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Academic Writing
Academic Writing Workshop
David Ellis
University Language Centre
Acknowledgements:
John Morley
Mark Epstein
Howard Goodison
University Language Centre
Process of writing
Characteristics of academic writing
Common errors
Dissertations
Part 1
The Writing Process
The Writing Process
Topic
Planning
Drafting
Revising & Editing
Exploring the Topic
Inexperiencedwriters
tend not to exploredifferent ways ofaddressing the task
decide on anapproach ratherquickly
Experienced writers
spend considerable
time exploring and
evaluating alternative
ideas, organisations
and approaches to
developing a text
Planning
Inexperienced writers
often make few plans
before beginning to
write
prefer not to outline
develop plans while
writing
Experienced writers
plan extensively before
drafting
plan by making notes,
sketches, diagramming
ideas and organisation
revise plans while writing
The Writing Process
Part 1 - Mindmaps
The Writing Process
Part 2 - Using ‘Outline’ in ‘Word’
Word Outline
Drafting
Inexperienced writers
often struggle to produce
text
Experienced writers
use techniques to
produce early drafts of
text, e.g. splurge writing
TASK
Revising and Editing
Inexperienced writers
view revising and
proofreading as largely
similar
Experienced writers
tend to reviseextensively atsentence and textlevel
are happy to discusstheir writing and seekadvice from peers
PEER REVIEW
Self monitor your text
Give it to peer reviewer
Meet for feedback
Revise text and repeat
Why revise & edit? (1)
To improve the style
Tentativeness
Concision
Formality
Unsatisfactory Language Use
Grammatical
Punctuation
Spelling
Why revise and edit? (2)
Weak organisation
Poor coherence – no logical flow
Poor cohesion – no/few transitionwords
Too few examples/too little support
Weak introduction/conclusion
Difficult to read
Incorrect format
Characteristics of Academic
Writing
Stylistic Features
Attributing to sources
Stylistic features
Use of more formal words
went up/zoomed
We found that for a certain heat input, the
temperature rose/increased by about
7.5 K in 5 minutes in dry sand.
Style shift : words
worry
story
use
a lot of
not much
look at
give up
find out
trouble
not … any
not enough
concern
account/anecdote
deploy
considerable
little
examine/analyse
renounce
determine
difficulty
no
insufficient
Use of more precise terms
Good
Bad
successful, rigorous,original, elegant,comprehensive,thorough, robust,practical, cost-effective
limited, flawed, small-scale, inefficient
Tentative – avoiding over generalisation
Onsite or decentralized wastewater systems are used
where development densities are lower; that is, where
there is more land space.
Onsite or decentralized wastewater systems tend to be
used where development densities are lower; that is,
where there is more land space.
Tentative – expressing uncertainty
Thus, from the literature, it can be seen that
this type of lending produces some value-
added effects for the community.
Thus, from the literature, it appears that this
type of lending may produce some value-added
effects for the community.
Clearly organised and signposted
A number of conclusions can be drawn about theapplication of TRIZ in the process industry both from theinformation in this article and from our personalexperience. First, TRIZ is and will be successfullyapplied in the process industry. In addition, TRIZknowledge is indeed generic enough to be used forproduction processes. Finally, the adoption of TRIZ as amethodology for solving problems in the process industrywould benefit significantly if more cases studies werepublished
Attributing to sources
Referring to sources
1. In-text citation
Information prominent citation
• Many private industries have had difficulty
applying the C/SCSC criteria (Fleming and
Koppelman, 1996).
• ‘There is no universally accepted definition
of project management’ (Manning, 1997:
73).
Author prominent citation
• Harrison (2005: 124) notes that lack ofintegration of management systems is oneof the reasons for ineffective planningand control.
• Close (1983) developed a simplifiedtheory using an analogy between heat andmass transfer and the equivalent heattransfer case.
Reporting verbs
• Harrison (2005: 124) notes that lack ofintegration of management systems is oneof the reasons for ineffective planning andcontrol.
• Several authors have suggested thatautomated testing should be more readilyaccepted (Balcer, 1989; Stahl, 1989; Carverand Tai, 1991).
Reporting verbs: matching exercise
Argue
Mention
Conclude
Point out
Suggest
• to say that something is true or correct and
give reasons for this
• to refer briefly to something or somebody,
in spoken or written text
• to decide that something is true using the
facts you have as a basis
• to draw someone’s attention to a fact or a
mistake
• to offer a plausible explanation for
something
Reporting verbs: matching exercise
Claim
Show
Maintain
State
Identify
• to say that something is true or correct
while firm evidence for this may be
lacking
• to give information about something
which is clear and convincing to other
people
• to hold certain views or opinions strongly
even if other people disagree
• to write or say something in a formal and
certain way
• to discover or notice the existence of
something
Different types of reporting verb
• neutral verbs
• verbs that give opinions
• research activity verbs
Neutral verbs
Kubrick (2001) breaks down the
building process into three main
subprocesses.
