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Clinical predictors of low histopathologic risk features in unilateral
cT2b (Group D) retinoblastoma
Stephanie N. Kletke, MD1, Zhao Xun Feng, BSc2, Lili-Naz Hazrati, MD, PhD, FRCPC3, Brenda L. Gallie,
MD, FRCSC1,2,4, Sameh E. Soliman, MD2,5
Authors’ Affiliations
1 Department of Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada;
2 Department of Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada;
3 Department of Pediatric Laboratory Medicine, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada;
4 Departments of Molecular Genetics and Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada;
5 Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt.
Corresponding Author: Sameh E. Soliman, 555 University Avenue, Room 7265, Toronto, Canada,
M5G 1X8. [email protected]
Running Head: Low-risk Histopathology in Unilateral cT2b Retinoblastoma
Word count: 2691/3000 words
Number of Figures and Tables: /51 figure, 3 tables and 2 supplementary files.
Keywords: unilateral retinoblastoma; Group D; histopathology; cancer; primary enucleation, vitreous
seeds.
Word Count for Original Clinical Science Research: (Excluding title page, abstract, tables, references,
acknowledgements, contributions) max 3000; Abstract max 250 words; References max 35
At a glance (35/35)
Retrospective review of 38 primarily enucleated unilateral cT2b/Group-D retinoblastoma eyes showed
100% probability of low-risk histopathology with visible optic-nerve head, macular sparing and <1-
quadrant of serous retinal detachment rendering them safer for trial ocular salvage.
Abstract (245/250)
Background/Aims: Whether attempted eye salvage for unilateral cT2b (Group D) retinoblastoma
increases risk of tumor spread compared to primary enucleation is debated. Identification of clinical
features predictive of low histopathologic risk may guide potentially safe trial salvage.
Methods: A retrospective review of eyes primarily enucleated for unilateral cT2b retinoblastoma
(2008-2018) was conducted. Clinical features (intraocular pressure, optic nerve obscuration, macular
involvement, tumor seeding and serous retinal detachment >1 quadrant (RD)), histopathological findings,
metastasis and death were reviewed. Primary outcome was high-risk (HR) histopathology (pT3/pT4)
versus low-risk (LR) (pT1/pT2) (8th Edition American Joint Committee on Cancer). Clinico-pathologic
correlation was evaluated.
Results: Histopathology diagnosed 4/38–10.5% HR and 34/38–89.5% LR eyes. HR eyes demonstrated
massive choroidal invasion (4/38–10.5%), and trans-scleral, extraocular and retrolaminar optic nerve
invasion (1/38–2.6%). Clinical findings included macular involvement (31/38–82%), optic nerve
obscuration (278/38–714%), and RD (28/38–74%).The probability that an eye had HR histopathology
was 13% with macular involvement, 11% with optic nerve obscuration, and 14% with RD. The
probability that an eye had LR histopathology was 100% with macular sparing, 91% with optic nerve
visibility and 100% with <1 quadrant of RD. One child (with lack all 3 clinical LHR predictive features)
and HR histopathology (pT3a) developed metastases and died; other children are alive and well (mean
follow-up 65 months).
Conclusion: Trial Salvage is potentially safe for unilateral cT2b eyes that shows clinical signs of
mMacular sparing, optic nerve visibility and <1 quadrant of RD were highly predictive ofgiven their high
probability for LR histopathology. in unilateral cT2b eyes, enabling identification of eyes suitable for
likely safe trial salvage.
