abhishek kumar, sem III, pol sc (minor) roll 4.docx

8/10/2019 abhishek kumar, sem III, pol sc (minor) roll 4.docx

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STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL APPROACH OF ALMOND

POLITICAL SCIENCE PROJECT

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SSUUBBMMIITTTTEEDDOONN: SEPTEMBER, 19TH2011

HIDAYATULLAH

NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY


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T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S

Acknowledgement.

Objective of research

Research Methodology

INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................6

1. FUNCTION........................................................................................................................7

2. SYSTEM...........................................................................................................................8

3.

INPUT FUNCTIONS ...........................................................................................................9

4.

OUTPUT FUNCTIONS ......................................................................................................11

5. CHARACTERISTICS OF DEVELOPMENT OF POLITICAL SYSTEM........................................11

EVALUATION ................................................................................................................12

BIBLIOGRAPHY.............................................................................................................14


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I feel myself highly elated, as it gives me tremendous pleasure to come out with this

dynamic and highly popular work on the topic, STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL

APPROACH OF ALMOND

Words fail to express the deep sense of glee to, Prof. B.K.Mahakul(Faculty for

POLITICAL SCIENCE). The dialectics and dynamics of this topic provoked me to come out

with this project.

I am glad to be a student ofProf. B.K.Mahakul. The person with dynamic

personality, who has always given me the courage and wisdom to move in the right path. To

place another feather in his cap;

I would like to thank him for guiding me in doing all sorts of researches; give me

suggestions and having discussions regarding the project topic by devoting his precious time.

I thank all those who have helped me in the completion of this project from the bottom of my

heart. I would also like to extend my heartfelt thanks to the library staff that have been

relentless in their help and support in providing any material whenever required.

Thanking You

ACHAL SAHU


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OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

This project report is aimed to find out the relevance and importance and application of

Almonds theory of structural functionalism with a critical tone.


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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This project is based upon doctrinal method of research. This project has been done after a

after a thorough research based upon intrinsic and extrinsic aspects of the project.

Sources of Data:

The following secondary sources of data have been used in the project-

1.

Articles.

2. Books

3. Journals

4.

Websites

Method of Writing:

The method of writing followed in the course of this research project is primarily

analytical.

Mode of Citation:

The researchers have followed the Blue Book mode of citation throughout the course

of this project.


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INTRODUCTION

Political Science deals with the systematic study of political structures, political processes

and political behaviour. A number of approaches and methods have been suggested and used

by thinkers and scholars of political science for the scientific investigation of political

phenomena and for the arrival at systematic generalizations and theories. In using the term

"approach" we mean a particular orientation or point of view in looking at and interpreting

the world of politics. By making use of a particular set of concepts and assumptions about the

salience of certain factors, an approach seeks to provide a framework for analysis,

explanation and prediction. One of these approaches is structural-functional analysis.

The method of analysis used in political science as a result of general systems theory is

generally known as functionalism. It revolves round a certain concepts more important of

them being the concepts of functions and structures. Three basic questions are involved1

a. What basic functions are fulfilled in a given system

b.

By what structure

c. Under what conditions?

Like system analysis, structural-functional analysis is also based on the concept of political

system. This model of political system has been more widely used than other models of

political system in the sphere of comparative politics because it provides for standard

categories for different type of political systems. It originated in the field of social

anthropology in the writings of Radcliffe Brown and B.Malinowski. Then it was developed in

the field of sociology by Talcott Parsons, Robert K.Merton. Gabriel Almond and his

associates developed it in a tool of political analysis. "Functionalism depends ultimately on

the Parsonian view that a system seeks to achieve particular goals and that all behaviour and

phenomena are related to this end. This has led to the development of structural-

functionalism: which argues that all social behaviour and phenomena (constituted as patterns

of action or structures) fulfil (or fail to fulfil) particular functions for the system."

1S.P.VARMA,Modern Political Theory,2ed( Vikas Publishing House , Delhi) p.47


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According to Davies and Lewis basic assumptions of this analysis are that all systems, have

structures which can be identified and that the parts or elements of these structures perform

functions within the system which have meaning only in terms of the system. They are

dependent on the system as an active entity for their existence, and are, in turn, linked in sucha way as to be also dependent on each other for their activity.

Functionalists have given lists of various lengths of functional imperatives which every

system must meet. According to Parsons the system must (i) adapt itself to an environment

adaptation, (ii) achieve collective goalsgoal attainment; (iii) maintain control of tensions in

the system pattern maintenance or tension management, and (iv) integrate the diverse

actions of members of societyintegration.2

Structural-functionalism is the alternative of functionalism that has been used most in

political research; Almond's primary interest lay in studying how political systems change

from the traditional to the modern and involving a scheme of classification of different types

of political systems.3He defines a political system as "that system of interactions to be found

in ill independent societies which perform the function of integration and adaptation by

means of the employment or threat of employment, of more less legitimate physical

compulsion.

A.

