gcpcenvis.nic.ingcpcenvis.nic.in › Thesis › ...Sustainability_through_Cleaner_Productio… · i ABSTRACT The concept of sustainable development is receiving a great deal of attention

The University of New South Wales

School of

Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH CLEANER PRODUCTION

by

Andrew Aschner

A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

October 2004

i

ABSTRACT

The concept of sustainable development is receiving a great deal of attention in industry.

However, the operational processes for industrial environmental management are still at

an early stage of development and despite the best efforts of operations management and

environmental specialists a great many products and services continue to be un-

sustainable. This presents threats to society and risks for survival to manufacturers.

The purpose of the Thesis is to accelerate environmental improvements through the

uptake of Cleaner Production concepts by developing a methodology for guiding

manufacturing enterprises. The tenets of the proposed methodology include:

ooo Reliance on a strategic approach

ooo Development of an implementation path similar to those used in introducing other

major culture and technology changes

ooo Culture and policy change are strategically generated from within manufacturing

organisations

Specifically, the main objectives of the Project are:

1. to invent a relatively easily implementable methodology for planning for

sustainability for manufacturing enterprises of all sizes

2. to address the major industrial environmental management issues at all levels

within the enterprise as one seamless process

3. to configure the methodology so that it may be incorporated into an existing body

of knowledge, e.g., manufacturing management/manufacturing engineering

4. to minimise complexities by standardising key concepts and terminology

The Thesis integrates Sustainability and Cleaner Production concepts, systems and

technologies and performance indicators with a planning model to arrive at what has

been termed as "the Strategy Development and Implementation with Cleaner Production"

process. This solution addresses the key point of integrating Cleaner Production concepts

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with the manufacturing planning processes, but just as importantly, it also establishes the

links between the steps from strategy initiation through to implementation, from the

boardroom down to the factory floor. The main modules of the work are:

ooo establishing relationships between strategic, business and manufacturing plans

using the concepts of Sustainability, Eco-efficiency and Cleaner Production

ooo development of links between planning and operations using the concepts of

Industrial Ecology and Life Cycle Management

ooo development of a classification system, referred to as a Cleaner Production tool-

kit, to promote optimum selection of hard and soft systems and technologies

ooo development of appropriate Cleaner Production Indicators to complete the loop.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

An undertaking of this magnitude would not be feasible without the invaluable aid of a

number of people.

Sincerest gratitude to Professor Hartmut Kaebernick, the Supervisor for the project, who

made the Thesis possible. His resolute support, experience, advice, overseas contacts and

the ability to overcome seemingly impossible obstacles have been crucial.

Genuine appreciation also to the Advanced Manufacturing Centre, its Director Dr.

Farhad Shafaghi for his general support, contacts and the many exchanges regarding

advanced concepts and technologies, and to Mr. Dragan Bejatovic for helping with the

intricacies of information technology.

Of the many information sources drawn on, particular appreciation to Professor Peter

Stonebraker, Northeastern Illinois University for allowing the use of his operations

planning model and to Professor Bill Vanderburg, University of Toronto for making such

a strong argument for considering human values in engineering endeavors.

Thanks also to the management of the case study organisations for extending the

opportunity for and patiently enduring the trialing of new concepts.

Special thanks to members of my family for their exhortations, empathy and patience

over the long journey.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents Page

ABSTRACT i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iv

LIST OF FIGURES ix

LIST OF TABLES xi

ABBREVIATIONS xiii

CHAPTER 1: PROJECT DESCRIPTION

1.1 Background to the Project 1

1.2 Obstacles to Improving the Effectiveness of Environmental

Management Initiatives. 3

1.2.1 Diversity of Approaches 3

1.2.2 Lack of Executive Support 4

1.2.3 Inadequate Reference to Benefits 5

1.2.4 Traditional Technology Objectives and Options 7

1.3 Defining the Problem 8

1.3.1 Objectives 8

1.3.2 Scope 9

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Initiating the Research 11

2.1.1 Background to Sustainability 11

2.1.2 Sustainability and Manufacturing 13

2.2 Results of the Review of Existing Literature 17

2.3 Strategic Planning 21

2.4 Execution – Links to Strategies, Policies and Projects 23

2.5 Performance Measurements 24

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CHAPTER 3: DEVELOPING A FRAMEWORK

3.1 The Need for a Guiding Framework 26

3.2 Defining the Concepts 30

3.2.1 Eco-efficiency 30

3.2.2 Sustainable Manufacturing 31

3.2.3 Waste Minimisation 32

3.2.4 Industrial Ecology 36

3.2.5 Life Cycle Management 38

3.2.6 Cleaner Production 40

3.3 Key Relationships and Conclusions 43

3.3.1 Positioning the Concepts in a Planning Hierarchy 43

3.3.2 Cleaner Production and Eco-Efficiency 44

3.3.3 Cleaner Production versus Industrial Ecology 45

3.3.4 Cleaner Production and Life Cycle 46

3.3.5 Concluding Notes Regarding Industrial Environmental

Management Concepts 47

CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND CONCEPTUAL

DESIGN

4.1 The Need for Speed and Effectiveness 48

4.2 Other Influencing Factors 49

4.3 Development of the Project Structure 50

4.4 Proposed Solution 51

4.4.1 Conceptual Design of the Process 51

4.4.2 The Proposed Planning Model 51

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CHAPTER 5: STRATEGIC AND OPERATIONS

PLANNING (Stages 1-3)

5.1 Meta Strategy 54

5.1.1 Balancing of Technological Development with the Development of

Social Values 53

5.1.2 Systems Thinking 57

5.1.3 Reorientation of Engineering Practices 58

5.2 Corporate Strategic Planning (Stage 1) 64

5.2.1 Strategy Development 64

5.2.2 Corporate Sustainability and Risk 66

5.2.3 Evolution towards Sustainability 67

5.2.4 Drivers for Sustainability 69

5.3 Business Planning (Stage 2) 74

5.4 Operations Planning (Stage 3) 76

5.5 Implementation Notes 79

CHAPTER 6: LINKING STRATEGIES WITH PROJECTS

(Stage 4)

6.1 Linking Strategies with Tactics 80

6.2 Industrial Ecology as an Enabler 81

6.3 Life Cycle Management as an Enabler 83

6.4 Linking Strategies to Execution 86

6.4.1 Scrutiny of the Linking Process 87

6.4.2 Description of the Process 88

CHAPTER 7: TECHNOLOGIES AND SYSTEMS (Stage 5)

7.1 The need for a Tool-kit 93

7.2 Objectives of the Tool-kit 93

7.3 Designing the Tool-kit 95

7.3.1 Optimisation of Design Considerations 95

7.3.1.1 Resource Extraction 95

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7.3.1.2 Pre-Manufacture 96

7.3.1.3 Production Processes 96

7.3.1.4 Product Delivery 99

7.3.1.5 Product Use 99

7.3.1.6 Disposal, Recycling, Reuse (End of Life Systems) 100

7.3.2 Optimisation of Manufacturing Goals 102

7.3.3 Categories of Cleaner Production Technologies 104

7.4 From Operational Strategies to Systems and Technologies 106

7.4.1 Categories of Tools 106

7.4.2 The Classification Matrix 110

7.4.3 Linking Technology Cells to Technologies 112

7.4.4 Implementing and Maintaining the Tool-kit 113

7.5 Classifying Environmental Technologies 116

7.5.1 Technologies within the Assessment Tools Category 116

7.5.2 Technologies within the Material Substitution Category 119

7.5.3 Technologies within the Design Change Category 120

7.5.4 Technologies within the Process Change Category 121

7.5.5 Technologies within the Closed Loop System Category 124

CHAPTER 8: MEASURING PERFORMANCE (Stage 6)

8.1 The Need for Indicators 125

8.2 Required Characteristics 126

8.3 Process Performance Measures 129

8.4 Environmental Performance Measures 133

8.5 Summary 138

CHAPTER 9 CASE STUDIES

9.1 Company A 139

9.1.1 Introduction 140

9.1.1.1 Materials 141

9.1.1.2 Manufacturing Processes and Equipment 143

viii

9.1.2 The Planning Process 143

9.1.2.1 Step 1 – Corporate Strategy 144

9.1.2.2 Step 2 – Business Strategy 145

9.1.2.3 Step 3 – Functional (Manufacturing) Strategy 146

9.1.3 Conclusions – Case Study A 147

9.2 Company B 148


9.2.2 The Research 149

9.2.2.1 The Existing Process 150

9.2.2.2 Assessments 153

9.2.3 Conclusions – Case Study B 155

9.3 Company C 156


9.3.2 Application of the Methodology 157

9.3.3 Conclusions – Case Study C 164

CHAPTER 10: CONCLUSIONS

10.1 Project Outcomes 166

10.2 Case Studies 169

10.3 Future Research 170

REFERENCES: 173

APPENDIX A: TECHNOLOGIES WITHIN THE ASSESSMENT

TOOLS CATEGORY 188

APPENDIX B: TECHNOLOGIES WITHIN THE MATERIAL

SUBSTITUTION CATEGORY 197

ix

APPENDIX C: TECHNOLOGIES WITHIN THE DESIGN

CHANGE CATEGORY 201

APPENDIX D: TECHNOLOGIES WITHIN THE PROCESS

CHANGE CATEGORY 207

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LIST OF FIGURES

Number Page

1.1 Different Approaches to Sustainability in Manufacturing 4

1.2 Strategic Links between the Boardroom and the Shop Floor 9

3.1 Strategic versus Operational Hierarchy of 44

Industrial Management Concepts

3.2 Scope of Cleaner Production, a Life Cycle Approach 46

4.1 The Proposed Methodology Framework 48

4.2 The Research Project Plan 50

4.3 Strategy Development and Implementation with

Cleaner Production Model - Cleaner Production

Scope, Links to Systems and Technologies 52

5.1 Meta Strategy Inputs 56

5.2 Requirements for a Preventive and Remedial Orientation to

Industrial Environmental Management by Engineers 61

5.3 The Road to Sustainability and Cleaner Production 66

5.4 Evolution of the Enterprise towards Sustainability 68

6.1 Life Cycle Management (LCM) – Scope 85

6.2 Linking Strategy with Execution 86

6.3 Cleaner Production Issues 88

6.4 Multi-year Influence of a Cleaner Production Strategy by Life

Cycle Stage, Evolution, Commercial Function and Environmental

Impact 89

7.1 Goals of Environmental Design and Manufacturing 103

7.2 Cleaner Production Techniques and Approaches 104

7.3 Design and Manufacturing Goals and Cleaner Production

Categories 107

7.4 Relationship between Technologies and Accomplishment of Goals 110

7.5 Classification Matrix for Design and Manufacturing Technologies 111

7.6 Link between the Classification Matrix and Technology Lists 112

xi

7.7 Information Sheet for Technologies 115

7.8 Classification of Manufacturing Processes 122

8.1 Development of Indicators and Indices 125

8.2 Cleaner Production Strategic Planning Process Measurement 131

8.3 Measuring the Linking Process 132

8.4 Corporate Environmental Performance Measures 133

8.5 Eco-Efficiency Environmental Performance Measures 134

8.6 Cleaner Production Environmental Performance Measures 134

8.7 AT&T Performance Measure for Industrial Ecology 135

8.8 Performance Measure for Industrial Ecology adapted from

The AT&T Materials Matrix system 136

9.1 Company C’s Cleaner Production Strategy Options 160

9.2 Company C’s Cleaner Production Strategy’s Functional Impact 161

9.3 Multi-year impact of Company C’s pilot Cleaner

Production strategy 162

9.4 Functional and Environmental Impact of Company C’s

Pilot Cleaner Production Strategy by Year 162

9.5 Categorising Cleaner Production Tools for Recycling

and Waste Minimisation 163

10.1 “The Strategy Development and Implementation with

Cleaner Production” Process 167

xii

LIST OF TABLES

Number Page

1.1 Ten Global Threats to Ecosystem Viability 2

1.2 Potential Societal and Commercial Benefits of Concern for the

Environment 6

2.1 Foundation Tenets for Sustainability in Manufacturing 14

3.1 Eco-Efficiency Success Factors 30

3.2 Definition of Industrial Wa 33-34

3.3 Waste Hierarchy 35

3.4 Waste Minimisation Evolutionary Stages 35

3.5 Industrial Ecology’s Systems Orientation 37

3.6 Potential Uses of Life Cycle Management 39

3.7 Cleaner Production Outcomes in Design and Production 43

5.1 Trends Affecting the Development of Industrial Environmental

Management Disciplines 55

5.2 New Developments for Consideration in an Enterprise’s Meta

Strategy 58

5.3 Principles of Sustainability 70

5.4 Eco-efficiency Goals Leading to Sustainable Development 75

5.5 Cleaner Production Life Cycle Stages 77

5.6 Cleaner Production Strategies 78

6.1 Principles of Industrial Ecology 82

7.1 Technology List for Assessment Tools and Methods 117

7.2 Information Sheet for the MET Matrix 118

7.3 Technology List 2.2 for Material Substitution during Production 120

7.4 Technology List 3.2 for Design Change during Production 121

7.5 Technology List 4.2 for Process Changes during Production 123

8.1 General Characteristics of Indicators/Metrics 127

8.2 Summary of Cleaner Production Indicators 138

9.1 Formulations used in the manufacturing process 142

9.2 Processes and Equipment Deployed 143

xiii

9.3 Company A’s Corporate Plans for Sustainability 145

9.4 Company A’s Business Plans for Sustainability 146

9.5 Example of Company A’s Manufacturing Strategy for

Sustainability through Cleaner Production 147

9.6 Company C’s Corporate Plans for Sustainability 157

9.7 Company C’s Business Plans for Sustainability 158

9.8 Company C’s Manufacturing Strategy for Sustainability through

Cleaner Production 159

9.9 Exothermic/Insulating Sleeve – Waste reduction and Recycled

Materials Substitution Strategies Measures 164

xiv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AG Aktiengesellschaft (lnc.: limited company) AUXi amount of the ith auxiliary material AuxMI auxiliary material intensity BDI Boothroyd Dewhurst Inc. °C grad Celsius Ci maximum admissible concentration of the ith pollutant (in water/ in

