaN devices are 21
attractive for low current amplitudes, SiC technology is more suitable for the design of high power 22
DC/DC converter for a FCS. 23
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 24
39
The authors gratefully acknowledge the French Franche-Comté region for its financial support. 1
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