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Aalborg Universitet PSYCHOSOCIAL MODELS FOR PREVENTION AND WELLBEING: Addressing Authority-Based Violence in Urban Neighbourhoods Mogapi, Nomfundo; Lascano, Josephine Acuna; Anasarias, Ernesto; Swaray, Seidu; Masuko, Themba; Jensen, Steffen Creative Commons License Unspecified Publication date: 2017 Document Version Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record Link to publication from Aalborg University Citation for published version (APA): Mogapi, N., Lascano, J. A., Anasarias, E., Swaray, S., Masuko, T., & Jensen, S. (2017). PSYCHOSOCIAL MODELS FOR PREVENTION AND WELLBEING: Addressing Authority-Based Violence in Urban Neighbourhoods. Dignity, the Danish Institute against Torture. DIGNITY Publication Series on Torture and Organised Violence No. 15 General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. ? Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. ? You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain ? You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal ? Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us at [email protected] providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Downloaded from vbn.aau.dk on: June 03, 2021

Aalborg Universitet PSYCHOSOCIAL MODELS FOR ......for the Global Alliance By Nomfundo Mogapi, Josephine Acuna Lascano, Ernesto A. Anasarias, Seidu Swaray, Themba Masuko and Ste! en

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  • Aalborg Universitet

    PSYCHOSOCIAL MODELS FOR PREVENTION AND WELLBEING:

    Addressing Authority-Based Violence in Urban Neighbourhoods

    Mogapi, Nomfundo; Lascano, Josephine Acuna; Anasarias, Ernesto; Swaray, Seidu; Masuko,Themba; Jensen, Steffen

    Creative Commons LicenseUnspecified

    Publication date:2017

    Document VersionPublisher's PDF, also known as Version of record

    Link to publication from Aalborg University

    Citation for published version (APA):Mogapi, N., Lascano, J. A., Anasarias, E., Swaray, S., Masuko, T., & Jensen, S. (2017). PSYCHOSOCIALMODELS FOR PREVENTION AND WELLBEING: Addressing Authority-Based Violence in UrbanNeighbourhoods. Dignity, the Danish Institute against Torture. DIGNITY Publication Series on Torture andOrganised Violence No. 15

    General rightsCopyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright ownersand it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights.

    ? Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. ? You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain ? You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal ?

    Take down policyIf you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us at [email protected] providing details, and we will remove access tothe work immediately and investigate your claim.

    Downloaded from vbn.aau.dk on: June 03, 2021

    https://vbn.aau.dk/en/publications/b0c6beb3-048b-45cf-8444-e00f3cdf10bc

  • DIGNITY Publication Series on Torture and Organised ViolencePraxis Paper

    #15PSYCHOSOCIAL MODELS FOR PREVENTION AND WELLBEING:Addressing Authority-Based Violence in Urban Neighbourhoods

    Nomfundo MogapiJosephine Acuna LascanoErnesto A. AnasariasSeidu SwarayThemba MasukoSteffen Jensen

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    mm

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    nd

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  • Wh

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    is

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    en

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    em

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    ilie

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    nd

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    e o

    rgan

    izat

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    , th

    e fo

    llow

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    ele

    me

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    may

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    re

    leva

    nt:

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    fam

    ilies

    : a)

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    pro

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    fa

    mily

    co

    hes

    ion

    an

    d

    fun

    ctio

    nin

    g

    to

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    blis

    h

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    abili

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    e an

    d

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    lth

    y re

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    incl

    ud

    ing

    with

    ris

    k g

    rou

    ps

    and

    tar

    get

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    up

    s;

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    Imp

    rove

    d s

    oci

    al p

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    ctio

    n a

    nd

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    ven

    tio

    n o

    f vi

    ole

    nce

    by

    sup

    po

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    g f

    amili

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    in

    the

    ir r

    ela

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    nsh

    ips

    wit

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    hb

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    rs a

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    sta

    te a

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    s; a

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    s m

    ob

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    d t

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    age

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    r n

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    d in

    ad

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    s to

    ass

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    com

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    mm

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    sta

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    uld

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    f an

    alli

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    to

    pre

    ven

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    nce

    ag

    ain

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    an

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    is o

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    ;

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    rall

    com

    mu

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    effi

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    imp

    rove

    s w

    her

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    ere

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    few

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    cid

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    vio

    len

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    nd

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    nfli

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    an

    d w

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    may

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    add

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    co

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    s; a

    nd

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    rove

    d

    abili

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    tify

    po

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    area

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    f co

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    ora

    tion

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    crea

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    com

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    spec

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    beh

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    them

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    sid

    e an

    d o

    uts

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    d pu

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    e au

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    uld

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    sta

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    nal

    ysis

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    d p

    ote

    ntia

    l par

    tner

    s in

    sid

    e th

    e st

    ate

    cou

    ld b

    e m

    ob

    ilize

    d b

    ased

    on

    an

    an

    alys

    is o

    f th

    e p

    atte

    rns

    of

    vio

    len

    ce;

    b)

    Imp

    ort

    ant

    stat

    e o

    ffici

    als

    nee

    d t

    o r

    eflec

    t at

    titu

    des

    to

    war

    ds

    risk

    gro

    up

    s th

    at a

    re b

    ased

    on

    so

    un

    d u

    nd

    erst

    and

    ing

    of

    the

    pro

    ble

    ms

    of

    the

    risk

    gro

    up

    s;

    c)

    Stat

    e au

    tho

    ritie

    s n

    eed

    to

    ass

    um

    e th

    eir

    resp

    on

    sib

    ilitie

    s as

    du

    ty b

    eare

    rs t

    ow

    ard

    s ri

    sk

    gro

    up

    s, f

    amili

    es a

    nd

    co

    mm

    un

    ities

    ; an

    d

    d)

    Stat

    e au

    tho

    ritie

    s co

    uld

    en

    gag

    e in

    wel

    fare

    act

    iviti

    es a

    nd

    pro

    gra

    mm

    es i

    n p

    artn

    ersh

    ips

    with

    fam

    ilies

    an

    d c

    om

    mu

    niti

    es th

    at e

    nab

    le th

    em to

    par

    ticip

    ate

    in s

    oci

    ety

    as fu

    ll ci

    tizen

    s.