•says, identifies
Verbs that give opinions
Chapman and Ward (1997: 112) claim
that 'organisations which better
understand the nature of risks can
manage them more effectively'.
•suggest, maintain
Research activity verbs
Carlson (2002) found that managers: work
long hours, mix travel and important
work, have short periods of time alone
and suffer many interruptions.
•Investigated, conducted
Reporting verb types
investigated
found
discovered
examined
reviewed
tested
analysed
studied
recorded
set up
surveyed
claims
argues
maintains
believes
affirms
implies
asserts
mentions
concludes
remarks
shows
states
says
lists
observes
identifies
explains
ResearchOpinionNeutral
Reporting verbs: tenses
• Charlton (1966) states that…simple present tense
• Charlton (1966) has stated that…present perfect tense
• Charlton (1966) stated that…Simple past tense
The present tense
Krumpli and Burgonya (2004) state that the
lack of integration of management systems isone of the reasons for ineffective planning and
control.
Lack of integration of management systems isone of the reasons for ineffective planning and
control (Krumpli and Burgonya, 2004).
The present perfect tense
Krumpli and Burgonya (2004) have statedthat the lack of integration of management
systems is one of the reasons for ineffective
planning and control.
Lack of integration of management systems as
one of the reasons for ineffective planning and
control has been widely studied (Krumpli and
Burgonya, 2004; Smith, 2005; Tokai, 2007).
The simple past tense
Krumpli and Burgonya (2004) stated that the
lack of integration of management systems wasone of the reasons for ineffective planning and
control.
Lack of integration of management systems wasone of the reasons for ineffective planning and
control (Krumpli and Burgonya, 2004).
Referring to sources
2. Reference lists
References
Bernink, B. (1995) Winning contracts in The Commercial ProjectManager
edited by J. R. Turner, London: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
References
Bernink, B. (1995) Winning contracts in The Commercial ProjectManager
edited by J. R. Turner, London: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
author surnamecommaspaceCAPITAL initialdotspace
References
Bernink, B. (1995) Winning contracts in The Commercial ProjectManager
edited by J. R. Turner, London: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
publication date of this edition -there may be earlier or 'first published'date; ignore these
References
Bernink, B. (1995) Winning contracts in The Commercial ProjectManager
edited by J. R. Turner, London: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
essay/article / chapter title in a book ofcollected articlesno italics
References
Bernink, B. (1995) Winning contracts in The Commercial ProjectManager
edited by J. R. Turner, London: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
book title (italicised)
References
Bernink, B. (1995) Winning contracts in The Commercial ProjectManager
edited by J. R. Turner, London: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
only name editor for sources with variousarticles by different authors
References
Bernink, B. (1995) Winning contracts in The Commercial ProjectManager
edited by J. R. Turner, London: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
editorinitials + dotsurnamecomma
References
Bernink, B. (1995) Winning contracts in The Commercial ProjectManager
edited by J. R. Turner, London: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
place ofpublicationcolon
References
Bernink, B. (1995) Winning contracts in The Commercial ProjectManager
edited by J. R. Turner, London: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
publisherfull stop
• Hall, S.J. (2003) Basic Biomechanics, 4th ed.,Boston: McGraw Hill.
1. book - one author
2. Conference paper - published
• Kaunitz, J. (1985) 'Database backup and recovery intransaction driven information systems', in Katashev, S. P.and Katashev, S., eds., Supercomputing Systems: Proceedingsof the First International Conference, St Petersburg, Florida,16-20 December, 1985, Washington, D.C.: IEEE ComputerSociety Press, 265-272.
3. Book - two authors
• Beardsworth, I. and Keil, T. (1997) Sociologyon the Menu: an Invitation to the Study ofFood and Society, London: Routledge.
4. Web page
• University of Limerick, Graduate Studies Office(2005) Research Induction Series [online],available: http://www.graduatestudies.ul.ie/research_induction/ [accessed 3 Aug 2005].
5. Course material - print
• Ni Bheachain, C. (2001) 'Guide to referencing',CM4203: Communication, University ofLimerick: Department of Management andMarketing.
6. Journal article
• Florin, J. (2003) 'A social capital model of high-growth ventures', Academy of ManagementJournal, 46(3), 374-384.
Common Errors
Passive
Government agencies have madeconcerted efforts to….
Evidence suggests that……
The identified improvements to…
There is a wide range of….
Existing maintenance research canoffer an insight into…..
Figure 1.2 shows the….
Removing nouns
Laboratory personnel…...
The public ……..
Contradictions (inconsistencies)…...
Style – Formality in sentences
and words
Many possibilities…….
The difference ……..