atmosphere) ca. circa CAGE Coatings Alternative Guide CED cumulative energy demand CEVC Completely Enclosed Vapour Cleaner cm centimeter Co. Company CO2 carbon dioxide CP Cleaner Production DFA Design for Assembly DFD Design for Disassembly DFE Design for Environment DFEoL Design for End of Life DFL Design for Life DFM Design for Manufacturing DFMAIN Design for Maintainability DFR Design for Recycling DFS Design for Serviceability DFX Design for X (X stands for general design considerations) DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung (German Institute for

Standardisation) ei energy incorporated into the product (of the ith source) Ei energy introduced into the cycle (of the ith source) ECM Environmentally Conscious Manufacturing ed. edition Ed. Editor EDIP Environmental Design of Industrial Products EE energy use efficiency EF(e)i, c eco-toxicity factor for the ith substance in the cth compartment EF(h)i,c human toxicity factor for the ith substance in the cth compartment e.g. for example (Latin: exempli gratia) EPI Environmental Performance Indicator fig. figure Fig. Figure g gram

xv

GmbH Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung (PLC: public limited company)

GWI gaseous waste intensity h hour HIPS High Impact Polystyrol i.e. that is (Latin: id est) IE Industrial Ecology K Kelvin kg kilogram kJ kilojoule LASeR Life-cycle Assembly, Service and Recycling LCA Life Cycle Assessment LCC Life Cycle Costing LCM Life Cycle Management m3 cubic meter mi amount of the ith raw material incorporated into the product Mi amount of the ith raw material introduced into the cycle MET Material, Energy, Toxicity mg milligram MJ megajoule mm millimetre MQL Minimal Quantity of Lubricant n numbered consecutively No. Number OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development p. page P amount of product obtained PMB Plastic Media Blasting pp. pages psi pounds per square inch PVA polluted volume of air PVW polluted volume of water PWB printed wire board QFDE Quality Function Deployment for Environment Ri percentage ratio of the amount of the ith raw material incorporated

into the product RCRA Resource and Recovery Act RME raw material use efficiency s second Si percentage ratio of the amount of useful energy from the ith energy

source SAGE Solvents Alternative Guide SWi amount of the ith solid waste SWAMI Strategic Waste Minimisation Initiative SWI solid waste intensity T period

xvi

Ti emission of the ith substance TCA Total Cost Accounting TV television TWI toxic waste intensity US EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency UV ultraviolet VDI Verein Deutscher Ingenieure (association of German engineers) Vol. Volume W amount of water WI water intensity WWI wastewater intensity

Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production

1

CHAPTER 1

PROJECT DESCRIPTION

1.1 Background to the Project

The motivation for undertaking this work in the first instance was an increasingly

common sentiment – to improve environmental performance.

The topic of the environment is considered and studied by thinkers, politicians,

business and technical people from many angles and under a wide variety of

headings. As our combined knowledge in this area has increased around the

world, in recent times environmental issues, particularly in industry, have been

bracketed with the concepts of Sustainability and Sustainable Development. The

term Sustainability is used widely in different contexts and has different

meanings, often somewhat fuzzy, and depending on whether one views the topic

from an environmental science, economic, social or industrial perspective.

Hence the first task in this work is to define the scope of Sustainability. The

objectives of this Thesis, essentially a Manufacturing Management project,

necessitate that the focus of Sustainability be narrowed and limited to

environmental considerations as they are affected by manufacturing and by the

use of manufactured products.

The first analysis based on direct observation and environmental reports is that

manufacturing organizations’ environmental performance range from those

enterprises who have not yet seriously considered their environmental impacts at

one end, to those who are adopting Sustainability as policy objective, at the other.

Similarly, regardless of an organisation’s performance and evolutionary status,

the understanding of the issues and the application of appropriate clean-up,

preventive and remedial solutions are new and difficult engineering and

management challenges.

Hardin Tibbs writes “The concept of sustainability amounts to a call to deal with

the entire complex of global problems as an interrelated whole. This is a

challenge that goes well beyond the scope of issues individual organisations or


2

governments have had to deal with before and it demands new ways of thinking

and acting.” [1]

Limits to Growth [2] updated by Beyond the Limits [3] (1972) originating from

the Club of Rome was the first work to foreshadow the problems associated with

relentless growth. Growth in consumption (e.g., energy usage a hundred fold in

the last century), in economic performance (e.g., world trade by 20 fold in the last

century) and in population (four times since 1850) [4] has lead to the degradation

of the antroposphere at an exponential rate since the early 1970’s.

There is a plethora of statistics and warnings regarding the impact of these trends.

David C. Korten in a recent presentation stated “We passed beyond the limits of

the human burden this planet can sustain sometime around 1980. As a species we

are now consuming at the rate of about 1.2 planets.”[5] From a study by the US

National Research Council here are some indications of the potential problems

facing our societies:

1. Loss of crop and grazing land due to erosion, desertification, conversion of land to nonfarm uses, and other factors—about 20 million hectares a year.

2. Depletion of the world's tropical forests, leading to loss of resources, soil erosion, flooding, and loss of biodiversity—about 10 million hectares a year.

3. Extinction of species, principally from the global loss of habitat and the associated loss of generic diversity—over 1,000 plant and animal species each year.

4. Rapid population growth.

5. Shortage of fresh-water resources.

6. Overfishing, habitat destruction, and pollution in the marine environment—25 of the world's most valuable fisheries are already seriously depleted due to overfishing.

7. Threats to human health from mismanagement of pesticides and hazardous substances and from waterborne pathogens.

8. Climate change probably related to the increasing concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

9. Acid rain and, more generally, the effects of a complex mix of air pollutants on fisheries, forests, and crops.

10. Pressures on energy resources, including shortages of fuel wood.

SOURCE: World Business Council for Sustainable Development (1998).

Table 1.1 - Ten Global Threats to Ecosystem Viability [6]


3

From a manufacturing perspective, many of the issues and causes of un-

sustainability are beyond the ambit of the manufacturing engineering world, such

as land use and excessive consumption of goods and services, and cannot be

addressed through established technologies and systems. On the other hand, the

roots of most environmental problems may be traced to modern science and

applied technology. An examination of OECD green house gas emission statistics

demonstrates that over 50% of emissions were related to production and transport

processes [7].

The two main environmental problems in manufacturing relate firstly to

production processes, their increased use of resources and waste generation, and

secondly the use of manufactured products, including end-of-life disposal issues.

Clearly, the effects of manufacturing processes and manufactured products on

eco-systems are hugely significant. When the growth in consumption is coupled

with 200 years of production since the onset of the Industrial Revolution, the

current position is that degradation of the environment is occurring at a faster rate

than the uptake of corrective action. It is the goal of this work to contribute to the

reversal of this trend.

1.2 Obstacles to Improving the Effectiveness of Environmental Management

Initiatives.

1.2.1 Diversity of Approaches

The literature reviewed evidently indicates that there are a very large number of

diverse approaches taken by manufacturing enterprises to improve environmental

performance. Figure 1.1 displays some of the currently most favoured categories.


4

The assortment of approaches leads to the conclusion that there is not yet a

profession in this field, that is, there is not an agreed body of knowledge with all

the attendant rigorous definitions and consistency of methodologies. Research of

this evolutionary stage suggests the perceived difficulties include:

•••••••• expansive range of issues, disciplines and technologies deployed to date

•••••••• great complexity due to the large number of potential scientific and

engineering approaches available with the predictable consequence of extreme

use of jargon

•••••••• lack of integration between advocated solutions

•••••••• considerable differences in priorities between countries, industries and

enterprises

•••••••• wide ranging levels of understanding, education and expertise

1.2.2 Lack of Executive Support

Major organisations employ strategic planning techniques to chart their futures

and to direct attention to what appropriate functions and technologies are needed

to achieve the targets contained in these strategies. Typically, manufacturing

Figure 1.1 - Different Approaches to Sustainability in Manufacturing


5

strategies and the resultant operations and technology strategies, address

entrenched universally accepted practices exclusive of environmental concerns.

Based on observations in industry, environmental issues in manufacturing

companies are primarily in the domain of environmental specialists, engineers,

scientists and middle management. The problems this presents include:

•••••••• lack of top management involvement, leading to lack of appreciation and to

the view that environmental issues are not central to the enterprise

•••••••• sub-optimisation, environmental management projects may not support

corporate goals, in fact, may be in direct conflict with other projects and may

only achieve minor improvements

•••••••• inadequate funding, resources, infrastructure and accountability

•••••••• inadequate performance measurement

•••••••• based on experience with the adoption of other major new initiatives such as

Lean Manufacturing, Total Quality, Enterprise Resource Planning and

Robotics, "bottom-up" attempts to introduce change can take decades; that

may not have been crucial when the objectives were continuous (commercial)

improvements, but in the case of the environment such time frames may prove

too long.

1.2.3 Inadequate Reference to Benefits

Despite growing evidence that concern for the environment is not only a necessity

for sustainable future developments but it is good business, arguments for

exhorting industry to change its policies and practices have generally accentuated

the negative aspects and consequences of existing industrial processes.

Waste management and waste elimination programs in various forms have

produced significant commercial benefits for a number of organisations in the last

30 years, yet the uptake of new approaches is still lagging, inconsistent and often

motivated by reaction to legal compliance requirements rather than on strategic

considerations, that is, benefits. Table 1.2 lists typical societal and commercial

benefits as offered by writers and professionals employed in this field that would


6

accrue from a greater uptake of new and existing environmental management

practices.

•••••••••••• clean industrial production and waste minimisation lead to the

systematic reduction of emissions to land, water and air

•••••••••••• sustainable industries lead to an improved economy and lead to higher

levels of employment

•••••••••••• sustainable manufacturing leads to lower overall costs and improved

value adding

•••••••••••• compliance with legislation and world standards improves

competitiveness, locally and overseas

•••••••••••• improved product designs lead to greatly reduced material inputs

preserving valuable resources, eg, metals, timber, water

•••••••••••• increased awareness of environmental issues within manufacturing

facilities will contribute to overall awareness and cultural change

consistent with educational efforts in schools and elsewhere

•••••••••••• recycling in industry reduces land fill and the need to dispose of

inorganic matter

•••••••••••• environmentally efficient transport is not only cleaner by reducing

dependence on fossil fuels but preserves infrastructure and reduces the

cost of transport in general

•••••••••••• more efficient use of materials and energy will extend the life of many

industries which would otherwise become unsustainable

•••••••••••• cleaner production means cleaner factories hence improved working

conditions and quality of life, both within and around factories

•••••••••••• development of breakthrough approaches and new technologies will

speed the uptake of sustainability and waste minimisation concepts by

manufacturers who are traditionally very slow to change and innovate

Table 1.2 - Potential Societal and Commercial Benefits of Concern for the Environment


7

This Thesis will also argue that the adoption of Cleaner Production policies and

procedures will also help to lay the foundation for Life Cycle Management and

Industrial Ecology techniques (refer to Chapter 3).