    10

    | G

    LO

    BA

    L A

    LL

    IAN

    CE

    PS

    YC

    HO

    SO

    CIA

    L M

    OD

    ELS

    FO

    R P

    RE

    VE

    NT

    ION

    AN

    D W

    ELL

    BE

    ING

    |

    11

  • Intr

    odu

    ctio

    nA

    cro

    ss th

    e w

    orl

    d in

    po

    or,

    urb

    an n

    eigh

    bo

    urh

    oo

    ds,

    bo

    th s

    tate

    an

    d n

    on

    -sta

    te a

    uth

    ori

    ties

    use

    vio

    len

    ce

    agai

    nst

    th

    ose

    th

    ey c

    on

    sid

    er t

    o b

    e in

    op

    po

    sitio

    n t

    o t

    hem

    , wh

    eth

    er t

    o c

    on

    tro

    l th

    eir

    con

    stitu

    enci

    es

    or

    to i

    mp

    ose

    do

    min

    ant

    mo

    ral

    no

    rms.

    Th

    is f

    orm

    of

    vio

    len

    ce i

    s o

    ften

    co

    nsi

    der

    ed l

    egiti

    mat

    e b

    y au

    tho

    ritie

    s, e

    ven

    by

    tho

    se th

    at fa

    ll vi

    ctim

    to it

    . Tar

    gets

    mig

    ht b

    e d

    rug-

    dea

    ling

    or d

    rug-

    usi

    ng

    you

    th,

    sexu

    al m

    ino

    ritie

    s, o

    uts

    ider

    s o

    r m

    igra

    nts

    . So

    met

    imes

    the

    vio

    len

    ce is

    exe

    rcis

    ed b

    y st

    ate

    auth

    ori

    ties;

    at

    oth

    er t

    imes

    , it

    is p

    erp

    etra

    ted

    by

    no

    n-s

    tate

    act

    ors

    act

    ing

    on

    th

    e b

    ehes

    t, in

    th

    e ab

    sen

    ce o

    r w

    ith

    the

    con

    sen

    t o

    f th

    e st

    ate;

    an

    d fi

    nal

    ly, s

    om

    etim

    es t

    he

    vio

    len

    ce is

    dire

    cted

    aga

    inst

    th

    e st

    ate.

    Wh

    at

    un

    ites

    thes

    e d

    iffer

    ent f

    orm

    s o

    f vio

    len

    ce is

    a c

    laim

    to u

    ph

    old

    ord

    er, d

    isci

    plin

    e, ju

    stic

    e an

    d th

    e ri

    ghts

    o

    f th

    ose

    wh

    o a

    llege

    th

    ey r

    epre

    sen

    t th

    e m

    any

    by

    targ

    etin

    g gr

    ou

    ps

    of s

    o-c

    alle

    d t

    ran

    sgre

    sso

    rs, a

    nd

    fo

    r th

    is r

    easo

    n w

    e ca

    n s

    ay i

    t is

    au

    tho

    rity

    -bas

    ed.

    Imp

    ort

    antly

    , d

    iffer

    ent

    gro

    up

    s m

    igh

    t co

    nst

    itute

    th

    e o

    bje

    ct o

    f th

    e d

    isci

    plin

    e d

    epen

    din

    g o

    n w

    hic

    h a

    uth

    ori

    ties

    are

    in c

    on

    tro

    l lo

    cally

    . W

    hile

    su

    ch

    vio

    len

    ce h

    app

    ens

    in r

    ura

    l are

    as a

    s w

    ell,

    auth

    ori

    ty-b

    ased

    vio

    len

    ce in

    th

    e ci

    ties

    take

    s o

    n a

    sp

    ecifi

    c n

    atu

    re d

    iffer

    ent

    fro

    m r

    ura

    l are

    as. A

    s se

    vera

    l co

    mm

    enta

    tors

    hav

    e n

    ote

    d (

    Bja

    rnes

    on

    an

    d J

    ense

    n,

    2014

    ; Ro

    dge

    rs, 2

    014

    ; Wo

    rld

    Ban

    k, 2

    011

    , Ari

    as, 2

    00

    6),

    urb

    an v

    iole

    nce

    is c

    har

    acte

    rize

    d b

    y a

    ran

    ge

    of

    acto

    rs a

    nd

    fo

    rms

    and

    by

    a h

    igh

    deg

    ree

    of

    con

    flict

    bet

    wee

    n d

    iffer

    ent

    vio

    len

    t n

    etw

    ork

    s an

    d

    acto

    rs, i

    ncl

    ud

    ing

    vigi

    lan

    te g

    rou

    ps,

    nei

    ghb

    ou

    rho

    od

    s, a

    nd

    diff

    eren

    t co

    mp

    etin

    g p

    olit

    ical

    act

    ors

    an

    d

    stat

    e o

    ffici

    als.

    Ap

    art

    fro

    m b

    ein

    g d

    iffer

    ent

    fro

    m r

    ura

    l vio

    len

    ce, t

    his

    form

    of u

    rban

    vio

    len

    ce is

    qu

    ite d

    iffer

    ent

    fro

    m

    ho

    w w

    e o

    ften

    un

    der

    stan

    d s

    tate

    vio

    len

    ce a

    s fo

    r in

    stan

    ce t

    ort

    ure

    an

    d il

    l-tr

    eatm

    ent

    – a

    s ex

    trem

    e,

    spec

    tacu

    lar

    form

    s o

    f vi

    ole

    nce

    . R

    ath

    er,

    the

    vio

    len

    ce w

    e ar

    e ad

    dre

    ssin

    g is

    co

    mm

    on

    pla

    ce,

    take

    n

    for

    gran

    ted

    ; it

    hap

    pen

    s ev

    ery

    day

    ; it

    is o

    ften

    co

    nsi

    der

    ed le

    gitim

    ate

    by

    the

    maj

    ori

    ty o

    f th

    e p

    artie

    s,

    and

    it o

    ften

    esc

    apes

    hu

    man

    rig

    hts

    inte

    rven

    tion

    s as

    th

    ey a

    re u

    sual

    ly fo

    cuse

    d o

    n le

    gisl

    ativ

    e re

    form

    an

    d t

    rain

    ing

    stat

    e in

    stitu

    tion

    s o

    n h

    ow

    to

    up

    ho

    ld h

    um

    an r

    igh

    ts.

    For

    inst

    ance

    , wh

    at p

    uts

    yo

    uth

    or

    sexu

    al m

    ino

    ritie

    s at

    ris

    k is

    no

    t th

    e ig

    no

    ran

    ce o

    f au

    tho

    ritie

    s o

    f w

    hat

    th

    ey c

    an a

    nd

    can

    no

    t d

    o;

    it is

    wh

    at t

    hey

    fee

    l le

    gitim

    ated

    to

    do

    an

    d w

    hat

    co

    mm

    un

    ities

    dem

    and

    th

    at t

    hey

    do

    , in

    clu

    din

    g th

    e ki

    nd

    s o

    f vi

    ole

    nce

    th

    at p

    olic

    e ar

    e so

    met

    imes

    exp

    ecte

    d t

    o u

    se a

    gain

    st c

    rim

    inal

    s b

    y th

    e ge

    ner

    al

    po

    pu

    latio

    n (H

    orn

    ber

    ger,

    2014

    ; Jen

    sen

    20

    14)1 .