Introduction
Unilateral retinoblastoma staged as Group D by the International Intraocular Retinoblastoma
Classification (IIRC)(1) and as cT2a or cT2b by the 8th Edition American Joint Committee on Cancer
(AJCC) TNMH (tumor, node, metastasis and heritable trait) staging,(2) poses a management challenge of
international debate. Attempted eye salvage using primary intra-arterial (IAC)(3-8) or systemic
chemotherapy(9) with focal consolidation has been suggested.(10) However, primary enucleation is an
effective and safe option to minimize risk of extraocular extension and metastasis. In Canada, the
National Retinoblastoma Strategy Guidelines for Care published in 2009 recommend enucleation of
affected unilateral Group D eyes.(11)
Recently, multiple treatment modalities have been suggested to improve success of eye salvage,
including intravitreal chemotherapy (IVC),(12-15) IAC,(3-8) periocular chemotherapy,(16) and tumor
endoresection via pars plana vitrectomy (PPV).(17) The primary concern with such modalities is whether
attempted eye salvage increases the risk of extraocular tumor dissemination. Our aim was to identify
potential clinical features of primarily enucleated unilateral cT2a/cT2b (Group D) eyes predictive ofthat
can predict low histopathologic risk, in an attempt to guide potentially safe trial salvage.
Methods
Study Design
A retrospective, non-comparative, single institutional observational study was conducted in
accordance with the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki. Institutional Research Ethics Board
approval was obtained.
Eligibility
Children diagnosed with unilateral Group D (cT2a or cT2b) retinoblastoma managed with primary
enucleation of the affected eye at the Hospital for Sick Children (SickKids), Toronto, Canada between
January 2008 (following submission and implementation of the Canadian guidelines(11)) through
February 2018 were evaluated. Exclusion criteria included unilateral retinoblastoma of any other staging,
primarily enucleated cT2a/cT2b eyes in bilateral cases, or cT2a/cT2b eyes that were secondarily
enucleated following trial salvage.
Data Collection
Clinical and Radiological Features
Medical records, including fundus photographs from examinations under anesthesia (EUA), were
reviewed for age at diagnosis and enucleation, laterality, clinical features at presentation (intraocular
pressure (IOP), tumor seeding, optic nerve obscuration, macular involvement and >1 quadrant of serous
retinal detachment (RD, either > or) <1 quadrant), parental agreement with the proposed treatment,
molecular genetic analysis, follow-up duration, adjuvant treatments received, metastasis and death. Eyes
were retrospectively staged by the 8th Ed. AJCC TNMH.(2) Baseline magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
or computed tomography (CT) of the brain and orbit were reviewed.
Histopathologic Features
Histopathology reports and representative slides were reviewed for all children. Presence of choroidal
invasion was documented as “none”, “focal [<3 mm]” or “massive [>3 mm in maximum diameter]”,
based on consensus definitions from the International Retinoblastoma Staging Working Group.(18)
Invasion of the sub-retinal pigment epithelial (sub-RPE) space but not through Bruch’s membrane was
identified. Optic nerve invasion was categorized as “none”, “prelaminar”, “retrolaminar but not to the
optic nerve resection margin” and “tumor at the transected end”.(18) Scleral invasion, anterior segment
involvement and extraocular disease were also identified. Enucleated eyes were retrospectively staged by
the 8th Ed. AJCC pTNM.(2) Table 1 summarizes the 8th Ed. AJCC pathological staging.
Outcome Measures
The primary outcome was the presence of high-risk (HR) histopathology, defined as pT3 or pT4,
versus low-risk (LR) histopathology, defined as pT1 or pT2 (8th Ed. AJCC).(2) High-risk histopathologic
features included massive choroidal invasion, retrolaminar invasion of the optic nerve head, scleral
invasion and extraocular extension.
Clinico-pathologic correlation was evaluated. Positive predictive value was defined as the probability
that an eye with high-risk clinical features (macular involvement, optic nerve obscuration or RD)features
to haved HR histopathology. Negative predictive value was defined as the probability that an eye with
low-risk clinical features (macular sparing, optic nerve visibility and <1 quadrant of RD) had to have LR
histopathology.
Secondary outcomes included the proportion of eyes for which salvage therapy may have been
considered as an alternative to enucleation based on standard of care in 2018, as determined by senior
author review (B.L.G., S.E.S.).
Statistical Analysis
Results were summarized using frequency/percentage for categorical variables and mean, median and
standard deviation for continuous variables. Groups were compared using Fisher’s exact test for
categorical variables and Student’s t-test for continuous variables. All P-values reported were two-sided
and significance was judged at the 5% level. All analyses were performed using SPSS Version 25 (IBM
Corp).