One of the tenets of this work is that there is no convenient vehicle for

identifying, documenting and integrating such strategic advantages with existing

strategic planning and policy formulation processes of manufacturers. It therefore

follows that there does not exist a standard set of performance indicators for

effective feedback of enterprise performance and of environmental impacts.

1.2.4 Traditional Technology Objectives and Options

Modern manufacturing in the last 20 years has evolved to be totally dependent on

hard and soft technologies. To date, technology projects initiated and

implemented by engineers were aimed at achieving ‘bottom line benefits’. The

issue being that the pursuit of commercial benefits to enterprises employing these

engineers have not considered and allowed for the impact of new process and

product technologies on humans. Throughout his book The Labyrinth of

Technology [8] Bill Vanderburg argues that future generations of engineers will

not only have to consider the consequences of their work on human values,

including the environment, but engineering curricula will have to undergo

fundamental changes to equip graduates with the requisite skills.

Another issue concerns the selection and deployment of appropriate technology

and system solutions. While there are hundreds of hard and soft technologies cited

as solutions to different environmental management problems (as referred to in

Chapter 7}, the research in this project has failed to discover a systematic

approach to problem solving in this sphere. The conclusion from this observation

is that less than optimum or inappropriate solutions are being deployed, selected

on the criteria of familiarity and availability, rather than on effectiveness.

A third and possibly the most difficult issue conceptually is the idea that new

technologies may have to be invented to achieve significant breakthroughs. This

question is beyond the scope of this project, for it is argued that sufficient

technical capability already exists to achieve the objectives of this Thesis. It is


8

proposed that the need for new technologies should emerge from strategic plans

rather than evolve as point solutions as at present.

1.3 Defining the Problem

The purpose of this work, therefore, is to contribute to the removal of the

obstacles outlined in the previous section thereby accelerating improvements. To

achieve this aim not only requires the invention of a methodology but, in view of

the complexities involved, a clear definition of the problem to be solved. The next

sections in this Chapter outline the objectives and scope of this endeavor while

Chapters 2 and 3 describe the nature of this PhD project as a consequence.

1.3.1 Objectives

As proposed from the outset, this Thesis seeks to help accelerate environmental

improvements through the uptake of Cleaner Production concepts in industry by

developing a methodology to help guide manufacturing enterprises. To satisfy the

need for speed and effectiveness, the fundamental tenets of the proposed

methodology include:

•••••••••••• reliance on a strategic approach to ensure accelerated implementations and

better resourced projects

•••••••••••• to develop an implementation path similar to those used in introducing

major culture and technology changes in the factory used in previous

times in an attempt to follow ‘well trodden paths’

•••••••••••• that culture and policy changes are strategically generated from within

manufacturing organisations, replacing simply reaction to or compliance

with external pressures.

Specifically, the main objectives are:


9

1. To invent a relatively easily implementable methodology for planning for

Sustainability for manufacturing enterprises of all sizes.

2. To address strategic industrial environmental management issues at all

levels within the enterprise as one seamless process.

3. To configure the methodology so that it may be incorporated into an

existing body of knowledge, that is, manufacturing

management/manufacturing engineering.

4. To minimise complexities by standardising key concepts and terminology.

Objective 4 was added following the Literature Review when it became evident

that to be able to achieve the other objectives, clarification of the very wide range

of indiscriminately applied terminology is required.

1.3.2 Scope

One of the first challenges is to define the boundaries for the work. Given the

breadth and complexity of the topic versus the requirement in manufacturing that

solutions to problems have to be focused, it is necessary to be sufficiently

expansive to include the key management, science and engineering issues.

Since a manufacturing organisation is a complex entity, a mini-society,

achievement of the objectives in section 1.3.1 requires consideration of individual

stages from the boardroom to the shop floor as described in Figure 1.2.

1. Corporate Strategy formulation

2. Business Strategy formulation

3. Functional

(Operations/Manufacturing)

Strategy formulation

4. Links to Execution

5. Execution - Policies and Projects

6. Feedback - Performance Measures

Figure 1.2 – Strategic Links between the Boardroom and the Shop Floor

Upper Management

Middle Management, Engineers

Engineers, Shop Floor

St r ategy

E x e c u t i o n


10

This planning and execution sequence is generic but it also follows Professor

Stonebraker’s model described in Chapter 4 (Refer to Figure 4.3) and is consistent

with Manufacturing Management courseware for strategic planning. It provides a

ready platform on which to base a planning process for Cleaner Production. This

line of approach was also considered appropriate for maximum impact and was

the main topic for the Thesis from the beginning. The Case Studies in Chapter 9

confirmed the premise that the top down approach leads to speedier and higher

profile implementations of Cleaner Production projects.

A second factor influencing the work emerged from the Literature Review. The

absence of standardized formal work in this area, coupled with the inconsistent

use of a range of terms and techniques, made a strong case for selecting and

standardising terms and concepts as a foundation for future work and for a

possible new profession.

Another issue affecting the scope emerged during the Study Tour. Professor

Vanderburg has, for a number of years, argued the need for including human

considerations in engineering and has adapted the Manufacturing Engineering

Courseware at the University of Toronto accordingly. On reflection, this appeared

consistent with the primary motive for the work and the need for prevention

influenced greatly the proposed approach. Specifically, it led away from

researching possible point solutions including Cleaner Production techniques,

Risk Analyses and Life Cycle Engineering, towards a reflective approach

resulting in the development of new processes. The Planning Model (refer to

Chapter 4) and the Tool-kit (refer to Chapter 7) are examples.

It may be argued this is first a Manufacturing Management Thesis and then a

Manufacturing Engineering work.

Chapters 2 and 3 form the Literature Review, Chapters 4-8 develop the planning

model initiated in this Section, Chapter 9 describes Case Studies testing the model

and Chapter 10 concludes the Thesis reviewing the outcomes and suggesting

future directions for this work.


11

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Initiating the Research

Tackling the topic of this thesis required unorthodox methods. The literature

review demonstrated a number of the difficulties as highlighted in the text, and it

was considered appropriate to group the readings under two headings. First,

Chapter 2 addresses the integration of human values and commercial interests

with environmental concerns. Chapter 3 then reviews the technical aspects of

industrial environmental management.

2.1.1 Background to Sustainability

As mentioned in Chapter 1, the issue in this project is Sustainability. The

literature review [9] needs to begin with an examination of this term as it is used

extensively herein and in industry.

At the highest level, Sustainable Development was first defined by the now

famous Bruntland Commission in Our Common Future as “Development that

meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future

generations to meet their own needs”. The concept has its roots in The Natural

Step, created by Dr. Karl-Henrik Robert [10], a Swedish cancer researcher, which

provided a foundation for a number of people concerned with Sustainability of the

earth’s environment. The four principles comprising the Natural Step may be

summarised as:

1. Nature cannot withstand a systematic build-up of dispersed matter mined

from the earth’s crust (e.g., minerals, oil, etc.)

2. Nature cannot withstand a systematic build-up of persistent man-made

compounds (e.g., polycarbonated biphenyls (PCB))

3. Nature cannot tolerate a systematic deterioration of its capacity for

renewal (e.g., over harvesting fish, loss of fertile land to desert, etc.)

4. Therefore, if we want life to continue we must (a) be efficient in the use of

resources and (b) promote justice to avoid poverty and the resulting

destruction of resources.


12

The Natural Step is not a complete strategy for Sustainability but it is a useful

starting point for developing one. It raises philosophical and emotional issues

about survival and preserving nature for future generations, but it has some major

practical implications for industry since most environmental problems may be

sheeted back to inputs and to outputs from manufacturers. Point 4 above in

particular raises two generally accepted crucial points as key future strategic

drivers for manufacturing organisations:

•• Short and long term survival – there is mounting concern as

environmental problems are increasingly exposed that unless we change

existing industrial practices life as we know it will become unsustainable

and, long before that eventuality, organisations threatening the

environment will be legislated or pressured out of existence.

•• Resource utilisation – inefficient use of materials coupled with

population growth will result in shortages; the corollary to this is that

organisations that use key resources efficiently will outperform those who

do not.

The topic of Sustainability extends to ecological, social and economic

dimensions, locally and globally [11].

Narrowing the focus to production, the topic is treated under a range of headings

as outlined in Chapter 3. For the purposes of this work the term Sustainability will

be used to mean Sustainable Manufacturing (refer to section 3.2.2), that is, the

issues will be limited to those affecting the environment by manufacturers.

The need for Sustainability is becoming clearer and more accepted. It is,

therefore, not intended in this work to argue for Sustainability although the

drivers for sustainability will be described in Chapter 5. Many major corporations

are already actively pursuing and implementing environmentally friendly policies

and practices in their businesses and factories and their numbers are increasing, as

evidenced by the growing number of environmental reports from manufacturers.


13

Their reasons for doing so are varied and range from ‘green’ CEOs to good

corporate citizenship to legal and to a number of other drivers (Refer to Chapter

5).

In other parts of the world, Europe in particular, coordinated effort between

countries is also leading towards strategic approaches for product systems and

their effects on the environment. This concept of Integrated Product Policy (IPP)

advocated by the European Commission promotes [12]:

•• Life Cycle thinking

•• a framework which supports Sustainable Development, e.g., changing

production and consumption patterns, enhancing efficiency, developing

clearer pictures of real impacts of products along the product chain and

identifying potential tools

•• need for information, communication, education and stakeholder

involvement

•• assignment of responsibilities, e.g., for “extended producer responsibility”

(product stewardship).

These initiatives have the potential to impact a wide range of policies affecting

manufacturers including product labeling, product standards, Ecodesign,

government procurement policies and general legislation protecting the

environment.

Environmental Sustainability within organisations has also been receiving

attention from management theorists, academics and practitioners.

Notwithstanding these initiatives the task of directly linking Sustainability with

Manufacturing Management/Engineering has yet to be addressed.

2.1.2 Sustainability and Manufacturing The first issue for manufacturers is that aside from ecological and business

reasons, community concern and pressure resulting in additional regulatory

legislation with an emphasis on manufacturers meeting local and international


14

standards. Organisations that do not understand the impact of their operations on

ecosystems, and do not have programs for Sustainability, may well be risking

their future. Eventually, a manufacturer will have to accept that a commercial

enterprise cannot operate independently of natural systems, and find ways to link

‘what it takes, what it makes and what it wastes’.

So how should Sustainability in manufacturing with respect to ecosystems be

defined? And why are organisations that lack strategies for sustainability risking

their future? Writers such as Paul Hawken in the book Ecology of Commerce [13]

and Ray C. Anderson in his book Mid-Course Correction [14] describe at length

the issues. Hiroyuki Yoshikawa also makes the points that in the 21st century we

need methods for the “Creation of designs with thought given to reuse and

recycling from the very early stage” and to improve product functionality by

“redefining the manufacturing industry as a life cycle industry to take wider life

cycle issues into consideration” [15]. Based on these and other readings Table 2.1

is an attempt to summarise the key points as the main foundation tenets for

Sustainable Manufacturing.

1. If we accept that survival of our species as we know it will likely require

substantially new industrial systems, "end of pipe" clean-up systems will

have to give way to non-linear systems resembling nature's biological

systems.

2. Manufacturers will have to earn consumers'/customers' goodwill, and

hence their business, by demonstrating genuine responsibility and track

records as regards the benign impact of their products and processes on

ecosystems.

3. Unless manufacturers become resource efficient through waste elimination

and minimisation, in a world of limited resources, new costing/accounting

principles internalising costs and significant legal constraints, they will

become uncompetitive.

4. Products will therefore have to be designed and produced for longevity,

easily recycled, reused or disposed without harming society and future

generations.

Table 2.1 – Foundation Tenets for Sustainability in Manufacturing


15

Achievement of the goals in Table 2.1 is beyond this or any other single work

however it is essential that methodical approaches be developed to work towards

them.

One of the most relevant means for achieving these goals to date appears to be an

evolving idea that is called by another writer, Hardin Tibbs [16], Industrial

Ecology. This is a positive approach for corporations to address environmental

needs within their own natural predilections. Cleaner Production and Industrial

Ecology are two key cornerstone concepts as defined in this Thesis (refer to

Chapter 3), and in the short term are seen minimally as a prerequisite of this

evolution.