    Th

    e ta

    rget

    ed g

    rou

    ps

    are

    usu

    ally

    at

    risk

    bec

    ause

    of

    the

    pra

    ctic

    es th

    ey e

    nga

    ge in

    (ste

    alin

    g o

    r rio

    ting)

    , wh

    at th

    ey s

    ymb

    oliz

    e (m

    ora

    l co

    rru

    ptio

    n),

    ho

    w th

    ey

    loo

    k (s

    exu

    al m

    ino

    ritie

    s), o

    r w

    her

    e th

    ey a

    re (s

    tran

    gers

    , mig

    ran

    ts).

    Bu

    t m

    ore

    th

    an a

    nyt

    hin

    g th

    ey a

    re

    at r

    isk

    bec

    ause

    no

    on

    e is

    will

    ing

    to p

    rote

    ct th

    em, a

    s th

    ey a

    re s

    een

    to tr

    ansg

    ress

    mo

    ral b

    ou

    nd

    arie

    s o

    r n

    ot

    be

    “wo

    rth

    y vi

    ctim

    s”. W

    hen

    th

    ey a

    re h

    urt

    , few

    peo

    ple

    th

    ink

    they

    des

    erve

    tre

    atm

    ent

    or

    care

    . A

    diff

    eren

    t ap

    pro

    ach

    to

    ad

    dre

    ssin

    g a

    uth

    ori

    ty-b

    ased

    urb

    an v

    iole

    nce

    is t

    her

    efo

    re n

    eces

    sary

    .

    Th

    ere

    is a

    ten

    den

    cy w

    ithin

    th

    e fie

    ld o

    f p

    reve

    ntio

    n a

    nd

    reh

    abili

    tatio

    n t

    o d

    ivid

    e th

    e h

    ealin

    g an

    d

    pre

    ven

    tion

    an

    d t

    o e

    qu

    ate

    psy

    cho

    soci

    al a

    pp

    roac

    hes

    on

    ly t

    o r

    ehab

    ilita

    tion

    . T

    his

    mea

    ns

    that

    th

    e p

    ote

    ntia

    l of t

    he

    psy

    cho

    soci

    al fi

    eld

    to in

    fluen

    ce p

    reve

    ntio

    n is

    no

    t exp

    lore

    d. C

    urr

    ently

    in th

    e fie

    ld o

    f p

    reve

    ntio

    n, e

    ffo

    rts

    focu

    s m

    ain

    ly o

    n in

    stitu

    tion

    al re

    form

    an

    d tr

    ain

    ing.

    In c

    on

    text

    s o

    f urb

    an v

    iole

    nce

    , th

    e d

    iffer

    entia

    tion

    bet

    wee

    n p

    reve

    ntio

    n a

    nd

    reh

    abili

    tatio

    n i

    s n

    ot

    use

    ful

    in c

    reat

    ing

    a su

    stai

    nab

    le

    1 T

    he

    issu

    e o

    f d

    efin

    itio

    ns

    is c

    om

    plic

    ated

    . We

    use

    th

    e te

    rms

    auth

    ori

    ty-b

    ased

    vio

    len

    ce h

    ere

    to s

    tres

    s th

    e n

    eed

    to

    b

    egin

    fro

    m lo

    cal p

    ract

    ices

    of

    auth

    ori

    ty r

    ath

    er t

    han

    str

    ict

    leg

    al n

    orm

    s (K

    yed

    , 20

    12).

    In m

    any

    case

    s, t

    he

    form

    s o

    f vi

    ole

    nce

    reg

    iste

    red

    her

    e w

    ill in

    dee

    d b

    e ca

    rrie

    d o

    ut

    by

    the

    stat

    e. W

    hile

    th

    ey m

    ay a

    pp

    ear

    leg

    itim

    ate

    fro

    m a

    lo

    cal p

    oin

    t o

    f vi

    ew, t

    hey

    will

    oft

    en b

    e in

    co

    ntr

    aven

    tion

    of

    the

    Co

    nve

    ntio

    n A

    gai

    nst

    To

    rtu

    re, a

    t le

    ast

    the

    par

    t o

    f th

    e co

    nve

    ntio

    n t

    hat

    co

    nce

    rns

    cru

    el,

    inh

    um

    an a

    nd

    deg

    rad

    ing

    tre

    atm

    ent.

    Wh

    ile s

    tate

    offi

    cial

    s w

    ill n

    ot

    alw

    ays

    carr

    y o

    ut

    the

    vio

    len

    ce, t

    hey

    will

    oft

    en, i

    n t

    he

    wo

    rds

    of t

    he

    con

    ven

    tion

    , co

    nse

    nt

    or

    acq

    uie

    sce,

    an

    d h

    ence

    be

    in

    con

    trav

    entio

    n o

    f th

    e co

    nve

    ntio

    n. F

    or

    furt

    her

    dis

    cuss

    ion

    of

    defi

    niti

    on

    s in

    a S

    ou

    th A

    fric

    an c

    on

    text

    , see

    Jen

    sen

    , 20

    14 a

    nd

    Dis

    sel,

    Jen

    sen

    an

    d R

    ob

    erts

    , 20

    09.

    app

    roac

    h t

    o a

    dd

    ress

    ing

    auth

    orit

    y-b

    ased

    vio

    len

    ce.

    Th

    e G

    lob

    al A

    llian

    ce a

    ims

    to a

    dvo

    cate

    fo

    r an

    in

    tegr

    ated

    ap

    pro

    ach

    to

    war

    ds

    wo

    rkin

    g w

    ith h

    ealin

    g an

    d p

    reve

    ntio

    n w

    ithin

    th

    e u

    rban

    vio

    len

    ce fi

    eld

    th

    rou

    gh u

    sin

    g th

    e p

    sych

    oso

    cial

    ap

    pro

    ach

    . We

    ou

    tlin

    e a

    psy

    cho

    soci

    al a

    pp

    roac

    h w

    hic

    h fo

    cuse

    s o

    n

    com

    bin

    ing

    pre

    ven

    tativ

    e an

    d h

    ealin

    g w

    ork

    th

    rou

    gh c

    om

    mu

    nity

    -led

    inte

    rven

    tion

    s w

    ith r

    isk

    gro

    up

    s,

    the

    nei

    ghb

    ou

    rho

    od

    s in

    wh

    ich

    th

    ey l

    ive,

    th

    eir

    fam

    ilies

    an

    d t

    he

    auth

    orit

    ies

    that

    see

    fit

    to p

    un

    ish

    th

    em t

    o m

    ain

    tain

    ord

    er.