Results
Demographic and Clinical Features
Thirty-eight primarily enucleated Group D eyes ofeyes of 38 children (mean presenting age 21
months, 2 – 48) with unilateral retinoblastoma were included (63% right, 37% left). All eyes were staged
cT2b (8th Edition AJCC).(2) Based on high-quality molecular genetic analysis, heritable trait was HX
(4/38–11%), H0 (27/38–71%) and H1 (7/38–18%). H1 children showed mosaicism for the RB1
pathogenic variant (3/7), low penetrance RB1 pathogenic variant (3/7) and13-q deletion syndrome (1/7).
At presentation, all eyes had within normal IOP. Vitreous seeding was seen in all eyes. Tumor
involved the macula in 31/38–82%. Children with macular involvement were diagnosed earlier than
children with macular sparing (mean 20 vs 28 months, respectively), though this difference was not
significant (p=0.09). The optic nerve was obscured in 28/38–74% and RD (>1 quadrant) was present in
28/38–74%. Retinal detachment impaired accurate assessment of subretinal seeding presence inseeding in
some eyes. The presence of macular involvement, optic nerve obscuration and RD were positively
correlated [macula and optic nerve (p=0.01), macula and RD (p< 0.001), optic nerve and RD (p=0.002)].
Four eyes with optic nerve obscuration demonstrated possible optic nerve enhancement on baseline
imaging of the brain/orbit. There were no radiological cases of extraocular or intracranial involvement.
The median interval from diagnosis to enucleation was 4 days (range, 0 – 14). Primary enucleation
occurred during the staging EUA for all children, with the exception of one child for whom enucleation
was delayed due to low partial thromboplastin time. All parents consented to enucleation as the primary
treatment.
Histopathologic Features
Choroidal involvement included “none” (26/38–68.4%), “focal” (8/38–21.1%), and “massive” (4/38–
10.5%). Six eyes (15.8%) demonstrated tumour cells in the sub-RPE space without invasion of Bruch’s
membrane. Optic nerve involvement included “none” (10/38–26.3%), “prelaminar invasion” (27/38–
71.1%), and “retrolaminar invasion but not to the optic nerve resection margin” (1/38–2.6%). There were
no cases of tumor involvement of the resected margin. One eye (2.6%) demonstrated histopathologic
evidence of anterior segment involvement (pT2b). There was one case (2.6%) of trans-scleral and
extraocular extension (pT4). Table 2 summarizes the histopathologic features of the studied population.
Summary of High-Risk Eyes (Figure 1)
Histopathology review identified 4/38–10.5% HR eyes and 34/38–89.5% LR eyes. HR eyes
demonstrated massive choroidal invasion (4/38–10.5%) and trans-scleral, extraocular and retrolaminar
optic nerve invasion (1/38–2.6%). Mean age at diagnosis was not significantly different for children with
HR versus LR eyes (p>0.05). Presenting signs included leukocoria (3/4–75%) and strabismus (1/4–25%).
Baseline MRI brain and orbits showed no evidence of optic nerve, extraocular or intracranial involvement
in children with HR eyes. There was no evidence of metastases at presentation.
Clinico-pathologic Correlation
Optic nerve obscuration was not significantly associated with retrolaminar optic nerve invasion in this
cohort (p=1.000). Macular involvement was not significantly associated with massive choroidal invasion
(p=0.557) or scleral invasion (p=1.000). Serous RD was not significantly associated with massive
choroidal invasion (p=0.287) or scleral invasion (p=1.000, Supplementary table 1). None of the eyes
showing enhanced optic nerve on the MRI scanning at presentation had retrolaminar nerve invasion
(p=1).