The flip side of risks is the benefits from Cleaner Production. Sustainability in

Manufacturing may be envisaged as an industrial strategy of balancing

commercial needs with the no adverse effect on the capacity of the environment

to provide for future generations with many benefits which extend to all sectors of

society, as outlined in Table 1.2.

Among the many problem statements, visions, proposed initiatives and

complexities by the authors there is no evidence thus far of the emergence of a

roadmap, that is, a planning and implementation methodology for the

systematic adoption of Sustainable Manufacturing techniques within

manufacturing enterprises to address the issues.

In Chapter 1, the problems of lack of executive support and the inability to link

environmental performance improvements to commercial benefits were outlined.

To move Environmental Management into the mainstream, environmental issues

need to be elevated from the domain of environmental specialists, often in middle

management. Environmental initiatives also need to be moved from reaction to

the current drivers of

•• legislation


16

•• cost reductions

•• corporate citizenship

•• other business pressures (e.g., consumers, investors, parent companies,

etc.) on an ad hoc basis

to strategic issues concerning long term sustainability on all fronts, that is,

economical, ecological and societal.

It is a fundamental objective of this work to develop a planning and

implementation framework for Sustainable Manufacturing. The scope of this

work will require the development of definitions and methodologies, some new,

and some to augment existing industrial processes.


17

2.2 Results of the Review of Existing Literature

Since the development of the problem definition evolved over a relatively long

period, it was possible to form a preliminary assessment for the state of

Environmental Management in manufacturing, and the kind of work carried out to

date by practitioners and academics. In general, most of the written material

consisted of:

•• commercially orientated publications on Sustainability and Sustainable

Business Development including miscellaneous publications of unrelated

topics by business leaders, thinkers and academics

•• records of achievements by companies and practitioners, typically case

studies and corporate environmental reports – e.g., IBM, Sony, 3M,

Mitsubishi, HP, Nestle, Unilever, etc., etc.

•• descriptions of specific techniques as point solutions, as hard and soft

technologies, in all types of environments and industries, including papers

found in the proceedings of conferences

•• occasional comprehensive technical publications, essentially in product

design

•• State of the Environment Reports, Geographical – e.g., Australian (SOE

2001), Western Sydney, Gosford City Council

•• selected publications – e.g., Introduction to product related environmental

activities in Scandinavia, publications by visionaries (Hardin Tibbs, Paul

Hawken, Ray Anderson), papers on Risk Analysis, a number of

miscellaneous publications in Industrial Ecology, and a variety of material

regarding Cleaner Production techniques.

•• strategic planning publications – Textbooks (Stonebreaker, Hill, Hayes

and Wheelwright, etc.), company planning procedures, courseware

(APICS and UNSW).

Given that this is a new field, it eventuated that there was hardly any literature

specifically dealing with the objectives of this Thesis.


18

In Chapter 4 the proposed model identifies six distinct phases of the proposed

methodology, the availability of prior works or studies for the purposes of this

project and relevant to each stage of the methodology may be summarised as:

11.. Corporate Strategy formulation – no specific information, Sustainability

writings provide related material

22.. Business Strategy formulation – limited works in Eco-efficiency

33.. Functional (Operations/Manufacturing) Strategy formulation – policy

information exists under the headings of Cleaner Production, Industrial

Ecology and Sustainable Manufacturing

44.. Links to Execution – defined in this project as Industrial Ecology and Life

Cycle Management, limited information exists

55.. Execution, Policies and Projects – considerable number of studies but

generally without appropriate frameworks

66.. Feedback, Performance Measures – a number of studies, fragmented,

without appropriate frameworks

Two major conclusions were drawn from the status of literature availability listed

above:

1. Instead of the traditional literature review summarising previous studies

and the key points arising from them, “best-evidence synthesis” [17] is

used allowing for the inclusion of qualitative data applying “clearly stated

a priori inclusion criteria”.

2. Figure 1.2 and points 5 and 6 above indicated the need for applying

Occam’s Razor [18] to the large amounts of fragmented studies and the

considerable “technical jargon” deployed by the authors from a wide range

of academic and industrial backgrounds.

The difficulty, therefore, was not one of quantity of literature, in fact, there are an

ever increasing number of publications on Environmental Management topics but

the extra effort needed to streamline the concepts in order to make use of such

papers. The major challenge was to sift through the considerable written material

that has been developed in the last ten years and integrate developments into one

framework. As a consequence the Problem Definition for the Thesis had to be


19

based on existing literature in part, as well as experiential episodes and observed

industry practices, typically first hand.

Similarly, this influenced the academic nature of the project, as it was not feasible

to undertake the customary “investigative research” delving into the progress of

others and, furthering their work, instead “reflective research” integrating

manufacturing management, engineering, scientific and government policy

developments was necessary. Not until an overseas Study Tour was undertaken

was it possible to locate sufficient serious engineering work relating to this area to

enable it to be bracketed with the Manufacturing Engineering body of knowledge.

Much of what is written is fragmented, that is, unclassified and written for solving

immediate specific pollution and waste elimination situations.

By lack of classification, it is meant in particular that the fields of Manufacturing

Management and Manufacturing Engineering have not as yet evolved sufficiently

to incorporate Environmental Management in the respective bodies of knowledge.

The current paradigm from some manufacturing thinkers appears to be that the

topic is far too complex to limit to manufacturing, and needs to be addressed

across disciplines.

For example, one of the few authoritative references for the need of a strategic

approach to Industrial Ecology (IE) in general, and for Design for the

Environment (DfE) in particular, was recognised by Graedel and Allenby [19]

writing that “Only through the process of creating a more formal plan can

necessary work items, required resources, critical paths, timelines, and

organisational changes be identified”.

They also write “The integration of the DfE introduction effort into existing

financial, technological, and business plans is necessary if environmental

considerations are to be regarded as strategic considerations rather than

overhead”.


20

Braden Allenby [20] recognises the need to reconcile a firm’s activities with

global regional and global natural systems and that this is a strategic issue

requiring a “…fundamental integration of environment, economic activity, and

technology at the level of the firm”.

While the amount of legislation from Environmental Protection Agencies is also

on the increase [21], and standards under the ISO14000 scheme have been

developed in attempts to improve performance, they too offer little assistance as

they tend to describe requirements, that is the ‘whats’, not solutions the ‘hows’.

There are even some studies identifying disbenefits from implementing a certified

Environmental Management System (EMS) due to the resources required for

implementation, lack of benefits and high cost of maintenance [22].

It is now evident that the last 40 years of effort in waste minimisation, ‘end-of-

pipe’ or ‘cleaning’ technologies have not proved sufficiently effective despite a

wide range of attempts (Refer to Figure 1.1), as they typically transferred the

pollution burden between locations and life cycle stages.

Even later “second generation approaches” of “Cleaner Technologies” [23] only

led to reduced energy and material consumption without necessarily reducing

waste generation and without regard for the needs of consumers and humans in

general.

Sustainability clearly demands preventive approaches, and this is becoming

increasingly recognised. “Truly sustainable production and consumption requires

planning, design and management practices that facilitate innovative approaches

to the reuse, remanufacturing and recycling of the limited amounts of waste that

cannot be avoided… …consistent with the principles of urban and industrial

ecology” [23].


21

2.3 Strategic Planning

In Chapter 3 the major industrial environmental management concepts are

reviewed as a second stage to the Literature Review, to enable the selection of

appropriate vehicles for achieving the goals of this Thesis.

Having justified the selection of the umbrella concept of Cleaner Production in

that Chapter, the next task as alluded to in the title of this project “Planning for

Sustainability through Cleaner Production”, was to integrate industrial

environmental management with a manufacturing enterprise’s planning and

execution processes.

Remembering the fundamental objective of this work, to accelerate the adoption

of Cleaner Production by developing a planning and implementation framework

for Sustainable Manufacturing through Cleaner Production, the proposed model in

Chapter 4 is predicated on the premise that the accelerated uptake of Cleaner

Production is a strategic issue.

As expected, in surveying the likely sources for this type of information, there

does not seem to be any evidence of or reference to Cleaner Production as part of

a company’s strategic planning process, that is, the series of steps required to

convert strategies from the boardroom into specific outcomes at the

transformation level on the shop floor and within the supply chain. Planning

literature, manufacturing management/engineering courseware, company

procedures or environmental reports from major corporations, do not reveal any

substantial evidence that company planning processes extend to consideration of

environmental impacts in a systematic manner.

A typical environmental report from a corporation will include wide ranging

information from a “message from the CEO”, to statements about environmental

philosophies, visions, commitment, plans, operations, management systems and

results of efforts, much of which is strategic in an environmental context but not

in a business planning context. In other words, environmental initiatives are

considered as specialist activities rather than main stream business and

manufacturing strategies.


22

The major outcome of this Thesis is intended to be the integration of

environmental issues into corporate, business and operations planning processes.

By including Sustainability in the strategic planning process of an enterprise,

environmental issues will receive equal priority with other business imperatives.

As Peter Stonebraker writes in his Operations Strategy book [47] “Corporate

strategy must embody all the essential elements for corporate survival”. Today

major manufacturing enterprises accept the need for strategic planning.

Strategic planning and more specifically operations planning, are relatively new

concepts in manufacturing. To date, planning processes have concentrated on

providing the manufacturing enterprise with a competitive advantage by

supporting commercial goals through the strategic management of resources.

Operations strategy, which is a functional strategy supportive of corporate

strategies, identifies the structural and infrastructural decisions to execute the

strategy through the order winning competitive advantages of:

1. Cost

2. Quality

3. Delivery Reliability

4. Delivery Speed

5. Volume and Variety Flexibility

6. Design

7. Service

as described in the APICS Strategic Management of Resources courseware.

This Thesis holds the view that survival of a firm in today’s world increasingly

depends not only on “bottom line performance’ but on a wider range of

socioeconomic issues. Sustainability is one of these. For that reason the model

developed in Chapter 4 incorporates Sustainability concepts into established

enterprise planning processes. At the operations planning level in this process,

Cleaner Production is added to the list of seven criteria mentioned above.


23

2.4 Execution – Links to Strategies, Policies and Projects

Once strategies are developed the next steps constitute the execution phase

(tactics), which in this field opens up a vast array of initiatives. Solutions to

environmental problems, which are typically systems and technology projects,

vary by industry, by enterprise and by geographical location. Such solutions may

also be influenced by the background of the practitioners, costs, legislation and

the availability of systems and technologies perceived to be relevant. Projects also

vary in their nature, that is, hard versus soft technologies or structural versus

infrastructural decisions and technology initiatives.

This abundance of possible tools not to mention constantly emerging new ones,

for example those in the Technical University of Denmark’s 2000 Annual Report

NATO/CCMS Pilot Study, Clean Products and Processes [48], coupled with the

absence of planning, presents major obstacles similar to those mentioned in

Chapter 1 to the achievement of this project’s goals.

Point solutions, in the absence of a strategic framework may lead to:

•••••••• inappropriate solutions, including solving the wrong problem

•••••••• technology solutions which conflict with or do not support enterprise and

functional goals and objectives

•••••••• inadequate support for projects - commitment, funding, other resources

•••••••• sub optimisation

An equally difficult issue is the location of optimum, or at least effective,

technology solutions to satisfy strategies. It was considered necessary to address

both of these issues in this Thesis. Chapter 6 describes the process for the

development of links between the operations strategies/plans and specific

methodologies/technologies used to achieve Cleaner Production goals. At that

point two of the concepts discussed in the next Chapter are revisited.

Life Cycle Management (LCM), defined in Section 3.2.5, and in the Proceedings

of the 1st International Conference on Life Cycle Management, Copenhagen

2001[49], as “business management based on environmental life cycle

considerations”, is deployed by European manufacturers to stage environmental


24

management projects by functional areas, e.g., operations, logistics, design,

purchasing and marketing. On closer examination, as explained in Chapter 6,

LCM appears to provide an effective link between strategies, and systems and

technologies.

The other, Industrial Ecology, defined in Section 3.2.4 and in Allenby’s book

Industrial Ecology, Policy Framework and Implementation [19], as “The

multidisciplinary study of industrial systems and economic activities, and their

links to fundamental natural systems” is an approach adopted by a number of

American corporations to initiate and implement Cleaner Production projects.

Industrial Ecology like LCM provides a potentially viable approach for the

translation of strategies into specific engineering initiatives.