    Th

    is a

    pp

    roac

    h c

    om

    ple

    men

    ts l

    egal

    ap

    pro

    ach

    es t

    o p

    reve

    ntio

    n.

    Inst

    ead

    o

    f re

    pro

    du

    cin

    g an

    ap

    pro

    ach

    th

    at a

    ssu

    mes

    a d

    ich

    oto

    my

    bet

    wee

    n v

    ictim

    s (a

    s rig

    hts

    ho

    lder

    s) a

    nd

    p

    erp

    etra

    tors

    (e.

    g. a

    s d

    uty

    bea

    rers

    ), w

    e fo

    cus

    on

    rel

    atio

    nsh

    ips

    bet

    wee

    n v

    ictim

    s an

    d r

    isk

    gro

    up

    s an

    d t

    hei

    r su

    rro

    un

    din

    gs in

    th

    eir

    fam

    ilies

    an

    d c

    om

    mu

    niti

    es a

    nd

    in r

    elat

    ion

    to

    au

    tho

    ritie

    s. W

    e al

    so

    un

    der

    stan

    d th

    at in

    co

    nte

    xts

    of u

    rban

    vio

    len

    ce it

    can

    be

    diffi

    cult

    to d

    iffer

    entia

    te b

    etw

    een

    vic

    tims

    and

    p

    erp

    etra

    tors

    : in

    man

    y in

    stan

    ces

    the

    face

    of

    the

    vict

    im a

    nd

    per

    pet

    rato

    r is

    th

    e sa

    me

    (e.g

    . so

    meo

    ne

    wh

    o is

    per

    ceiv

    ed a

    s a

    per

    pet

    rato

    r o

    f in

    terp

    erso

    nal

    vio

    len

    ce m

    ay b

    e a

    vict

    im o

    f po

    lice

    tort

    ure

    ).

    Th

    e p

    urp

    ose

    of

    this

    pap

    er i

    s to

    exp

    lore

    su

    ch a

    psy

    cho

    soci

    al,

    com

    mu

    nity

    -led

    ap

    pro

    ach

    . W

    e d

    o n

    ot

    des

    crib

    e in

    det

    ail

    wh

    at t

    he

    diff

    eren

    t in

    terv

    entio

    ns

    in t

    he

    fou

    r co

    nte

    xts

    of

    Den

    mar

    k,

    Ph

    ilip

    pin

    es,

    Lib

    eria

    an

    d S

    ou

    th A

    fric

    a co

    mp

    rise

    . R

    ath

    er,

    we

    dis

    cuss

    pri

    nci

    ple

    s an

    d r

    eflec

    t o

    n

    ho

    w t

    o u

    nd

    erst

    and

    th

    e vi

    ole

    nce

    th

    at w

    e ai

    m t

    o p

    reve

    nt

    and

    th

    e eff

    ects

    we

    aim

    to

    ad

    dre

    ss.

    Co

    mm

    un

    ity-l

    ed a

    pp

    roac

    hes

    to

    vio

    len

    ce p

    reve

    ntio

    n a

    nd

    hea

    ling

    hav

    e o

    ften

    bee

    n h

    eral

    ded

    as

    a p

    anac

    ea f

    or

    soci

    al il

    ls in

    clu

    din

    g p

    ove

    rty

    and

    vio

    len

    ce.

    Th

    e as

    sum

    ptio

    n is

    th

    at o

    nly

    th

    rou

    gh a

    co

    mm

    un

    ity-l

    ed a

    pp

    roac

    h a

    re w

    e ab

    le to

    reac

    h th

    e co

    un

    tless

    nu

    mb

    ers

    of p

    oo

    r peo

    ple

    wh

    ere

    they

    ar

    e. F

    urt

    her

    mo

    re, c

    om

    mu

    nity

    -led

    ap

    pro

    ach

    es a

    re a

    sso

    ciat

    ed w

    ith n

    otio

    ns

    of e

    mp

    ow

    erm

    ent a

    nd

    o

    wn

    ersh

    ip.

    Wh

    ile w

    e ar

    e sy

    mp

    ath

    etic

    to

    th

    ese

    argu

    men

    ts,

    com

    mu

    nity

    -led

    in

    terv

    entio

    ns

    hav

    e b

    een

    mar

    red

    by

    a n

    um

    ber

    of s

    ho

    rtco

    min

    gs: l

    ack

    of m

    on

    itori

    ng,

    lack

    of c

    lari

    ty o

    f go

    als,

    an

    d ta

    rget

    gr

    ou

    ps

    that

    are

    ill-

    defi

    ned

    . Th

    ey h

    ave

    also

    bee

    n c

    red

    ited

    with

    bei

    ng

    effec

    tive

    even

    in s

    ituat

    ion

    s w

    her

    e th

    eir

    imp

    act

    mig

    ht

    be

    limite

    d. T

    his

    pap

    er a

    ims

    to r

    ever

    se s

    om

    e o

    f th

    ese

    sho

    rtco

    min

    gs b

    y p

    rese

    ntin

    g a

    clea

    r d

    escr

    iptio

    n a

    nd

    an

    alys

    is o

    f th

    e co

    nte

    xt o

    f au

    tho

    rity

    -bas

    ed v

    iole

    nce

    , in

    clu

    din

    g

    un

    der

    stan

    din

    g w

    ho

    th

    e ri

    sk g

    rou

    ps

    are,

    ou

    tlin

    ing

    po

    ssib

    le t

    heo

    ries

    of

    chan

    ge w

    ith in

    dic

    ato

    rs f

    or

    the

    psy

    cho

    soci

    al m

    od

    el, a

    nd

    ske

    tch

    ing

    the

    mai

    n n

    atio

    nal

    , reg

    ion

    al a

    nd

    glo

    bal

    ad

    voca

    cy a

    gen

    das

    . H

    ence

    , th

    e p

    aper

    exp

    lore

    s fo

    ur

    diff

    eren

    t co

    nte

    xts

    of

    auth

    ori

    ty-b

    ased

    vio

    len

    ce,

    each

    illu

    stra

    ted

    b

    y o

    ne

    of

    ou

    r fo

    ur

    case

    s. N

    ext,

    it d

    etai

    ls w

    ho

    en

    ds

    up

    at

    risk

    in

    th

    e fo

    ur

    con

    text

    s. A

    s w

    e sh

    all

    see,

    wh

    o t

    hat

    is m

    igh

    t sh

    ift d

    rast

    ical

    ly w

    hils

    t st

    ill lo

    oki

    ng

    surp

    risi

    ngl

    y si

    mila

    r. Fi

    nal

    ly, w

    e ex

    plo

    re

    ho

    w w

    e u

    nd

    erst

    and

    pro

    cess

    es o

    f ch

    ange

    – w

    hat

    do

    we

    hyp

    oth

    esiz

    e w

    ill h

    app

    en w

    hen

    we

    do

    so

    met

    hin

    g?