The probability that an eye had HR histopathology was 13% with macular involvement, 14% with
optic nerve obscuration, and 14% with RD. The probability that an eye had LR histopathology was 100%
with macular sparing, 100% with optic nerve visibility and 100% with <1 quadrant of RD. (Table 3)
Molecular analysis
Molecular genetic testing was performed on tumor samples from 37 enucleated eyes while one eye
was yet untested due to economic causes. The two tumor RB1 pathogenic variants were identified in
34/37 eyes. The three eyes were designated (Hx) as the germline status cannot be verified and one had
hypermethylation of the RB1 premotor in blood cells. In retrospective designation by the 8th ed. AJCC,
heritable trait was HX (4/38–11%), H0 (27/38–71%) and H1 (7/38–18%). H1 children showed mosaicism
for the RB1 pathogenic variant (3/7), low penetrance RB1 pathogenic variant (3/7) and 13-q deletion
syndrome (1/7). The children that show high risk were H1 (1 extraocular, pT4, Figure 1A), Hx (2 eyes,
pT3a, one died, Figure 1C and 1D) and H0 (pT3a, Figure 1B).
Follow-up, Metastasis and Death
At mean follow-up of 65 months, one child (2.6%) with all three clinical HR predictive features and
HR histopathology (pT3a) developed metastases and died. The child was diagnosed with bony metastases
1 year following retinoblastoma diagnosis.(19) He received six cycles of systemic chemotherapy,
autologous bone marrow transplant and focal radiation. While ocular pathology was initially interpreted
as LR, internal retrospective review identified an area of massive choroidal invasion. Metastatic
surveillance remained negative until 1 year later, when intracranial dural-based metastases were identified
on MRI. He died 18 months after metastasis diagnosis, despite focal radiotherapy. The other children in
this cohort are alive and well. None of the children were lost to follow-up.
Discussion
The International Intraocular Retinoblastoma Classification (IIRC) introduced in 2005 staged
eyes clinically as Group A (very low risk) through E (very high risk) to predict outcomes following
systemic chemoreduction and focal therapy.(1) A modification was proposed in 2006 (International
Classification of Retinoblastoma, ICRB).(20) In 2010, the 7th Edition AJCC defined clinical and
pathological staging for overall prognosis.(21) The 8th Edition TNMH was recently updated based on
evidence-based data,(2) and serves as the current gold standard for retinoblastoma staging. IIRC Group E
eyes shows advanced intraocular tumors as phthisis bulbi (cT3a), anterior segment tumor invasion (cT3b),
rubeosis irides with neovascular glaucoma (cT3c), hyphema and/or massive vitreous hemorrhage (cT3d)
and or aseptic orbital cellulitis (cT3e). IIRC Group D eyes have intraocular tumor with significant RD
(cT2a) and/or any vitreous and/or subretinal seeding (cT2b). High-risk histopathologic features predictive
of increased metastatic risk are defined as pT3/pT4 following enucleation, and include massive choroidal
invasion,(22, 23) retrolaminar invasion of the optic nerve head with or without a positive margin,(22, 24)
scleral invasion and extraocular extension (8th Edition AJCC, Table 1).(2)
The main goal of treatment for advanced unilateral retinoblastoma is to save the child’s life and
prevent extraocular tumour dissemination followed by saving a seeing eye. The concept of salvage of a
blind eye for cosmesis is no longer justified, given the improved implant and prosthesis movement with
myoconjunctival enucleation.(39). Multiple modalities, including systemic chemotherapy, IAC, IVC,
periocular chemotherapy and PPV have been suggested for eye salvage. However, primary enucleation is
a safe option, allowing an early return to normal life,(28) fewer interventions and EUAs,(37) less
socioeconomic impacts, as well as histopathological review. This is the accepted practice in many centers
for cT3 (IIRC Group E) eyes and probably most cT2b eyes (IIRC group D). The dilemma of parental
refusal of enucleation justifying treatment for these advanced eyes depend on the treating physician and
how the parents are counselled. In our cohort we did not face parental refusal in any of our enucleated
eyes. Prolonged attempts at globe salvage could lead to delayed diagnosis of metastasis if HR features are
not identified timely. Systemic chemoreduction should also be considered cautiously, as pre-enucleation
chemotherapy may downstage pathological findings of extraocular disease.(38) With no evidence from
randomized controlled trials to guide management of cT2a/cT2b eyes, the clinician must consider the
impact of years of trial salvage for an eye with limited visual potential on quality of life for the child and
family.