FUNCTION

A function is generally defined as theobjective consequence of a pattern of action for the

system (in this case political or social) in which it occurs.4A function, thus, deals ultimately

with objective consequences of a pattern or action for a system, it is necessary to make a

distinction between functions (described as eu-functions by Marian J. Levy Jr.) and dys

function. In words of R.K.Merton functionsare those observed consequences which make

for the adaptation or adjustment of a given system; and dys functions those observed

consequences which lessen the adaptation or adjustment of the system. 5 it does not mean

2ROBERT.K..MERTON, Social Theory And Social Structure, (Free Press,London 1949), p.51.

3O.P.GAUBA,An Introduction To Political Theory, 5 Ed. (Macmilaan Publishers India Ltd, 2009).P. 54.

4ORAN YOUNG , Systems Of Political Science, (Engelwood Cliffs, New Jersey , Prentice Haal , Inc. , 1968),

p.295Supra Note 1.


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that functional and dys functional consequences are necessarily y produced by different

patterns of action , or that these pattern of action are necessarily working at same level.6

There may be patterns of actions which are fubnctional for overall the social system but dys

functional for many individuals or groups, or vice versa. Merton has made a very usefuldistinction between manifest and latent functions. The manifest functions deal with patterns

of actions whose consequences are both intended and recognised by the participants . but the

latent functions deals with the patterns of the action whose consequences are unintended and

unrecognised by the participants. There can be intermediate patterns also unintended but

recognised or intended but unrecognised.

B.

SYSTEM

Besides the concept of the functions another very important aspect in structural functional

analysis is that of structure. While functions deal with the consequences involving

objectives as well as processesof pattern of actions , structure refer to those arrangements

within the function which perform the function.7 Political systems are characterised by

comprehensiveness inter dependence and existence of boundaries. Comprehensiveness

includes all the interactionsinputs as well as outputs. Interdependence implies that parts or

subsets of the system have validity only in terms of the working of the entire system. Almond

defines boundary as "points where one system ends and another system begins".

Merton unlike other anthropologists does not believe in one to one correspondence

between structure and function. A single function may be fulfilled by complex combinations

of structures, just as any given structural arrangements may perform functions which might

have different kinds of consequences for the structure. Merton has tried to challenge the old

notion of indispensability namely that each pattern of action, or structure , must fulfils a

vital function. He has developed the idea that a given function can be fulfilled by many

different structural arrangementsthe concept of structural sustainability.

Gabriel almond and G.B.Powell in their book of the politics of the developing areas (1960)

identified four characteristics of the political system:

6

Id.7Supranote 2.


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a)

All political system have political structure

b) The same functions are performed in all political systems with different frequencies

and by different kind of structures

c)

All political structures are multi functionald) All systems are mixed in cultural sense i.e. they are based in a couture which is

always a mixture of traditional and modern .

Almond and his associated argued that all political systems regardless of their type, must

perform a specific set of tasks if they are to remain in existence as systems in working order

or in equilibrium i.e. as an ongoing process.

These are the functional requirements of a political system. In their book Comparative

Politics: A Development Approach published in 1966 Almond and Powell developed the

structural-functional paradigm first enunciated in the Politics of the Developing Areas. As per

the new elaboration, the structural-functional analysis postulated three levels of functions

performed by all political systems: (i) system capabilities, (ii) conversion functions and (iii)

system maintenance and adaptive functions. System capabilities are the set of total

relationships of a political system with its environment; they are the 'output' and include

extraction, regulations, distribution, symbolic output, and responsive capability. Conversion

functions operate prior to system capabilities. It converts inputs into outputs, demands and

supports into capabilities. System maintenance and adaptive functions include political

socialisation and recruitment, the mechanisms by which the political system adjusts itself to

demands from the surrounding environment.

C.

INPUT FUNCTIONS

With this assumption they sought to modify David Eastons model of political system

suggesting that inputs and outputs recognised by Easton can be better understood as

functions or functional requisites of political systems. They sought to redefine these

inputs and outputs with a deeper understanding of political process and processed to

identify various structures corresponding to these functions, in order to evolve a structural

functional framework. They conceded that in various political system, these functions can be


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performed by various political structures and sometime , even by structures which are not

overtly recognised as being , primarily, political.8

Accordingly, Almond and his associates discerned four input functions and three outputfunctions.

Input functions are

a) Political Socialization and Recruitment:9

It is the process of inducting people into the political culture of the system. This is broadly

the function of citizenship training and recruitment into specialized political roles. Political

Socialization is a process whereby an individual acquires attitudes and orientation towards

political phenomena; it also implies the process whereby society transmits political norms

and belief from one generation to other.

Recruitment stands for the process whereby political groups obtain members for

different important roles in political process, either in addition to the existing members or as

replacement of other members. Since political socialization prepares the individual to assume

various important roles in social structure , it is instrumental to recruitment also. Family,

school and other primary groups are most suited to perform this function.

b)

Interest Articulation: 10

It is concerned with the formulation and expression of interest claims and demands for

political action. This is generally performed by 'associational interest groups' or formal

organizations which specialise in communicating members' desires. It stands for the process

whereby opinions, attitudes, beliefs and preferences etc. are converted into coherent demands

on the political system. This function may be performed by various structures, but interest

groups are most suited to perform this function.

c) Interest Aggregation:11

It is combining demands into courses of proposed action. It stands for the process whereby

various divergent interests are collated and translated into concrete demand demands of very

large section of people (preferably appealing to all sections of society), policy proposals and

programmes of actions etc. Political parties are most suited to perform this function.

d)

Political Communication:12

8Supranote 2.