    Th

    e p

    aper

    beg

    ins

    with

    a c

    ritic

    al a

    nal

    ysis

    on

    ho

    w w

    e co

    nce

    ptu

    ally

    un

    der

    stan

    d t

    he

    vio

    len

    ce t

    o b

    e ad

    dre

    ssed

    an

    d p

    reve

    nte

    d b

    y th

    e p

    sych

    oso

    cial

    ap

    pro

    ach

    . It

    then

    exp

    lore

    s p

    oss

    ible

    ele

    men

    ts o

    f a

    com

    mu

    nity

    -led

    psy

    cho

    soci

    al in

    terv

    entio

    n, i

    ncl

    ud

    ing

    theo

    ries

    of

    chan

    ge. W

    e d

    o n

    ot

    atte

    mp

    t to

    cr

    eate

    on

    e m

    on

    olit

    hic

    ap

    pro

    ach

    to b

    e fo

    llow

    ed b

    y al

    l. R

    ath

    er, t

    he

    pap

    er a

    ims

    to e

    nab

    le re

    flect

    ion

    s ab

    ou

    t psy

    cho

    soci

    al in

    terv

    entio

    ns

    add

    ress

    ing

    vio

    len

    ce in

    po

    or,

    urb

    an n

    eigh

    bo

    urh

    oo

    ds.

    Th

    e p

    aper

    is

    bas

    ed o

    n th

    e w

    ork

    car

    ried

    ou

    t in

    fou

    r co

    un

    trie

    s: D

    enm

    ark,

    Ph

    ilip

    pin

    es, L

    iber

    ia a

    nd

    So

    uth

    Afr

    ica

    by

    resp

    ectiv

    ely

    DIG

    NIT

    Y, B

    alay

    , LA

    PS

    and

    Cen

    tre

    for

    the

    Stu

    dy

    of

    Vio

    len

    ce a

    nd

    Rec

    on

    cilia

    tion

    (C

    SVR

    ). T

    hu

    s, it

    rep

    rese

    nts

    a u

    niq

    ue

    exp

    erie

    nce

    th

    at t

    ran

    scen

    ds

    the

    glo

    bal

    so

    uth

    an

    d t

    he

    glo

    bal

    n

    ort

    h t

    o p

    rod

    uce

    in

    sigh

    ts t

    hat

    mig

    ht

    be

    rele

    van

    t fo

    r co

    mm

    un

    ity-l

    ed i

    nte

    rven

    tion

    s ac

    ross

    th

    e w

    orl

    d a

    nd

    fo

    r th

    inki

    ng

    of

    hea

    ling,

    fu

    nct

    ion

    ing

    and

    pre

    ven

    tion

    with

    in o

    ne

    anal

    ytic

    al a

    nd

    pra

    ctic

    al

    fram

    ewo

    rk.

    12

    | G

    LO

    BA

    L A

    LL

    IAN

    CE

    PS

    YC

    HO

    SO

    CIA

    L M

    OD

    ELS

    FO

    R P

    RE

    VE

    NT

    ION

    AN

    D W

    ELL

    BE

    ING

    |

    13

  • Un

    der

    stan

    din

    g co

    nte

    xts

    of v

    iole

    nce

    Wh

    en a

    imin

    g t

    o p

    reve

    nt

    vio

    len

    ce a

    nd

    ad

    dre

    ss i

    ts i

    mp

    licat

    ion

    s fo

    r ri

    sk g

    rou

    ps,

    tw

    o o

    f th

    e fir

    st

    qu

    esti

    on

    s to

    ask

    are

    wh

    at k

    ind

    of

    vio

    len

    ce w

    e ar

    e ad

    dre

    ssin

    g a

    nd

    ho

    w d

    iffer

    ent

    form

    s o

    f vi

    ole

    nce

    rel

    ate

    to e

    ach

    oth

    er.

    Alt

    ho

    ug

    h o

    ur

    acco

    un

    t is

    no

    t ex

    hau

    stiv

    e, w

    e id

    enti

    fy t

    he

    follo

    win

    g f

    orm

    s o

    f vi

    ole

    nce

    as

    rele

    van

    t to

    th

    e fo

    ur

    diff

    eren

    t p

    roje

    ct in

    terv

    enti

    on

    sit

    es:

    1)

    You

    th v

    iole

    nce

    in

    clu

    din

    g g

    ang

    vio

    len

    ce,

    crim

    inal

    ity,

    sch

    oo

    l vi

    ole

    nce

    an

    d v

    iole

    nce

    re

    late

    d t

    o d

    rug

    co

    nsu

    mp

    tio

    n;

    2)

    Co

    llect

    ive

    vio

    len

    ce i

    ncl

    ud

    ing

    vig

    ilan

    tism

    , xe

    no

    ph

    ob

    ic a

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    ks,

    hat

    e cr

    imes

    , se

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    e d

    eliv

    ery

    rela

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    len

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    pro

    test

    ag

    ain

    st f

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    ed e

    vict

    ion

    s an

    d v

    iole

    nce

    ag

    ain

    st

    vict

    ims

    of

    dis

    ease

    (e.

    g.

    HIV

    an

    d E

    bo

    la).

    Co

    llect

    ive

    vio

    len

    ce is

    usu

    ally

    leg

    itim

    ized

    by

    refe

    rrin

    g t

    o s

    om

    e ki

    nd

    of

    mo

    ral

    com

    mu

    nit

    y th

    at p

    rote

    cts

    loca

    l m

    ora

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    ord

    er;

    3)

    Inti

    mat

    e an

    d

    inte

    rper

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    al

    vio

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    ce

    incl

    ud

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    ild

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    se,

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    mes

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    vio

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    ce,

    and

    co

    nfl

    icts

    bet

    wee

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    eig

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    ou

    rs a

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    mm

    un

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    mem

    ber

    s re

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    l co

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    tio

    n,

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    ts,

    reso

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    d o

    r h

    um

    iliat

    ion

    s. I

    n o

    ther

    co

    nte

    xts,

    th

    ese

    are

    calle

    d ‘s

    oci

    al f

    abri

    c’ c

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    es;

    4)

    Stat

    e vi

    ole

    nce

    invo

    lvin

    g t

    each

    ers,

    po

    lice,

    mili

    tary

    , hea

    lth

    sta

    ff, p

    riso

    n s

    taff

    , po

    litic

    ian

    s an

    d w

    elfa

    re o

    ffici

    als;

    5)

    Ext

    ract

    ive

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    len

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    volv

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    mai

    nta

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    g a

    nd

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    atin

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    sou

    rces

    incl

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    bre

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    s, m

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    ds

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    d

    6)

    Rev

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    incl

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    plin

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    itie

    s lo

    cally

    or

    glo

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    ly.