Chapter 7 describes an approach for the development of a Tool-kit of solutions

and a classification of solutions based on research of available literature regarding

industrial environmental systems and technologies.

2.5 Performance Measurements

Performance measures by way of indicators are used extensively in

Manufacturing Management for a range of purposes. They are seen to be required

for this work also, in part to clarify the concepts as well as to provide valuable

feedback regarding their effectiveness, particularly at this field’s nascent stage. As

in the case of other major manufacturing initiatives, effective indicators should

assist in the adoption of the new approaches. Indicators, as opposed to data,

statistics, indices and models are considered most appropriate and need to:

•••••••••••• communicate complex processes into simple metrics

•••••••••••• facilitate continuous improvement

•••••••••••• measure indicator effectiveness and relevance

•••••••••••• provide performance feedback

Chapter 8 will outline proposed indicators for this Thesis’ proposed methodology.


25

In an environmental management context, performance measures are also

extensively studied and a great many measures have been developed to assess

environmental performance in a variety of ways. As expected, however, most of

these measures do not satisfy the criteria mentioned in this section.

To satisfy the requirements it will be necessary to measure the effectiveness of the

proposed planning process as well as the environmental outcomes.


26

CHAPTER 3

DEVELOPING A FRAMEWORK

The need for this Chapter as a second stage to the Literature Review is in part:

•• to research the literature in greater detail for the purpose of clarification of

concepts and technical terminology

•• to examine existing terminology to enable the selection of one of the concepts as a

framework for this Thesis

3.1 The Need for a Guiding Framework

After the review of the status of industrial environmental management literature coupled

with a study tour and several years of observation and reading in parallel with analysis

from:

•• waste minimisation consulting assignments in manufacturing organisations

•• many years of working within manufacturing enterprises, including the

implementation of new systems and technologies

•• teaching of Manufacturing Strategic Planning

•• experience in Change Management

the conclusion was reached that achievement of the objectives requires limiting the focus

of the diverse approaches (refer Section 1.2.1) to the themes of:

1. Sustainability,

2. prevention, and

3. the need for a strategic approach

The survey of the available literature established the level of knowledge about this

subject matter, and more significantly, the deficiency in material available (refer Chapter

2) to address the gaps between the existing baseline for Environmental Management in

manufacturing versus the progress needed to reverse the growing gap between

environmental degradation and solutions.


27

In section 2.1 reference was made to the observation that the fields of Manufacturing

Management and Manufacturing Engineering have not as yet evolved sufficiently to

incorporate Environmental Management in their respective bodies of knowledge.

Inconsistencies in terminology not only necessitate the consistent use of a selected

number of definitions in the Thesis but the selection of a suitable framework for

manufacturing planning and execution as well. Specifically a framework is needed to:

1. Standardise concepts and terminology for the purposes of this work

2. Allow manufacturing engineering processes to be grouped under one banner

The need for the framework and its application will become more apparent in the next

Chapter in which there is a proposed model to address the problem.

As a second part of the literature review, the next sections review some potential

umbrella concepts. This closer examination of the more frequently used concepts is

deemed essential in view of:

1. a proliferation of terminology, if not jargon, with considerable differences in their

definition, interpretation and application

2. significant differences in the uptake of the concepts in different societies

3. in many cases an apparent lack of understanding of the relationship between the

concepts

The integration of science, engineering and management knowledge to form a

Manufacturing Engineering methodology for Environmental Management requires either

the invention of a new concept or the adaptation of an existing one.

In view of the mentioned proliferation of technical terms and jargon the second approach

is preferred. After the evaluation of those concepts with promise as choices for a

framework concept, they were narrowed to the following:


28

•• Eco-efficiency

•• Sustainable Manufacturing

•• Waste Minimisation

•• Industrial Ecology

•• Life Cycle Management

•• Cleaner Production.

This is not a complete list of industrial environmental management practices. The main

categories of exclusions included:

1. Operations level approaches, e.g., recycling, pollution control, waste disposal

techniques – on-site and off-site, as these approaches are not strategic and would not

achieve the aims of this Thesis.

2. Environmental Management Systems (EMS), e.g., ISO14000, defined as “…that part

of the overall management system which includes organisational structure, planning

activities, responsibilities, practices, procedures, processes, and resources for

developing, implementing, achieving, reviewing and maintaining the environmental

policy. An EMS provides order and consistency for organizations to address

environmental concerns through the allocation or resources, assignment of

responsibilities, and ongoing evaluation of practices, procedures and processes.”

[24]

A competently implemented EMS may have the objectives to [25]:

•••••••••••• assist compliance with regulatory requirements

•••••••••••• assist a company to meet its own targets

•••••••••••• improve customer and investor satisfaction

•••••••••••• improve a company’s public image

•••••••••••• improve relations with the local community

•••••••••••• improve relations with regulatory authorities

•••••••••••• make licences and permits easier to obtain


29

•••••••••••• improve future access to sites

•••••••••••• reduce environmental impacts

•••••••••••• demonstrate due diligence

•••••••••••• improve access to capital

•••••••••••• decrease a company’s liabilities

•••••••••••• improve relations with employees

•••••••••••• allow greater control of operations and costs

While an EMS requires major commitment from the firm, it is a management system

which only does what the firm wants to do but does not address the necessary "know-

how", and achieving accreditation/certification is no guarantee that the firm

understands the concepts or knows how to implement them.

While all the six concepts considered for the framework merited consideration, on closer

analysis all but one were rejected.


30

3.2 Defining the Concepts

3.2.1 Eco-efficiency

Eco-Efficiency is a concept that brings together ecological and economic goals. In

manufacturing this involves improving the productivity of energy and materials to reduce

resource consumption and cut pollution per unit of output benefiting the bottom line and

the environment [26]. It was first invented in 1992 by the Business Council for

Sustainable Development and was further defined at the first Antwerp Workshop in 1993

as being “…reached by the delivery of competitively priced goods and services that

satisfy human needs and bring quality of life while progressively reducing ecological

impacts and resource intensity throughout the life cycle to a level at least in line with the

earth’s estimated carrying capacity”. The World Business Council identified seven

success factors for Eco-efficiency as listed in Table 3.1.

1. reduce the material intensity of goods and services

2. reduce the energy intensity of goods and services

3. reduce toxic dispersion

4. enhance material recyclability

5. maximise sustainable use of renewable resources

6. reduce material durability

7. increase the service intensity of goods and services

Table 3.1 – Eco-efficiency Success Factors [27]

The Eco-efficiency concept is strongly linked to Cleaner Production but “starts from

issues of economic efficiency which have positive environmental benefits while Cleaner

Production starts from environmental efficiency which have positive economic

benefits”[36].

Paul Hawken (The Ecology of Commerce) and Amory Lovins (Natural Capitalism) [28]

are two well known and influential business thinkers in this area who argue convincingly

for environmental management in enterprises on business grounds.


31

If Eco-efficiency goals were to be adopted for use within a manufacturing enterprise,

because its thrust is financial, Eco-efficiency as a functional strategic dimension to the

enterprise’s plans would appear to be ideally suited for inclusion in business or financial

plans more so than as a guiding framework for operations or manufacturing.

3.2.2 Sustainable Manufacturing

Sustainable Manufacturing is not a concept with depth as yet; it is essentially an

evocative phrase for a vision for manufacturing in the 21st century. By way of illustration,

references include the Ecofactory projects of MITI in Japan [15] and the achievement of

the strategic goals and objectives set in the EU Sustainable Development Strategy in

Europe [29]. In general, the vision is for an industrial approach which takes into

consideration all the life cycle issues applicable to a given group of products. By

implication, the concept can take into account technologies, research, design tools and

methodologies, disassembly automation or any other initiative aimed at prolonging useful

product life and minimising waste.

Intelligent Manufacturing Systems (IMS), an international research and development

program established to develop the next generation of manufacturing and processing

technologies, defines Sustainable Manufacturing as [30]:

1. Sustainable design, products and manufacturing – supporting the development of

organisational practices, methodologies, tools and technologies compatible with

the challenges of sustainable growth through improved design and development

of advanced process (re)engineering solutions. Results should facilitate the

reduction in use of non-renewable resources and minimise impact and

environmental risk of industrial operations.

2. Sustainable workplace – multidisciplinary development and validation of

sustainable workplace designs incorporating emerging technologies into new

workplace and teamwork concepts. These should enhance creativity and

productivity; ensure safe working conditions; improve the quality of working life


32

and reduce the overall resource-use burden on the environment. The activities

should incorporate user-centred design principles.

While the concept of Sustainable Manufacturing may be useful to describe a future state

and to provide a vision for reconciling the management of resources with consumption in

an environmentally friendly manner, it is considered too broad, global rather than intra-

firm, in its goals to be of practical value as a framework at this stage to meet the

objectives of this Thesis.

3.2.3 Waste Minimisation

Waste Minimisation as a framework was considered for its evolutionary significance and

it could be argued that it is operational and not strategic in nature. The concept is used

extensively in the United Kingdom and covers a very wide range of ideas. Waste itself

may be defined a number of ways from industrial waste to rubbish discarded at home or

in the workplace [31]. A useful way of defining industrial waste was developed in the

Advanced Manufacturing Centre’s Waste Reduction Program as contained in Table 3.2.


33

1. Internally Generated

Input Wastes - Inwards Packaging

- Spoiled Raw Materials

- Damaged Stores

- Excess Handling

Process Wastes - Dust and Dirt

- Trimmings and Off-cuts

- Liquid Effluents

- Steam Losses

- Compressed Air Losses

- Cleaning Materials

- Unused Raw Materials

- Damaged product

- Injuries

Finished Goods - Inspection Rejects

- Damaged Stock

- Obsolete Stock

- Unnecessary Packaging

- Handling and Transport

- Waste Disposal Contracts


34

2. Externally Generated

Suppliers - Protective Packaging

- Unprocessed Raw Materials

- Inappropriate Material Volumes

- Transport Damage

Customers - Distribution of Packaging

- Disposal of Products

- Inappropriate Product Volumes

- Misuse of Product

- Poor Storage of Product

3. Life Cycle Generated

Design Decisions - Initial Installed Costs

- Useful Life

- Operating resources

- End of Product Life

(Disposal/remanufacture/recycling)

Table 3.2 – Definition of Industrial Waste [32]

Early Waste Minimisation techniques tended to be “end-of-pipe” clean ups, including

recycling and energy recovery. More recent definitions introduce the idea of

prevention, for example the Scottish EPA offers the definition “Waste minimisation is

the prevention or reduction of raw materials, water or energy consumption at source”.

[33]


35

Two particularly useful ideas emerging from waste minimisation programs:

•• Waste Hierarchy – indicating the preferred sequence for minimising waste as

described in Table 3.3.

- Prevention

- Reduction

- Re-use

- Recovery

Recycling

Composting

Energy Recovery

- Disposal

Table 3.3 – Waste Hierarchy

•• Evolutionary Stages – describing a company’s journey towards minimal waste

and the changes in mindset in the perception of waste and how to work towards

its reduction [31], adapted from Finding Hidden Profit, Trade an Industry

Department of the Environment, UK, June 1966 described in Table 3.4.

ii.. Waste is not recognised as an issue

iiii.. Waste is only a disposal issue

iiiiii.. Waste is a cost and regulatory issue

iivv.. We plan to reduce waste

vv.. Waste is coming down as we change the way we work

vvii.. We are achieving big waste and cost reductions

vviiii.. Only a change in technology will eliminate waste

vviiiiii.. Zero Waste

Table 3.4 – Waste Minimisation Evolutionary Stages

Preferred Sequence of Approach


36

This second concept of evolution is further adapted and used in this Thesis in Chapter 5.

Waste Minimisation is typically embraced by Environmental Protection Agencies. These

agencies conduct all types of programs in their respective communities. Notwithstanding

the potential usefulness of the waste hierarchy and evolution concepts developed from

these experiences, there is no evidence of their consistent uptake by manufacturers.

Furthermore, the implementation of programs can be moving targets depending on local

conditions and priorities. Because no two Waste Minimisation programs are the same it

was considered less effective than other concepts as a framework

3.2.4 Industrial Ecology

The concept of Industrial Ecology (IE) appears to have great promise and may eventually

emerge as the authoritative body of knowledge for environmental management

practitioners. It is sometimes referred to as the ‘science of sustainability’.