The success of intravitreal chemotherapy in controlling vitreous disease, a main clinical feature of
T2b (IIRC Group D) eyes, together with the availability of more published literature on IAC, that
previously posed a dilemma, as chemotherapy delivered focally that may not protect against tumor cells
that have escaped the affected eye(5) made the trial salvage attempt for a unilateral cT2b justified as long
as the tumor is less likely to spread beyond the eye. Clinical features at presentation predictive of HR
histopathology include older age, symptoms >6 months, hyphema, pseudohypopyon, orbital cellulitis,
secondary glaucoma and buphthalmos.(29, 40, 41) Furthermore, exophytic growth pattern, tumor
thickness >15 mm and vitreous hemorrhage predict optic nerve invasion,(24) and iris neovascularization
is associated with choroidal invasion.(23, 42) However, these characteristics predominantly describe cT3
(Group E) eyes and are not relevant when considering the treatment of cT2b eyes. Yousef et al concluded
that clinical staging alone (TNM 7th ed., IIRC or Reese Elseworth classification) is insufficient to predict
HR histopathology. This encouraged us to study the individual clinical findings as predictors rather than
the staging.
The ideal predictive clinical finding need to be a reproducible objective finding easily picked at
the staging EUA, the time of the decision of trial salvage. Furthermore, it canneed to be picked clinically
and not depending on an investigation that might be unavailable as an MRI or genetic testing. In our
analysis we excluded subjective findings as presenting complain or duration of symptoms, debatable
findings as pattern of tumor growth (endophytic, exophytic or mixed) and presence of subretinal seeding
under detached retina, together with unavailable findings at diagnosis as RB1 pathogenic variant status.
Approximately 2–33% of Group D eyes are expected to harbor HR histopathologic features
following primary enucleation.(25-31) However, the literature is heterogeneous and limited by non-
consensus in defining HR histopathology features, variable classifications, and inclusion of primarily and
secondarily enucleated eyes, children with unilateral and bilateral disease, as well as eyes with no
indication of staging. In our cohort of primarily enucleated unilateral cT2b eyes, 10.5% had HR
histopathology. Macular involvement, optic nerve obscuration and >1 quadrant of RD had low predictive
value for HR histopathology (13%, 114%, and 14%, respectively). However, macular sparing, visibility
of the optic nerve and <1 quadrant of RD had 100% predictive value for the presence of LR
histopathology, suggesting that an eye with these three clinical features may undergo cautious trial
salvage.
.Fabian et al reported on 40 primarily enucleated IIRC Group D eyes (all cT2b, 37 unilateral). At
presentation, 75% had macular involvement, 91% had optic disc obscuration and 97% had RD, compared
to 82%, 74% and 74%, respectively in our cohort. They report absence of vitreous seeds as a sole
significant predictor of HR based on p=0.42.(30) Small sample sizes renders tests of significance
inaccurate as one extra entry can shift the p-value significantly which lead us to use the predictive values
rather than then tests of significance to interpret our data. We ran significance test for our collective
samples (78 eyes, table 3), absence of vitreous seeds lost its significance (p=0.05) other factors showed a
lower p-value than reported yet insignificant. When we applied predictive values, we had the same results
of 100% predictive of LR histopathology if the optic nerve is seen and the fovea is not involved. Absence
of vitreous seeds showed 71% probability of having LR histopathology (Table X3). Jesse et al reported a
retrospective review of IIRC Group D/E eyes and found that 15% of eyes with optic nerve obscuration at
presentation (69/102) had postlaminar invasion, while 0% with visible optic nerve at diagnosis (33/102)
had postlaminar invasion following primary enucleation, suggesting a possible clinico-pathologic
association (43). This goes in accordance with our 100% probability for LR with visible optic nerve in
our cohort.