    Th

    ese

    form

    s o

    f vi

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    nce

    exi

    st in

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    to

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    erve

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    form

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    s m

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    t ill

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    th

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    olle

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    nce

    , a

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    at d

    eriv

    es v

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    mu

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    fro

    m t

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    Sou

    th A

    fric

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    on

    text

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    on

    Ho

    ldt

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    013

    ) ex

    ists

    in

    all

    fou

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    xts.

    In

    So

    uth

    A

    fric

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    ap

    pea

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    n f

    orm

    s su

    ch a

    s vi

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    nt

    serv

    ice

    del

    iver

    y p

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    sts,

    vig

    ilan

    te a

    ctiv

    itie

    s, a

    nd

    xe

    no

    ph

    ob

    ic a

    ttac

    ks o

    n f

    ore

    ign

    ers.

    In

    Lib

    eria

    , th

    e p

    rim

    ary

    targ

    ets

    of

    vio

    len

    ce w

    ere

    you

    ng

    ex

    -co

    mb

    atan

    ts (

    oft

    en t

    alke

    d a

    bo

    ut

    as t

    he

    mo

    torc

    ycle

    bo

    ys).

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    her

    mo

    re,

    in t

    he

    wak

    e o

    f th

    e E

    bo

    la c

    risi

    s, n

    ew t

    arg

    ets

    wer

    e th

    ose

    th

    at w

    ere

    seen

    to

    bri

    ng

    in

    dis

    ease

    an

    d d

    eath

    . In

    th

    e in

    terv

    enti

    on

    sit

    es i

    n t

    he

    Ph

    ilip

    pin

    es,

    colle

    ctiv

    e vi

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    nce

    oft

    en t

    akes

    th

    e fo

    rm o

    f vi

    gila

    nte

    act

    ivit

    ies

    bu

    t in

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    lace

    s ar

    ou

    nd

    th

    e co

    un

    try,

    co

    llect

    ive

    vio

    len

    ce m

    igh

    t re

    late

    to

    rev

    olu

    tio

    nar

    y, e

    xtra

    ctiv

    e an

    d s

    tate

    vio

    len

    ce.

    In D

    anis

    h h

    ou

    sin

    g e

    stat

    es y

    ou

    ng

    peo

    ple

    , o

    r p

    eop

    le w

    ho

    are

    see

    n a

    s so

    meh

    ow

    dev

    ian

    t fr

    om

    a s

    oci

    al n

    orm

    of

    a st

    ron

    g g

    rou

    p w

    ith

    in t

    he

    esta

    te, m

    igh

    t b

    e d

    isci

    plin

    ed in

    way

    s th

    at a

    re o

    ften

    ref

    erre

    d t

    o b

    y m

    ain

    stre

    am D

    anis

    h m

    edia

    as

    bei

    ng

    fro

    m a

    ‘par

    alle

    l so

    ciet

    y’ (

    Joh

    anse

    n, 2

    013

    ). Li

    kew

    ise,

    sta

    te v

    iole

    nce

    exi

    sts

    in a

    ll fo

    ur

    loca

    tio

    ns.

    Ho

    wev

    er,

    ther

    e ar

    e h

    ug

    e d

    iffer

    ence

    s in

    ho

    w i

    t is

    per

    ceiv

    ed a

    nd

    ho

    w i

    t re

    late

    s to

    th

    e la

    w. V

    iole

    nce

    per

    pet

    rate

    d b

    y th

    e D

    anis

    h s

    tate

    is m

    ost

    oft

    en le

    git

    imiz

    ed in

    law

    s in

    volv

    ing

    in

    carc

    erat

    ion

    an

    d p

    enet

    rati

    on

    in

    to f

    amili

    es.

    In t

    he

    Ph

    ilip

    pin

    es,

    vio

    len

    ce i

    s o

    ften

    ass

    oci

    ated

    w

    ith

    co

    rru

    pt

    po

    lice

    pra

    ctic

    es.

    Mod

    els

    for

    un

    der

    stan

    din

    g vi

    olen

    ce

    Thes

    e re

    mar

    ks p

    rom

    pt q

    uest

    ions

    in

    rela

    tion

    to v

    iole

    nce

    whi

    ch a

    re c

    entr

    al t

    o t

    he p

    sych

    oso

    cial

    m

    ode

    l fo

    r pr

    even

    tion

    and

    wel

    lbei

    ng i

    n po

    or

    urba

    n ne

    ighb

    our

    hoo

    ds,

    incl

    udin

    g th

    e fu

    ndam

    enta

    l o

    ne o

    f w

    hy w

    e sh

    oul

    d in

    terv

    ene

    at a

    ll to

    red

    uce

    vio

    lenc

    e. W

    e w

    ill b

    riefly

    co

    nsid

    er t

    hese

    que

    stio

    ns

    thro

    ugh

    anth

    ropo

    logi

    cal,

    trau

    ma

    and

    publ

    ic h

    ealth

    app

    roac

    hes

    to v

    iole

    nce.

    Let

    us

    begi

    n w

    ith t

    he

    anth

    ropo

    logi

    cal

    appr

    oac

    h. F

    irstly

    , w

    hen

    is v

    iole

    nce

    cons

    ider

    ed v

    iole

    nt a

    nd b

    y w

    hom

    ? W

    hile

    thi

    s qu

    estio

    n m

    ight

    see

    m s

    elf-

    evid

    ent,

    it is

    act

    ually

    no

    t. M

    ost

    of

    the

    peo

    ple

    we

    wo

    rk w

    ith –

    esp

    ecia

    lly

    poo

    r, yo

    ung

    peo

    ple

    – d

    o n

    ot c

    ons

    ider

    the

    vio

    lenc

    e th

    ey e

    xper

    ienc

    e as

    vio

    lenc

    e be

    caus

    e it

    is w

    hat i

    t is

    – ju

    st n

    orm

    al li

    fe. I

    n th

    e P

    hilip

    pine

    s, th

    e te

    rm ‘O

    k la

    ng’ o

    r ‘ju

    st o

    k’ c

    aptu

    res

    the

    sens

    e o

    f vio

    lenc

    e th

    at

    is t

    o b

    e ex

    pect

    ed a

    nd h

    ence

    no

    t ‘re

    al v

    iole

    nce’

    , eve

    n if

    vict

    ims

    are

    hurt

    or

    hum

    iliat

    ed b

    y it

    (Jen

    sen,

    H

    apal

    and

    Mo

    dvig

    , 20

    13).