Both the science and application of Industrial Ecology are evolving and its use and value

are still being established. It may be defined as “…the multi disciplinary study of

industrial systems and economic activities, and their links to fundamental natural

systems”. [34] Until Graedel and Allenby, Industrial Ecology was viewed on a

geographical scale across regions, economies and even the globe [35], the most famous

case being the case study of the industrial eco-park in Kalundborg, Denmark.

The works of Graedel and Allenby are referred to extensively in this Thesis for they

applied the concept of IE at the firm level and by doing so their work is most relevant to

and supportive of this project. Their definition is “Industrial Ecology is the means by

which humanity can deliberately and rationally approach and maintain a desirable

carrying capacity, given continued economic cultural and technological evolution. The

concept requires that an industrial system be viewed not in isolation from its surrounding

systems, but in concert with them. It is a systems view in which one seeks to optimise the

total materials cycle from virgin material, to finished material, to component, to obsolete


37

product, and to ultimate disposal. Factors to be optimized include resources, energy and

capital”.

This may still be regarded as an over-complex definition, especially given the reference

to the potentially controversial biological term carrying capacity. Similarly, there is no

consensus as yet regarding IE's scope and boundaries. On the other hand it does lay the

foundation for the application of scientific and engineering solutions in an integrated

manner and with regard to human systems. This system orientation may manifest itself in

a number of forms as listed in Table 3.5.

•• use of a Life Cycle perspective – ensuring all interactions with the

environment are considered at every stage in the life cycle

•• use of materials and energy flow analysis – determining the impact of

activities on the anthroposphere, that is, the earth’s natural systems and

cycles

•• use of systems modeling – helping to understand interactions between

industrial systems and their surroundings, and

•• sympathy for multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary research and

analysis - identifying the need for insights from a diverse range of

disciplines. [36]

Table 3.5 – Industrial Ecology’s Systems Orientation

Unlike the other concepts mentioned thus far, to date IE has focused primarily on

manufacturing, trying to understand how the industrial system works, how it interacts

with the environment and how it should be restructured for compatibility with ecosystems

[37].

IE viewed globally would not be helpful as a framework At the enterprise level, IE could

be given serious consideration as a framework but the activities of IE that this Thesis is

concerned with consist of a limited number of disciplines, the main one being Design for


38

Environment (DfE). This limitation is the reason why IE is viewed as an enabler rather

than as a framework. The application of IE in a practical context is not yet sufficiently

universally accepted to be the best choice for a readily implementable methodology.

3.2.5 Life Cycle Management

Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) is a frequently used tool by manufacturers to help understand

the environmental impacts of their products, services and processes. Its use dates back to

the late 1960s when it was known as Resource and Environmental Profile Analysis

(REPA) [38]. LCA follows a prescribed methodology consisting of the three main

components of Life Cycle Inventory, Life Cycle Impact Assessment and Life Cycle

Improvement Analysis as a systems approach to evaluate the cradle to grave

consequences of a product/service/process.

While LCA is a controversial tool the Life Cycle approach underpinning it has been

recognized as a useful if not essential concept for engineers whose activities include the

study and performance improvements at all stages of the life cycle. The bringing together

of engineering disciplines such as:

•• material technology

•• design engineering

•• manufacturing automation

•• information technology

•• recycling technology

with life cycle impacts enables the LCA concept to be expanded to the broader concept

of Life Cycle Engineering (LCE) and is a major step towards the development of an

engineering curriculum consisting of technical tools [39].

A further expansion of the life cycle concepts goes beyond technical solutions into the

broader business issues of the enterprise, using the term Life Cycle Management (LCM).


39

A case study from the DaimlerChrysler Corporation lists the possible uses of LCM in

their environment as listed in Table 3.6.

i. Ranking projects

ii. Knowledge transfer and education

iii. Investment decisions

iv. Product and process comparisons

v. Providing a common language and understanding for evaluating for

Environmental, Occupational Health & Safety, and Recycling

criteria

vi. Policy development

vii. Benchmarking studies

viii. Evaluating marketing claims

ix. To facilitate total life cycle, multiple media, cross-discipline systems

thinking

Table 3.6 – Potential Uses of Life Cycle Management [40]

In this instance LCM was presented as more effective and less time consuming than

LCA. It also indicates an early recognition that prevention approaches need to be

considered at different levels in the enterprise not only at the technical level. As this

concept is evolving, the definition of LCM begins to take shape as per the following

quotes:

•• “LCM is business management based on environmental life cycle considerations”

•• “LCM is implementing environmental considerations in all kinds of business

decisions…”

•• “Because LCM is highly strategic, it cannot be dealt with in isolation by the

traditional environmental personnel in the company” [40]


40

Another important recognition in the application of LCM concepts within a

manufacturing enterprise is that, it is a functional approach mapping environmental

management considerations into decision making processes. Using the term “Entry

Gates” five levels of coordination and interaction are identified [41]:

1 Marketing

2 Procurement

3 Engineering/Design

4 Management (upper)

5 Environmental Department

The advantage of defining Life Cycle Management within a traditional business

management framework is the existing large number of preconditions, mechanisms and

concepts which automatically follow the business management approach. Examples are

concepts and tools related to strategic and organisational issues, co-operation with

external parties, decision making processes, various implementation issues, continuous

performance improvements, and more which are part of the everyday working life of any

professional business organisation [42].

As in the case of Industrial Ecology, LCM is still evolving. While it holds considerable

promise as a framework for manufacturers, and it is an approach used at the firm level, at

the time of this Thesis it seems more useful to treat it as an enabler in concert with the

other concepts. It was noted with interest during the Study Tour that IE appears to be

pursued more actively in North America while LCM appears to be a European initiative.

3.2.6 Cleaner Production.

After due consideration Cleaner Production (CP) was selected as the Manufacturing

Management/Engineering umbrella concept as it appears that in terms of its intent

as well as its continuous development it has the potential to serve as the framework

desired.


41

The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) Industry and Environment in 1989

introduced the concept of Cleaner Production. Cleaner Production is the continuous

application of an integrated preventive environmental strategy applied to processes,

products and services to increase Eco-efficiency and reduce risks for humans and the

environment [43].

It applies to:

•• production processes: conserving raw materials and energy eliminating toxic raw

materials and reducing the quantity and toxicity of all emissions and wastes

•• products: reducing negative impacts along the life cycle of a product from raw

materials extraction to its ultimate disposal

•• services: incorporating environmental concerns into designing and delivering

services

It is also defined as an integrated approach including strategies for pollution prevention,

waste management and control and disposal. The focus is a five step evolutionary process

for improved material and product utility - 1. Treat and Dispose, 2. Recycle, 3. Reuse, 4.

Reduce, 5. Eliminate [44].

Historically, it evolved from waste minimisation within production processes to be more

strategic, bracketed with Eco-efficiency for a strategic approach to improve material

utilisation [35].

The four elements of Cleaner Production are:

1. the precautionary approach – potential polluters must prove that a substance or

activity will do no harm

2. the preventive approach – preventing pollution at the source rather than after it

has been created

3. democratic control – workers, consumers, and communities all have access to

information and are involved in decision-making


42

4. integrated and holistic approach – addressing all material, energy and water flows

using life-cycle analyses

Cleaner Production requires a new way of thinking about processes and products, and

about how they can be made less harmful to humans and the environment. [40] “In

essence, it requires a paradigm shift from the current reactive ‘cure’ approach to a

proactive ‘preventive’ approach.” [45]

K.Geiser [46] concludes from international conferences, national roundtables and an

international declaration on CP that it has had significant impacts as a set of tools, as a

programme, and as a way of thinking. He states these impacts can be assessed at various

levels. The strategic potentials of Cleaner Production may be summarised as:

1. promoter of new production technologies

2. managerial catalyst for liberating environmental values placing them nearer to the

centre of product and process design

3. paradigm reformer converting environmental protection investments from costs to

productivity benefits

4. bridge for connecting industrialisation and sustainability

These points are directly relevant to the aims of this Thesis. To underscore the strategic

potential of the concept he also writes “adding environmental values to product design,

marketing and management, like adding them to process management, offers new

opportunities to improve business performance and competitive advantage”, aligning CP

with strategic planning outcomes sought by manufacturing enterprises.

Further consideration of the impact of CP on the design and production of cleaner

products leads to the development of major technology areas and approaches as listed in

Table 3.7 [27].


43

1. repairability, remanufacturability and recyclability

2. energy efficiency

3. reduced emissions

4. design for environment

5. product stewardship

6. extended product responsibility

Table 3.7 – Cleaner Production Outcomes in Design and Production

The term Cleaner Production is used extensively world wide partly due to its marketing

by the UN and it seems to have a ‘friendly’ connotation. [39] As is the case in IE, CP is

directly focused on manufacturing and all CP issues concern industrial environmental

management. The final argument in favour of CP as a guiding framework for this Thesis

is it is application orientated, suitable for engineering solutions.

3.3 Key Relationships and Conclusions

3.3.1 Positioning the Concepts in a Planning Hierarchy

One of the aims in reviewing the six concepts in this Chapter is to establish where each of

the concepts would fit in a firm's strategic planning process. The conclusions are shown

in Figure 3.1 below as positions in the hierarchy:


44

Strategic - Globally and

Inter-firm

Strategic - Enterprise

Level

Operational

Figure 3.1 - Strategic versus Operational Hierarchy of Industrial Management Concepts

3.3.2 Cleaner Production and Eco-Efficiency

As defined previously, Eco-Efficiency starts from issues of economic efficiency which

have positive environmental benefits while Cleaner Production starts from issues of

environmental efficiency which have positive economic benefits [27].

Both concepts are promoted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and

the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) and are

complementary. As it becomes evident in Chapter 4, they have the potential to map into a

firm's strategic planning processes. The source of the definition in the previous paragraph

is the first output of the combined UNEP public sector interests and WBCSD's industry

representation.

3.3.3 Cleaner Production versus Industrial Ecology

To meet the objectives of this Thesis Cleaner Production and Industrial Ecology are the

two most applicable approaches. They are synergistic, both focus on industrial processes,

use life cycle approaches and embrace a number of common technologies. Since

Sustainable Manufacturing

Eco- Efficiency

Industrial Ecology

Waste Minimisation

Life Cycle Management

Cleaner Production


45

Industrial Ecology seeks to move industrial and economic systems towards a symbiotic

relationship with Earth's natural systems, it looks beyond individual industrial processes.

As indicated in Figure 3.1, it therefore applies at all levels, the firm level, between firms

and regionally/globally [36].

The focus of Cleaner Production is narrower. Elimination and reduction of wastes is

typically for a specific industry process or enterprise. It does not have a regional, national

or global concern and may therefore be seen as a less advanced concept. CP can therefore

be viewed as the application of IE for the benefit of the firm and to reduce risks to

humans and the environment.

J. Alan Brewster writes, "…the two concepts are intimately related and mutually

reinforcing. In practice, both the science and its application in specific circumstances are

relatively new and still evolving"

3.3.4 Cleaner Production and Life Cycle

To achieve the aims of Cleaner Production a Life Cycle approach is required, as

discussed earlier in this Chapter and as depicted by Figure 3.2.


46

1. Resource Extraction

2. Premanufacture

3. ProcessSelection

4. Conversion

5. Manufacturing Support Processes

6. Product Delivery

7. Product Use

8. Disposal, Recycling,Reuse

Figure 3.2 - Scope of Cleaner Production, a Life Cycle Approach

The stages in Figure 3.2 are a model representing a generic life cycle scenario compiled

from a number of descriptions of the Life Cycle approach, most of which are similar

(Refer to Section 5.4 for descriptions of each of the 8 stages). Figure 3.2 focuses

specifically on the manufacturing environment within the enterprise.

3.3.5 Concluding Notes Regarding Industrial Environmental Management

Concepts

The review of the concepts used to date in coming to grips with industrial environmental

management problems confirmed that from a Manufacturing Management/Engineering

perspective this body of knowledge is at an early stage of its evolution. Individual

authors, thinkers, enterprises and societies have progressed a long way towards

developing their respective concepts and solutions, most of which offer considerable

promise.

What does not seem to have happened as yet is the consolidation of all the diverse

material into a formal discipline with its own standards, definitions and terminology


47

which manufacturing enterprises can deploy as they would any other science or

engineering body of knowledge. Clearly there are major technical complexities alluded to

earlier, in terms of the breadth and depth of the problem, which resist the invention of

quick and simple solutions. There are other obstacles as well, beyond the technical, and

these will be explored in later Chapters.