9Supranote 2.

10

Id.11Supranote 1.


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It stands for the process whereby components of a political system , such as individuals,

groups and institutions transmit and receive information regarding the functitioning of

political systems. Mass media or the organizations controlling the media of mass

communication are most suited to perform this function.

It can be seen that the input functions link the political system to the non-governmental

sub-systems in a society such as family, school, interest groups, parties, the press etc. The

output functions are wholly governmental.

D.OUTPUT FUNCTIONS13

1.Rule making-authoritative rule formulation which is done by legislature.

2.

Rule application -application and enforcement of laws which is done by executive

3.Rule adjudication -applying rules to individual cases which are done by judiciary.

E.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DEVELOPMENT OF POLITICALSYSTEM

The structural-functional framework has been particularly found useful for comparative

politics. A developed political system is characterized by differentiation of structures for the

performance of specific functions. In less developed political systems functions of interest

articulation, interest aggregation and political communication might be performed by some

structures which have no taken a definite shape, but in developed system growth of interest

groups, political parties and mass media would be clearly discernible. Almond and Powell

have identified two chief characteristics of development of political system:14

a)

Structural differentiation: by differentiation we refer to the process whereby the rolechanges and become more specialised and more autonomous or whereby new type of

roles are established or new structures and new system emerge or are

created.(comparative politics)

b)

Secularization of culture: the underlying propensities of a political system ,

representing its physiological dimension, have been described as political culture.

12Id.

13

Supranote 2.14Id.


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Secularization of a culture is concerned with this aspect of political system. As

Almond and Powell has further observed : the Secularization of culture is the

process whereby traditional orientations and attitudes give way to more dynamic

decision making processes involving the gathering of information, the evaluation ofinformation, the laying out of alternative courses of action, the selection of a course of

a action from among these possible modes , and the mean whereby one tests whether

or not a given cause of action is producing the consequences which were intended.

EVALUATION

Many criticisms have been levelled against structural-functional approach. The whole thrust

of this approach is on the system maintenance and survival capability of the political system.

It is criticized for being unable to account adequately for systemic change and being

ideologically biased in a conservative and status quoist direction.

It is an explanatory theory of democratisation in the Western liberal democratic setting. It is

unsuitable for analysing the politics of developing societies which are in dire need of change

in all areas of life. Again it is difficult to fit the so-called traditional societies into the

framework of Almond.

Marion Levy says that this framework suffers from the "fallacy of functional teleology". This

refers to the tendency to trace out and explain the origins of a pattern of action in terms of its

being a functional necessity for the survival of the system.

Nevertheless, there is no doubt that the structural-functional approach has thrown light

on areas which have been previously overlooked or neglected and, in particular ,has offered

significant explanations of phenomena as fulfilling a particular need or function.

The structural functional approach contains within itseveral inherent biases or normative implications. First, it is by its very nature conservative: it

recognizes that a political system's first objective is to ensure its own survival. For this

reason, it is not especially responsive to innovations and movements aimed at political

change that is, beyond those that strengthen its adaptiveness and resilience. It also has a

democratic and participatory bias insofar as it views citizen input and involvement in the

political process as the surest route to political stability and responsiveness.15

15www.scottlondon.com/articles/almond.html


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But what Almond and Powell have yet to give us, in my view, is a model that gives adequate

attention to the role of civil society in shaping political culture. Civil society refers to the

wealth of institutions, associations, and citizen groups that operate outside and independent of

either government or business. As we have seen in Eastern Europe and elsewhere, civilsociety can go a long way toward shaping the political fate of a nation. As Robert Putnam and

by now a host of other sociologists have convincingly demonstrated, it is also a chief

determinant of a political system's overall stability and effectiveness. Almond and Powell's

model alone does very little in helping us understand the role of civil society in shaping

political culture and still less how it differs between different political systems.

But is undoubtedful that it has opened up a new mode of political analysis

without being restrained by institutional concerns. It has proved to be a very powerful tool for

the study of comparative politics. It is a useful framework for the analysis of problems in a

cross-national and cross-cultural setting.


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BIBLIOGRAPHY

GAUBA.O.P,An Introduction To Political Theory, 5 Ed. (Macmilaan Publishers India

Ltd) 2009.

MERTON. K.ROBERT., Social Theory And Social Structure, 3 ed., (Free Press,London)

1949.

VARMA .S.P.,Modern Political Theory,2ed ( Vikas Publishing House , Delhi) , 2009.

YOUNG ,ORAN , Systems Of Political Science, 3 ed., (Engelwood Cliffs, New Jersey,

Prentice Hall Inc.)1968.

www.scottlondon.com/articles/almond.html

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abhishek kumar, sem III, pol sc (minor) roll 4.docx