Three milligrams of……..
List…….
The subjects………..
Common Grammatical Errors
Sentence Fragments
Most multinational companies haveadopted the principles of Total Quality,which is another development that hasincluded the workforce in decisionmaking.
Most multinational companies haveadopted the principles of Total Quality.This is another development that hasincluded the workforce in decisionmaking.
Run-on sentences
Check the troubleshooting chartbefore you call a technician asmany of the problems that canoccur are easily corrected in house.
Check the troubleshooting chartbefore you call a technician; manyof the problems that can occur areeasily corrected in house.
Dangling modifiers
While the volatile mixture is beingpoured, the test tube must bemaintained at 15° C.
The test tube must be maintainedat 15° C while the volatile mixture is
being poured.
Subject/Verb Agreement
Notwithstanding this, actions withinvarious departments at the factoryactually damage the productionschedule.
The problem of parts supply is due toa number of factors. Each isinterrelated, and the system is self-perpetuating.
Pronoun Agreement
The Nile, which is the largest river inthe world, flows through Africa.
The students who have been workinghardest will find this problem simple.
Old fillings, which are made ofamalgam, should be taken out of theteeth because they can cause serioushealth problems in pregnant women.
The FBI was founded in 1908. In itsearly days, there were few federal crimes.
Writing a dissertation
1. Writing Introductions
2. Referring to the literature a. Avoiding plagiarism
3. Describing methods
4. Reporting results
5. Discussing findings
6. Writing conclusions
Academic Phrasebank
http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/index.htm
Introducing WorkReferring to the LiteratureBeing CriticalDescribing MethodsReporting ResultsDiscussing FindingsWriting ConclusionsGeneral FunctionsUseful Links
Introducing a dissertation (taught)
1. Introduce the topic, define it, provide acontext, background and/or importance.
2. Indicate a problem, controversy or a gapinthe field of study.
3. State the focus and aim of theessay/writing.
4. Provide an overview of the coverageand/or structure of the writing.
The literature review
Rationale – demonstrateknowledgePurpose – develop issues &themes
Reading & appraisingDescriptive & analytical
o 20% - 25% (50%)
Referring to the literatureGeneral descriptions of the relevant literatureDuring the past thirty years, much more information has become
available on….
the past 30 years much more information has become available
General reference to previous research/scholarlyactivity (usually more than one author)Numerous studies have attempted to explain….. (Harrison,1996; Starr, 2001; McCartney, 2005).
to explain ... (for example, Harrison, 1996; Starr,
Reference to current state of knowledgeGM varieties of maze are able to cross-pollinate with non-GMvarieties (Lennon, 1999; Richards, 2000).GM varieties of maize are able to cross-pollinate with non-GM
varieties (Lennon, 1998; Richards, 1999).
Reference to single investigations in the past:
research topic as subjectClassical conditioning was first demonstrated experimentally by
Pavlov (Daltrey, 2000). In his seminal study…..
CCJJlassical conditioning was first demonstrated experimentally by Pavlov
altrey, 2002). In his seminal study...
Reference to what other writers do in their text
(author as subject)Townsend (2006) identifies poor food, bad housing…as the major
causes of…
Townsend (2003) identifies poor food, bad housing, inadequate hygiene
and large families as the major causes of...
Reference to other writers' ideas (author as subject)According to Wood (1997), preventative medicine is far more cost-
effective, and therefore….
preventative medicine is far more cost effective, and therefore better
Referring to the literature
Reference to single investigations in the past: researcher(s)
as sentence subjectJagger (1999) demonstrated that when the maximum temperature is
exceeded….
Jagger (1999) demonstrated that when the maximum temperature
is exceeded...
Preliminary work on X was undertaken by Moon (1992).
Avoiding plagiarism
ParaphrasingUse roughly the same number of words to restatethe original idea.
SummarisingUse less words to cover the same idea as theoriginal
If you do not change enough of thevocabulary and sentence structure of theoriginal passage, you have plagiarised.
The failure of boiler tubes has always been ofserious concern in most of the process industriesincluding petrochemical plants. Since tubes arenormally made of carbon or low alloy steel andhandle various phases of water at hightemperature and pressure, there is potential forcorrosion occurrence at their wet surfaces.
a) A major concern in many process industries isthe failure of boiler tubes which are made ofcarbon or low steel alloy. As these tubes areexposed to water at high temperature andpressure, their wet surfaces can corrode.
Paraphrasing: a) correct
Summarising: a) correctIndia has recently been ranked as the second largest road network
in the world, overtaking China. Preceded only by the USA, with 6.4million kilometres of road network, India with its 3.3 millionkilometres has overtaken China (1.8 million kilometres). The roadsin India can be categorised as national highways (NHs), statehighways (SHs), district roads and rural roads. The NHs areintended to facilitate medium and long distance intercity passengerand freight traffic across the country. The SHs help carry the trafficalong major centres within a state. District and rural roads helpsmaller locations transport agricultural produce to nearbymarkets, as well as meet their social needs.
a) India now has the second largest road network in the world covering3.3
million kilometres. The main types of road are national highways for
interstate traffic, state highways for intrastate traffic, and district and
rural roads used for local business and social purposes.