    Tort

    ure

    is a

    cat

    ego

    ry o

    f vio

    lenc

    e th

    at is

    mo

    st o

    ften

    ass

    oci

    ated

    with

    spe

    cific

    ev

    ents

    or r

    egim

    es li

    ke th

    e ap

    arth

    eid

    regi

    me

    in S

    out

    h A

    fric

    a o

    r the

    mar

    tial l

    aw p

    erio

    d in

    the

    Phi

    lippi

    nes.

    Fe

    w

    peo

    ple

    are

    will

    ing

    talk

    ab

    out

    th

    e cu

    rren

    t, ev

    eryd

    ay

    vio

    lenc

    e pe

    rpet

    rate

    d by

    po

    lice

    as

    rele

    vant

    to

    the

    Co

    nven

    tion

    Aga

    inst

    To

    rtur

    e.

    In

    thes

    e in

    stan

    ces,

    w

    hat

    defin

    es

    vio

    lenc

    e is

    w

    ho

    the

    vict

    im

    is.

    Vio

    lenc

    e pe

    rpet

    rate

    d by

    the

    po

    lice

    agai

    nst

    activ

    ists

    is

    perc

    eive

    d as

    rea

    l vi

    ole

    nce,

    ye

    t th

    e sa

    me

    vio

    lenc

    e,

    whe

    n pe

    rpet

    rate

    d ag

    ains

    t yo

    ung

    m

    en i

    n tr

    oub

    le w

    ith t

    he l

    aw i

    s no

    t co

    nsid

    ered

    vio

    lenc

    e.

    Like

    wis

    e, t

    he

    repr

    essi

    ve p

    ow

    ers

    of t

    he D

    anis

    h st

    ate

    are

    rare

    ly s

    poke

    n ab

    out

    as

    vio

    lenc

    e.

    Vio

    lenc

    e se

    ems

    to

    be

    rele

    vant

    o

    nly

    in

    rela

    tion

    to

    exce

    ss,

    as

    the

    Fren

    ch p

    hilo

    soph

    er E

    tienn

    e B

    alib

    ar

    (199

    8)

    sugg

    ests

    . H

    is a

    naly

    sis

    clo

    sely

    fo

    llow

    s th

    e le

    gal

    requ

    irem

    ents

    o

    f ju

    s be

    llum

    or

    just

    war

    . U

    nder

    the

    se

    requ

    irem

    ents

    , vi

    ole

    nce

    can

    be

    legi

    timat

    e o

    nly

    if it

    is p

    erpe

    trat

    ed i

    n

    self-

    defe

    nce

    and

    if it

    is p

    ropo

    rtio

    nate

    to

    the

    thr

    eat.

    This

    mo

    del i

    s im

    plic

    itly

    in o

    pera

    tion

    in a

    lmo

    st a

    ll di

    sco

    urse

    s o

    n vi

    ole

    nce.

    Tak

    e fo

    r in

    stan

    ce t

    he

    war

    on

    terr

    or,

    whi

    ch i

    s le

    gitim

    ized

    as

    pr

    e-em

    ptiv

    e st

    rikes

    ag

    ains

    t a

    thre

    at

    that

    w

    ill

    mat

    eria

    lize

    in

    the

    futu

    re.

    Even

    att

    acks

    lik

    e th

    ese

    draw

    o

    n th

    e id

    ea o

    f se

    lf-de

    fenc

    e, a

    s do

    m

    any

    prev

    enta

    tive

    crim

    inal

    ju

    stic

    e in

    terv

    entio

    ns.

    The

    disc

    ussi

    ons

    o

    n

    sent

    enci

    ng a

    re a

    n ex

    ampl

    e o

    f ho

    w

    14

    | G

    LO

    BA

    L A

    LL

    IAN

    CE

    PS

    YC

    HO

    SO

    CIA

    L M

    OD

    ELS

    FO

    R P

    RE

    VE

    NT

    ION

    AN

    D W

    ELL

    BE

    ING

    |

    15

  • pro

    port

    iona

    lity

    is a

    co

    nsta

    nt e

    lem

    ent

    – h

    ow

    lo

    ng s

    houl

    d a

    crim

    inal

    sta

    y in

    pris

    on

    for

    a ce

    rtai

    n

    crim

    e? T

    hese

    rem

    arks

    als

    o s

    ugge

    st t

    hat

    whi

    le t

    he p

    rinci

    ple

    for

    the

    use

    of

    legi

    timat

    e vi

    ole

    nce

    refe

    rs

    to s

    elf-

    defe

    nce

    and

    to p

    ropo

    rtio

    nalit

    y, t

    his

    is a

    fau

    lt lin

    e w

    hich

    is u

    p fo

    r co

    nsta

    nt d

    iscu

    ssio

    n an

    d

    cont

    esta

    tion

    by t

    hose

    inv

    olv

    ed.

    Hen

    ce,

    whi

    le A

    mer

    ican

    mili

    tary

    per

    sonn

    el m

    ight

    co

    nsid

    er d

    rone

    at

    tack

    s le

    gitim

    ate,

    resi

    dent

    s in

    the

    trib

    al a

    reas

    of P

    akis

    tan

    clea

    rly d

    o n

    ot a

    gree

    . The

    sam

    e ca

    n be

    sai

    d

    abo

    ut ra

    ids

    in S

    out

    h A

    fric

    an to

    wns

    hips

    . Whi

    le th

    e po

    lice

    mig

    ht c

    ond

    uct s

    uch

    raid

    s w

    ith s

    elf-

    defe

    nce

    in m

    ind

    – p

    rote

    ctin

    g So

    uth

    Afr

    ica

    agai

    nst

    a dr

    ug m

    enac

    e –

    man

    y to

    wns

    hip

    resi

    dent

    s do

    no

    t ag

    ree

    (Jen

    sen,

    20

    08

    ). H

    ence

    , whe

    n vi

    ole

    nce

    is le

    gitim

    ate

    or

    not i

    s co

    nsta

    ntly

    neg

    otia

    ted

    and

    cont

    este

    d.

    The

    seco

    nd q

    uest

    ion

    to b

    e co

    nsid

    ered

    is

    Wha

    t is

    the

    pur

    pose

    of

    vio

    lenc

    e? O

    n a

    conc

    rete

    lev

    el,

    the

    answ

    er to

    this

    que

    stio

    n is

    that

    it d

    epen

    ds o

    n th

    e co

    ntex

    t. H

    ow

    ever

    , we

    can

    expl

    ore

    it a

    t a m

    ore

    ab

    stra

    ct le

    vel.