Out of necessity this Thesis attempts to apply Occam’s Razor [18] and to select those

concepts which are deemed to have the greatest potential at this time. It would be

surprising, however, given the short history of this field if new concepts and ideas

supplanting the existing range did not emerge in the not too distant future.


48

"META STRATEGY" FOR TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIAL VALUES

INTEGRATION OF SUSTAINABILITY WITH CORPORATE STRATEGIES AND BUSINESS

PLANS

INCORPORATION OF CLEANER PRODUCTION INTO FUNCTIONAL

STRATEGIES

LINKS TO SPECIFIC IMPLEMENTATION METHODOLOGIES AND TECHNOLOGY

AREAS

C A S E S T U D I E S

I N D

I C A T O

R S AN

D M

E A S U

R E

S

CHAPTER 4

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

4.1 The Need for Speed and Effectiveness

One of the major influences for this Thesis is the need to develop effective

solutions capable of being applied quickly. As already implied, the breadth of

issues emanating from the uptake of Cleaner Production extends vertically to the

entire life cycle of products from extraction to eventual disuse, and horizontally to

every function in a manufacturing enterprise. This complexity together with the

slow uptake of new ideas led to the conclusion that the problems of re-

engineering and rectification are strategic issues that require different approaches

and techniques and should be addressed at higher levels of management within

manufacturing organisations.

After considerable reflection, the approach in Figure 4.1 was arrived at and is

proposed as the most expedient to achieve the integration of the diverse

environmental management principles with a methodology consistent with

industry practices for introducing major change, from the boardroom down to the

shop floor.

Figure 4.1 - The Proposed Methodology Framework


49

4.2 Other Influencing Factors

In addition to the need for speed and effectiveness, there were other contributing

influences in designing the approach including:

•••••••• Since the breadth and complexity of the topic does not lend itself to

investigative research, the reflective research approach requires the

integration of a number of key concepts from different fields in

management, engineering and science.

•••••••• The lack of authoritative literature of direct relevance exists suggesting

this discipline is still at an embryonic stage of development requires a

careful selection of ideas and technologies.

•••••••• As the area of investigation is relatively new, and since there is very little

expertise and standardised concepts, terminology and techniques, a degree

of formalisation to serve as a foundation is also needed.

•••••••• Strategic approaches are not only new to Environmental Management but

they are also relatively new in manufacturing and represent a recent field

of study in Manufacturing Engineering.

Therefore from an academic and engineering perspective, a different approach to

the usual investigative research is needed. Instead of researching a narrow band of

technical topics, solutions to industrial environmental management problems, the

work involves the combination of existing scientific and engineering knowledge

with manufacturing management principles in a way that yields an innovative

process capable of providing a solution to the problem described in section 1.3 of

this Chapter.

Bill Vanderburg in his book The Labyrinth of Technology [8] refers to the need

for this type of academic approach as essential for reconnecting previously

disparate technological systems, processes and products with human, societal and

environmental issues. Preventative, and moreover restorative, approaches to

Cleaner Production need to remove any limitations due to divisions of labour

between science and technology fields that exist at present.


50

Hence the approach to this Thesis and the resulting model attempts to integrate a

number of engineering, scientific and management processes in a way that forms

a readily implementable methodology using concepts which have already been

invented yet are unique in their application.

4.3 Development of the Project Structure

In view of the nature of the project the approach in Figure 4.2 was agreed:

STUDY TOURSTUDY TOUR

Eco-Efficiency/ Cleaner Production Concepts


Evolutionary Development to date


Pick a model to align toPick a model to align to

CASE STUDY 2CASE STUDY 2


Refine ConceptRefine Concept

Proven Process & Conclusions



Conceptual Design of Process


Project Objectives

Generalized Concept for industrial application

STUDY TOURSTUDY TOUR





Pick a model to align toPick a model to align to



Refine ConceptRefine Concept






Project Objectives

Generalized Concept for industrial application

Figure 4.2 - The Research Project Plan Relevant details of the stages in Figure 4.2 are incorporated at the appropriate

points in this paper including specifics of the Case Studies (refer to Chapter 9).


51

4.4 Proposed Solution

4.4.1 Conceptual Design of the Process

Consistent with the reflective nature of this research, a solution was developed

incorporating four crucial management, engineering and scientific bodies of

knowledge:

1. established corporate and manufacturing/operations strategic planning

techniques

2. sustainability concepts selected from the existing industrial environmental

management literature

3. Cleaner Production concepts, selectively extracted from Life Cycle

Management and Industrial Ecology approaches deployed in industry, in

Europe and the USA

4. existing and new systems and technologies, hard and soft, used for

implementing Sustainability/Cleaner Production strategies in the form of a

"Tool-kit"

4.4.2 The Proposed Planning Model

To be able to map the solution an established planning methodology developed by

Peter Stonebreaker, a professor at Northern Illinois University (whose work is

used in a number of countries to teach operations planning) [47], was selected.

This is a generic model insofar as it represents typical strategic thinking in a

manufacturing enterprise.

Sustainability and Cleaner Production concepts, systems and technologies and

performance indicators were integrated with the planning model to arrive at what

has been termed as "the Strategy Development and Implementation with Cleaner

Production" process (refer Figure 4.3). As seen from the map, the solution

addresses the key point of integrating Cleaner Production concepts with the

manufacturing/operations planning processes, but just as importantly it also

establishes the links between the steps from strategy initiation through to

implementation, from the boardroom to the factory floor.


52

As in the case of most engineering processes the loop is closed through

performance measurement, using indicators to:

•••••••• measure the effectiveness of the proposed solution

•••••••• measure environmental performance

Figure 4.3 - Strategy Development and Implementation with Cleaner Production

Model - Cleaner Production Scope, Links to Systems and Technologies

This proposed model describes the entire strategic planning process for

Cleaner Production. The first 3 boxes follow the Stonebraker model, the bottom

strips in the boxes having been added to augment the planning process with

Sustainability and Cleaner Production concepts. The remaining 3 boxes are

simply universal industrial practice and again the bottom strips add industrial

environmental management concepts and techniques.


53

In Chapter 1 the overall purpose of this work was stated as “to help accelerate

environmental improvements through the uptake of Cleaner Production concepts

in industry by developing a methodology to help guide manufacturing

enterprises” and the specific objectives were listed. Following the development of

the solution in Figure 4.3, the target deliverables from this new methodology,

achieved in part or in full for a given application, are envisaged to be as the model

outcomes of:

•• statement of the strategies as Cleaner Production objectives to be achieved

•• identification of the life cycle stages affected over time

•• reconciliation with the manufacturing enterprise's evolutionary stage

•• identification of the functional units affected within the enterprise

•• identification of the environmental impacts, materials, energy/utilities and

residues (solids, liquids and gases)

•• creation of projects

•• development of performance indicators for the environment

The ensuing Chapters step through the model and provide details of the six stages:

Corporate Strategy:S u s t a i n a b i l i t y

Corporate Strategy:S u s t a i n a b i l i t y

Functional Strategy:

C l e a n e r P r o d u c t i o n



Business Strategy:

E c o – e f f i c i e n c y

Business Strategy:


Links:

Industrial Ecology & Life Cycle Management

Links:


Execution:

Technologies & Systems

Execution:


Performance Measurements:

I n d i c a t o r s


I n d i c a t o r s

M e t a S t r a t e g yM e t a S t r a t e g y

- Chapter 5 (Stages 1-3)

- Chapter 6 (Stage 4)




54

CHAPTER 5

STRATEGIC AND OPERATIONAL PLANNING (Stages 1-3)

5.1 Meta Strategy

5.1.1 Balancing of Technological Development with the Development of Social

Values

In preparing the foundation for this work a problem encountered very early was the

need for focusing on a limited number of initiatives. As this project is a manufacturing

management/engineering endeavor, it was deemed appropriate to attempt to steer clear

of the numerous other popular scientific, political and economic initiatives in society

aimed at solving environmental problems. As part of this focus, the work attempts to

follow a proven path for the effective introduction of new approaches within

manufacturing enterprises.

On the other hand, while the emphasis is on an enterprise level methodology, it needs to

be recognized that no manufacturing enterprise is an island, and its plans need to be in

concert with societal values.

Similarly, this Thesis does not concern itself with the global changes in culture

prescribed by environmental writers and thinkers. They may include such concepts as

customer driven values, the move towards biological systems, corporate citizenship

trends, increased focus on human needs rather than bottom line results, managing

demand and many others. This is not to say such value changes are not desirable, or

essential, but the best that can be achieved in this work is to ensure that any proposed

planning methodology is open to the inclusion of evolutionary developments as they

occur.

One analysis forecasts under the heading META Trends that by 2006 half the Global

2000 organisations will see significant changes in strategic planning as CEOs and

boards of organisations employ more effective strategy development and

implementation processes [50]. With respect to the environment, at present less than


55

15% of these organisations employ a disciplined approach towards environmental

analysis, this being one of the areas expected to come under increased future testing for

quality and completeness.

The enterprise level planning approach advocated in this Thesis, while avoiding

assumptions and optimistic sentiments, has to anticipate some likely global

developments for improved environmental management. Based on existing trends they

include the expectations in Table 5.1.

•• greater understanding of industrial activity of ecosystems from on-going

research

•• increased consumer awareness and demands

•• additional policies and strategies from governments and corporations

•• new, cleaner, manufacturing technologies

•• emergence of integrated solutions such as Industrial Ecology

•• accelerated sense of urgency to remediate the effects of harmful activities to

humans

•• new technology strategies in technology saturated economies

Table 5.1 –Trends Affecting the Development of Industrial Environmental

Management Disciplines

The last concept on the list in Table 5.1 is developed by Hardin Tibbs [51] into a

concept of a meta-strategy. While this Thesis does not go down the path of his detailed

proposal, it does take up the idea as a starting point for corporate planning. Tibbs writes

about his vision for sustainable development in the future:

“It is useful to think of an emerging meta-strategy that will shape technology in the

‘sustained development’ economy”. This meta-strategy for technology is an overall

framing of technology itself in a future sustainable society and in the institutions and

organisations within it, including corporations. It relates to the application of


56

technology by a corporation to the larger goals of society. It sits beyond or behind the

strategies of individual firms, shaping their individual strategies and being expressed

by them through their detailed technological programs, product development,

manufacturing systems and support infrastructure”.

The reason for adopting this concept in this work is that the idea involves the balancing

of technological development with the development of social values. At present, and

arguably in the past, technological advances occur much more rapidly than social

developments which would facilitate the safe and effective implementation of new

technologies, resulting in an imbalance.

Increasingly manufacturing products, processes and services are viewed as

technologies, hard and soft. By the 1990s, the Factory of the Future based on Computer

Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) concepts, has led to totally automated factories being

developed, e.g., Nanya in Taiwan, Samsung in South Korea. Although in this decade

there is somewhat greater reliance on humans and computer software in factories, this

type of development illustrates the extent to which a broad range of automation,

computing and data communications technologies can be integrated as a total

manufacturing and engineering system, and hence the pervasive influence and impact

of technology. To be effective with industrial environmental management, social values

will be needed to govern the use of technology.

Figure 5.1 – Meta Strategy Inputs

Governing Societal Values

Increased use of hard and soft technologies

Meta Strategy

Strategic and Operational Plans

Enterprise Level


57

To date, enterprises have relied heavily on external influences such as legislation,

covenants, the Environmental Protection Agencies and pressure groups for ensuring

societal needs for environmental concerns are satisfied, and this is unlikely to change

for some time. It is reasonable for manufacturing enterprises to assume these influences

will continue to exist and to grow in intensity.

5.1.2 Systems Thinking

Including human values in strategies also means reducing the adverse effects of

technology on the environment.

Since technological advances will continue, prevention relies not on a reduction in the

application of technology, rather on a more considered deployment. Industrial Ecology

advocates systems thinking, that is, thinking in terms of total systems which combine

technology and the environment.

For a manufacturing enterprise this involves “…looking not only at the total life cycle

of its own products but also at all the components and materials that they use, and at

the environmental and social impacts involved” [52]. This means having to take a

longer term view and a wider perspective and will inevitably lead to consideration of

issues in the Supply Chain and in other organisations forming strategic alliances with

the firm.

Surmising the effects of a change to a systems approach, the potential developments

listed in Table 5.2 are likely to affect firms and their future plans.