Methods
Language functions
Language structures
To date various methods have beendeveloped and introduced tomeasure X:
In most recent studies, X ismeasured in four different ways.
Radiographic techniques are themain non-invasive methods used todetermine...
1. Describing different methods
2. Giving reasons why a particular
method was adopted
The semi-structured approach was chosenbecause...
It was decided that the best method toadopt for this investigation was to...
A case study approach was chosen toallow a...
X was prepared according to theprocedure used by Patel et al. (1957).
The synthesis of X was done accordingto the procedure of Smith (1973).
X was synthesised using the samemethod that was detailed for Y, using...
3. Indicating a specific method
4. Indicating sample size and
characteristics
The initial sample consisted of 200students of whom 13 did not complete allof the interviews.
All studies described as using some sort ofX procedure were included in the analysis.
All of the participants were aged between18 and 19 at the beginning of the study...
A small sample was chosen becauseof the expected difficulty ofobtaining...
The subjects were selected on thebasis of a degree of homogeneity oftheir...
Criteria for selecting the subjectswere as follows:
5. Indicating reasons for sample
characteristics
In order to understand how X regulatesY, a series of transactions wereperformed…
To enable the subjects to see thecomputer screen clearly, the laptop wasconfigured with...
To control for bias, measurements werecarried out by another person.
6. Describing the process: infinitive of
purpose
Data management and analysis wasperformed using SPSS 8.0 (1999).
The experiments were carried out overthe course of the growing period from...
Injection solutions were coded by acolleague to reduce experimenter bias.
7. Describing the process: typical verbs
(note use of passive form)
In this investigation there are severalsources for error. The main error is...
Another major source of uncertainty is inthe method used to calculate X…
It was not possible to investigate thesignificant relationships of X and Y furtherbecause the sample size was too small.
8. Indicating problems or limitations
Reporting results
Reference to aim/method
Location and summary statements
Highlighting significant data in atable/chart
Statements of result (positive)
Highlighting significant, interesting orsurprising results
Reporting results from questionnairesand interviews
Transition statements
1. Statements of result (usually with
reference to results section)
The results of this studyshow/indicate that...
This experiment did not detect anyevidence for...
On the question of X, this studyfound that...
2. Unexpected outcome
Surprisingly, X was found to...
One unanticipated finding was that...
It is somewhat surprising that no Xwas noted in this condition...
3. Explanations for results:
There are several possibleexplanations for this result.
These differences can be explainedin part by the proximity of X and Y.
A possible explanation for this mightbe that...
4. Advising cautious interpretation
These data must be interpreted withcaution because...
These results therefore need to beinterpreted with caution.
However, with a small sample size,caution must be applied, as thefindings might not be transferableto...
5. Suggesting general hypotheses
The value of X suggests that a weaklink may exist between...
It is therefore likely that suchconnections exist between...
It can thus be suggested that...
6. Noting implications
This finding has importantimplications for developing...
An implication of this is thepossibilitythat ...
One of the issues that emerges fromthese findings is...
7. Suggestions for future work
However, more research on this topicneeds to be undertaken before theassociation between X and Y is moreclearly understood.
Further research should be done toinvestigate the...
Research questions that could be askedinclude...
Writing conclusions
1. Summarising the content
This paper has given an account of and thereasons for the widespread use of X...
2.Restatement of aims (research)
This project was undertaken to design... andevaluate...
3.Summarising the findings (research)
The following conclusions can be drawn fromthe present study...
4.Suggesting implications
An implication of this is the possibility that...
Writing conclusions
5.Significance of the findings (research)
The X that we have identified therefore assists inour understanding of the role of...
6.Limitations of the current study (research)
A number of caveats need to be noted regardingthe present study.
7.Recommendations for further work (research)
If the debate is to be moved forward, a betterunderstanding of ... needs to be developed.
8.Implications/recommendations for practice orpolicy
The findings of this study have a number ofimportant implications for future practice.
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Academic Phrasebank
http://www.phrasebank.man.ac.uk/index.htm
The Academic Phrasebank is a general resourcefor academic writers. It aims to provide you withexamples of some of the phraseological "nuts andbolts" of writing organised under the headings tothe left. It was designed primarily withinternational students whose first language is notEnglish in mind. However, if you are a nativespeaker writer, you may still find parts of thematerial helpful.
Online writing Clinic
Every Friday 1 – 2pm
breeze1.manchester.ac.uk/alp
The End