    The

    Ger

    man

    phi

    loso

    pher

    Wal

    ter

    Ben

    jam

    in2

    sugg

    este

    d a

    usef

    ul d

    istin

    ctio

    n be

    twee

    n

    law

    -pre

    serv

    ing

    and

    law

    -mak

    ing

    vio

    lenc

    e. In

    Ben

    jam

    in’s

    ana

    lysi

    s, v

    iole

    nce

    is n

    ot

    dest

    ruct

    ive

    of

    law

    an

    d o

    rder

    ; it

    is c

    ons

    titut

    ive

    for

    law

    and

    ord

    er. H

    ence

    , we

    sho

    uld

    not

    onl

    y be

    co

    ncer

    ned

    with

    wha

    t vi

    ole

    nce

    dest

    roys

    but

    als

    o w

    hat

    kind

    of s

    oci

    ality

    and

    co

    mm

    unity

    it e

    nabl

    es a

    nd p

    rodu

    ces.

    The

    idea

    th

    at v

    iole

    nce

    pro

    duce

    s so

    cial

    ity m

    ight

    be

    coun

    ter-

    intu

    itive

    fo

    r m

    any.

    Ho

    wev

    er, c

    ons

    ider

    vig

    ilant

    e vi

    ole

    nce

    and

    how

    am

    biva

    lent

    it

    is;

    whi

    le i

    t de

    stro

    ys h

    uman

    bo

    dies

    and

    liv

    es,

    it al

    so r

    eco

    nfirm

    s an

    d re

    pro

    duce

    s th

    e ex

    iste

    nce

    of

    a pr

    ocl

    aim

    ed m

    ora

    l co

    mm

    unity

    at

    the

    sam

    e tim

    e as

    it c

    ond

    one

    s vi

    ole

    nce

    in w

    ays

    that

    arg

    uabl

    y ea

    t aw

    ay a

    t a

    soci

    al f

    abric

    sha

    red

    by a

    ll. I

    n th

    at s

    ense

    , it

    is e

    xact

    ly

    wha

    t Ben

    jam

    in w

    oul

    d ca

    ll ‘la

    w-p

    rese

    rvin

    g vi

    ole

    nce’

    . Whi

    le it

    is n

    ot b

    ased

    on

    form

    al o

    r co

    nstit

    utio

    nal

    law

    , it

    relie

    s o

    n an

    oth

    er,

    mo

    re l

    oca

    lized

    ‘la

    w’

    whi

    ch i

    s no

    les

    s eff

    ectiv

    e in

    the

    spe

    cific

    co

    ntex

    t. If

    we

    follo

    w th

    is th

    ou

    gh

    t, w

    e m

    igh

    t say

    that

    man

    y o

    f th

    e fo

    rms

    of c

    olle

    ctiv

    e vi

    ole

    nce

    men

    tion

    ed

    abo

    ve f

    all

    into

    th

    e ca

    teg

    ory

    of

    ‘law

    -pre

    serv

    ing

    vio

    len

    ce’,

    even

    if

    the

    vio

    len

    t p

    ract

    ices

    are

    in

    co

    ntr

    aven

    tion

    of

    form

    al l

    aw.

    An

    exa

    mp

    le h

    ere

    cou

    ld b

    e th

    e vi

    ole

    nce

    vis

    ited

    up

    on

    sex

    ual

    m

    ino

    ritie

    s, w

    hic

    h is

    ag

    ain

    st th

    e So

    uth

    Afr

    ican

    Co

    nst

    itutio

    n b

    ut l

    egiti

    miz

    ed b

    y m

    ora

    l an

    d re

    ligio

    us

    cod

    es (J

    ense

    n, 2

    00

    5). I

    n a

    ll th

    e ca

    ses,

    co

    llect

    ive

    vio

    len

    ce is

    leg

    itim

    ized

    as

    the

    def

    ence

    of a

    mo

    ral

    com

    mu

    nity

    ; th

    at is

    , th

    at g

    rou

    p o

    f peo

    ple

    wh

    o a

    re a

    ble

    to a

    sser

    t th

    eir a

    uth

    ori

    ty a

    s th

    e co

    mm

    un

    ity.

    Th

    is s

    ug

    ges

    ts th

    at th

    e co

    nce

    pt o

    f co

    mm

    un

    ity is

    als

    o c

    on

    test

    ed. ‘

    Th

    e co

    mm

    un

    ity’ t

    hen

    bec

    om

    es

    an e

    ntit

    y th

    at d

    epen

    ds

    on

    th

    e ab

    ility

    an

    d p

    ow

    er t

    o d

    efin

    e it

    and

    mai

    nta

    in it

    , oft

    en t

    hro

    ug

    h ‘l

    aw-

    pre

    serv

    ing

    vio

    len

    ce’.

    Stat

    e vi

    ole

    nce

    cle

    arly

    fal

    ls u

    nd

    er t

    he

    cate

    go

    ry o

    f la

    w-p

    rese

    rvin

    g v

    iole

    nce

    . W

    e co

    uld

    arg

    ue

    that

    man

    y fo

    rms

    of

    do

    mes

    tic a

    nd

    inte

    rper

    son

    al v

    iole

    nce

    wo

    uld

    fal

    l un

    der

    th

    e ca

    teg

    ory

    of

    law

    -pre

    serv

    ing

    vio

    len

    ce, a

    s d

    om

    estic

    vio

    len

    ce o

    ften

    rel

    ates

    to

    th

    e p

    rese

    rvat

    ion

    of

    for

    inst

    ance

    pat

    riar

    chal

    or

    gen

    erat

    ion

    al p

    ow

    er s

    tru

    ctu

    res.

    To

    a v

    ery

    larg

    e ex

    ten

    t, t

    he

    vio

    len

    ce

    her

    e d

    escr

    ibed

    thro

    ug

    h th

    e co

    nce

    pt o

    f law

    -pre

    serv

    ing

    vio

    len

    ce is

    wh

    at w

    e re

    fer t

    o in

    the

    pro

    ject

    as

    ‘au

    tho

    rity

    -bas

    ed v

    iole

    nce

    ’, th

    at is

    , vio

    len

    ce t

    hat

    pre

    serv

    es w

    hat

    is lo

    cally

    co

    nsi

    der

    ed a

    mo

    ral

    com

    mu

    nity

    or

    a co

    mm

    un

    ity o

    f m

    ora

    lly u

    pst

    and

    ing

    res

    iden

    ts.

    On

    th

    e o

    ther

    han

    d,

    acco

    rdin

    g t

    o B

    enja

    min

    ’s a

    nal

    ysis

    , la