Early detection of HR histopathologic features is important and when present, warrants
metastatic surveillance and adjuvant therapy. Postenucleation adjuvant treatments, including
systemic chemotherapy, significantly reduce metastatic events from 24% to 4%, particularly in the
presence of massive choroidal and retrolaminar invasion.(32) Furthermore, post-enucleation
adjuvant VEC was associated with no metastatic events for 51 high-risk ICRB(20) Group E eyes
(mean 66 month follow-up).(33) However, the specific indications for adjuvant therapy are debated,
(34) with some groups suggesting good prognosis for isolated choroidal or retrolaminar optic nerve
invasion and negative margins without adjuvant treatment.(35, 36) In our cohort, the child who
developed metastasis did not receive post-enucleation adjuvant therapy, as massive choroidal
invasion was only identified following retrospective review. The other three children with HR
histopathology received adjuvant treatments and are alive and well at last follow-up.
The limitations of this study include its retrospective design and relatively small sample
size. However, our inclusion criteria of only unilateral, primarily enucleated Group D eyes were
stringent, achieving a homogenous study population. Another limitation is the low rate of positive
events, which limits statistical analysis of associations between clinical findings and
histopathological features of the included eyes.
Conclusion
In summary, 10.5% of primarily enucleated unilateral cT2b (Group D) eyes had HR
histopathology. Macular sparing, optic nerve visibility and <1 quadrant of RD at presentation were highly
predictive of low-risk in unilateral cT2b eyes, and may predict which advanced eyes are suitable for trial
salvage. Given the widespread management debate of unilateral cT2a/cT2b eyes, there is a need for
robust, multicentre collaborative studies involving a larger group of children to further assess these
clinico-pathologic correlations.
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Tables
Table 1. Summary of American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) pathological staging 8th
Edition.
Table 2. Histopathologic features of the studied eyes.
Table 3. Combined analysis of Fabian et al (30) and current sample showing significance versus
probability assessment.
Supplementary Table 1. Significance of association between clinical findings and histopathologic
features of enucleated eyes.
Figure Legend
Figure 1. (A) Left, RetCam fundus photograph of child 1 showing a right multilobulated tumor with
overlying serous retinal detachment (RD) and subretinal seeding. Middle left, Histopathological section
under low magnification through the optic nerve demonstrating extra-scleral and post-lamina cribrosa
invasion (arrows), but not to the optic nerve resection margin (pT4). Middle right, high magnification of
trans-scleral and extra-scleral invasion (arrow). Right, High magnification showing retrolaminar invasion
(arrow). Whole-body MRI (WBMRI), lumbar puncture (LP) and bilateral bone marrow aspirate (BMA)
were negative for malignancy. He underwent six cycles of vincristine, etoposide, carboplatin (VEC) and
cyclophosphamide, followed by orbital irradiation.
(B) Left, RetCam fundus photograph of child 2 demonstrating a large inferior tumor with overlying RD,
vitreous and subretinal seeds. The optic nerve was obscured. Middle and right, Histopathological sections
under low and intermediate magnification showing massive choroidal invasion (asterisk) beyond the
confines of the retinal pigment epithelium (arrow), with no evidence of scleral invasion (pT3a). There
was prelaminar optic nerve invasion. LP and BMA were negative for malignancy and she received four
cycles of VEC.
(C) Left, RetCam fundus photograph of child 4 demonstrating a large tumor obscuring the nerve and
macula, with associated hemorrhage, RD and diffuse vitreous seeding. There was no anterior segment
extension evident on ultrasound biomicroscopy. Histopathology was confirmed to be massive (pT3a). The
child received systemic adjuvant chemotherapy.
(D) Left, RetCam fundus image of child 3 demonstrating a large tumor with associated RD, subretinal
and focal vitreous seeding. There was no visualization of the optic nerve and the macula was involved.
Initial review was consistent with low-risk histopathology. One year later the child presented with fever
and pain, and WBMRI identified a paraspinal tumor. Molecular analysis confirmed metastasis (Racher
2016). Bilateral BMA were involved with tumor cells. MRI showed no orbital or intracranial disease and
LP was negative. Internal review of the ocular pathology, including further choroidal sections, showed an
area of massive choroidal invasion (pT3a). The child received 6 cycles of VEC and cyclosporine,
followed by autologous bone marrow transplant and focal irradiation. He was diagnosed with dural-based
metastases 1 year later. Despite radiotherapy, the child died 18 months after presentation with metastases.