58

•• systems oriented legislation and covenants, e.g., Kyoto Protocol

•• environmental risk and impact assessments

•• Supply Chain solutions to environmental problems, e.g., shelf ready packaging

•• innovative use of resources for sustainability

•• different costing/accounting systems

•• emergence of Industrial Ecology concepts as a widely accepted discipline

employed by manufacturing professionals and designers, e.g. Design for

Environment

•• reorientation of engineering practices to preventive attitudes

Table 5.2 –New Developments for Consideration in an Enterprise’s Meta Strategy

The difficulty that systems thinking presents is that meta strategies need to consider the

interrelationships between systems and that changing one system will affect other

systems. This level of strategic planning is beyond the scope of this work with the

exception that using a Meta Strategy based on systems thinking is different from

traditional strategic planning as it requires a clear vision of the future desired state of

the enterprise. This allows arriving at specific enterprise level strategies and solutions

and the identification of the relationship between systems that will be required as part

of the solution [53].

5.1.3 Reorientation of Engineering Practices

Achievement of the overall goal of this work, the acceleration of improving industrial

environmental performance, requires new innovative approaches. The challenge of

traditional concepts regarding commercial practices, while likely to be required and to

occur, are unlikely to be driven by engineers. Engineering can however be innovative

and influential in the development of solutions.

Conventional engineering concepts can and should be challenged. The strategic

approach advocated in this work rests on the tenet that there is interdependence


59

between technology and human values. Bill Vanderburg writes, “There is no

technology without a society and no society without the biosphere” [54].

From a manufacturing engineering perspective this idea forming the philosophical

backbone for strategies appears to be a crucial and central issue. Traditional

engineering disciplines and industrial applications have focused on economic, bottom

line outcomes. Introducing the consideration of human values into engineering

practices is essential if the prevention objective of this work is accepted.

A central tenet of this work is that the Meta Strategy concept for technology and

social values requires the recognition that to become sustainable industry requires

engineers and engineering disciplines to take into account human values.

Furthermore, stating the evident, such changes would lead to new approaches which are

preventive and increasingly remedial in nature.

Manufacturing engineering curricula increasingly include strategic and operational

planning. The strategic nature of manufacturing became apparent in the 1980’s through

a better understanding of the competitive nature of manufacturing. This was triggered

by the massive transfer of production from the USA to Japan in the post second world

war era (and at the time of this Thesis a similar transfer to China and other third world

countries is in progress which may further emphasise the need for strategic planning).

In the last decade, planning approaches have become more sophisticated and have

successfully linked manufacturing operations, investments in structure and

infrastructure and the management of resources. These strategies also aim to configure

systems and technologies in ways that support specific competitive advantages sought

by the firm.

By including this body of management knowledge in manufacturing engineering, the

scope of the profession is significantly expanded beyond the traditional technical know-

how for product and process design. This change has been significant in terms of

manufacturing management and engineers acquiring expertise to support their


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enterprises’ competitiveness. From an environmental management perception this

creates a significant opportunity to complement existing planning issues with

ecological and human considerations. It will also be a departure from traditional

practice that allows technical specialists complete freedom to design and use

technology.

The opportunity is not only the means to use existing knowledge and processes in

developing new capabilities but, more importantly, to be able to adopt tried and tested

methods for introducing changes in the factory. Major technology changes such as

Enterprise/Manufacturing Resource Planning systems, Japanese manufacturing or Just

in Time/Lean and Agile Manufacturing philosophies and technologies, Total Quality

Management culture changes and Factory Automation projects are examples of the time

and difficulty involved in the introduction of major changes.

These types of changes, although potentially strategic were financially motivated and

were not seen as threats to humans, hence their gradual adoption was generally

acceptable, in fact sanctioned, as continuous improvements. Their slow adoption was

also due to manufacturing managers and engineers, who possessed the requisite

expertise, occupying middle management non-strategic roles.

Achievement of the goals in this work will require a new type of expert or

manufacturing engineer, who possesses expertise across a number of disciplines. Figure

5.2 is first attempt to scope the dimensions and content definition for an expanded

Engineering Curriculum.


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Figure 5.2 - Requirements for a Preventive and Remedial Orientation to Industrial

Environmental Management by Engineers

This attempt sums up the major new mindsets and expertise to be adopted in concert at

enterprise and academic levels. The importance of adopting these changes may be

summarised as:

•• Expertise in strategic planning facilitates access to upper management in

manufacturing enterprises and the development of effective solutions to

environmental problems – this work prescribes the inclusion of Sustainability

and Cleaner Production concepts in planning processes and subsequently in the

manufacturing management and manufacturing engineering body of knowledge.

This work also advocates that manufacturing professionals will need to have the

intellectual capacity to develop a comprehensive understanding how technology

interacts with the firm’s sustainability needs (refer Section 5.1.4 in this

Chapter).

Integration of disciplines

Preventive &

Remedial

Orientation

New Education

Strategic Panning

Improved Deployment of

Technology


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•• Integration of technologies is a prerequisite as already outlined earlier,

engineers will need to have access to a range of science, engineering and

management disciplines to develop effective strategies and solutions. Solutions

to sustainability problems will not be point solutions until strategies are broken

into specific projects. Traditional technology solutions accomplishing specific

outcomes will be replaced by “backcasting” [2], envisioning future sustainable

positions and working back from these positions developing enterprise wide

solutions, using existing and radically new technologies. Manufacturing

engineers will need to acquire the capacity to look beyond their areas of

expertise to configure strategies and projects which bring together a range of

technologies useful for prevention and remediation.

•• Improved deployment of technology and systems, hard and soft, will improve

the quality of solutions and minimise sub optimisation (refer Chapter 7,

Technologies and Systems). A new capability is required to allow managers and

engineers to survey available technology and systems solutions. The existing

practice of reaching for obvious solutions, which may be reasonable given the

newness of this field, leads to the selection of sub optimal solutions and less

than effective outcomes as there is no appreciation for how the solution fits into

the ‘larger picture’. Not only are these solutions not preventive, there is no

appreciation for the impacts on the anthroposphere, on society and for other

initiatives in other functional areas in the enterprise.

•• New education programs or curricula will facilitate technology transfer from

more advanced countries and from research and development programs in

industry and educational bodies. Existing education offerings will need to be

augmented with industrial environmental management disciplines and

approaches drawn from a wide range of sources. This Thesis aims to provide a

starting point for the development of a curriculum to equip manufacturing

engineers for undertaking Cleaner Production assignments.

This change in orientation by manufacturing professionals may also be viewed as

innovation and creativity. “Continual innovation is essential for making the most of


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new technological capabilities” [55]. This Thesis purports to be an example of

innovation in the manner existing concepts are configured and applied. It is apparent

that existing approaches cannot provide the preventive and remedial solutions needed

unless innovatively applied.

Preventive and remedial approaches not only require changes in mindsets, but also

require new and additional feedback loops. Traditional manufacturing systems and

technology initiatives typically lead to focussed performance measures which report

outcomes in the form of indices, indicators and statistics. A requirement and a difficulty

in the adoption of high level strategic approaches is the development of indicators

which not only provide a measure of environmental performance but constant

monitoring of strategies for effectiveness.


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5.2 Corporate Strategic Planning (Stage 1)

5.2.1 Strategy Development

The strategy development process in a firm may be highly complex. The process

minimally involves information gathering, analysis, judgements, organisational culture,

personal value systems, and intuition with contributions from a wide range of sources

from internal and external sources [56]. Contributors to the strategic planning process

may include:

•• External Stakeholders – Shareholders, Governments, Consumers, Suppliers and

Customers

•• Senior Management – Owners, Board of Directors, Executives

•• Employees – Managers, Professionals, Salaried an Hourly Personnel

•• Consultants

Strategic Planning concepts, like all other processes in industry, are constantly evolving

but for the purposes of this work a basic model will suffice. More crucial than any

model is the thinking behind the process.

Traditionally, the highest level of planning in the firm is referred to as corporate

strategy. At this level the strategic thinking links the enterprise with its environment.

Historically, strategies concentrated on the efficient use of resources, the production of

goods to engineered specifications and profit maximisation. Concern for other issues,

national, societal or environmental, were of little or no concern.

More recently there has been increased recognition that the firm is not an island, it

functions within the boundaries of social and physical environments which have an

impact on its operations and need to be considered in management decisions. One of

these socioeconomic issues is environmental performance. Socioeconomic issues

however tend to be vague and managers find it easier to address such issues on a task

by task basis than as formal strategies.


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From a manufacturing perspective, the links between corporate and operations strategy

are crucial. As critical and as complex as operations strategy is in the modern firm it

would be unthinkable that operations strategies could exist that do not support

corporate strategies and plans. Hence for the purpose of this work this linkage is critical

in two respects:

•• long term corporate strategies should provide direction for achieving

Sustainability, and

•• by definition, corporate strategies provide the framework for operations

planning [57], and in this work for Cleaner Production strategies proposed to be

embedded in Operations Strategies, as well as for the downstream detailed work

which ensues in the shorter term.

Figure 5.3 is a Sustainability model developed for this Thesis. This model incorporates

a number of ideas which should be integrated with strategic plans. The three axis

represent the main topics of:

•• corporate Sustainability and risk

•• evolution towards Sustainability

•• drivers for Sustainability

In developing Sustainability strategies at the highest level in the firm these concepts

serve as reference points. Figure 5.3 is intended to represent this strategic approach

towards sustainability, Sections 5.2.2. – 5.2.4 describe the contents of the figure.


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Figure 5.3 – The Road to Sustainability and Cleaner Production

5.2.2 Corporate Sustainability and Risk

Lending weight to the proposition of this work that the road towards Sustainability for

an enterprise needs to start with its strategic planning is the emergence of the concept of

Corporate Sustainability contained in the description of Dow Jones Sustainability

Indexes. Corporate strategy under this assessment scheme is redefined as “integrating

long term economic, environmental and social aspects in (their) business strategies

while maintaining global competitiveness and brand reputation” [58]. This is a

pragmatic, commercial requirement for large businesses to incorporate socio-economic

considerations in their strategies in general, and environmental considerations, in

particular.

1. Disposal

2. Costs Reductions & Legal Issues

3. Planning forWaste Reduction

4. Waste Identified

5. Waste Reductions

6. MajorImprovements

7. TechnologyChanges

8. Zero Waste

9. Restoration


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As Peter Stonebraker writes in his Operations Strategy book “…corporate strategy

must embody all the essential elements for corporate survival”. Sustainability has

become a survival issue for the opposite of sustainability is unacceptably high risk

positions.

Unless industry accelerates the introduction of ecologically sustainable practices,

environmental problems will continue to exist and increasingly create previously

unknown threats for an organisation. At the outset of this work Risk Analysis was

considered as one of the approaches for developing a solution but was not preferred

due to its non specific probabilistic nature, potentially adding to already substantial

complexities. It is reasonable to anticipate that sophisticated Risk Analysis models will

be developed in future for assessing a firm’s position with respect to Sustainability.

Similarly, financial models will emerge to answer such questions as:

•• How to use corporate sustainability strategies to add value? [59]

•• How can sustainability strategies be converted to conventional business issues

and values?

•• How can sustainability strategies be valued (e.g., Dow Jones Index) in the eyes

of stakeholders?

One of the issues raised in Figure 5.3 is the idea of identifying the major drivers for

Sustainability and Cleaner Production which, if ignored, have the potential to threaten

the enterprise’s survival. By including Sustainability in the strategic planning process,

environmental issues will receive equal treatment with other business objectives.

5.2.3 Evolution towards Sustainability

One of the dimensions in the model in Figure 5.3 addresses the notion of the evolution

of the enterprise toward Sustainability. This is a refinement of similar early attempts

through Waste Minimisation programs as described in Chapter 2 and adapted from a

UK model [60] as developed in Figure 5.4.


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Level 1 - Disposal

Level 2 – Cost Reductions

and Legal Issues

Level 3 – Planning for

Waste Reduction

Level 4 – Waste Identified

Level 5 – Waste Reduction

Level 6 – Major Improvements

Level 7 – Technology Changes

Level 8 – Zero Waste

Level 9 – Restoration

Figure 5.4 – Evolution of the Enterprise towards Sustainability

Only waste disposal is recognised as a concern, main issue is the optimum or least costly disposal method

Basic, non-strategic consideration of Ecoefficiency issues, industrial environmental management is seen as another cost reduction program, plus the recognition of the need to comply with environmental legislation and regulations

Recognition that waste reduction is necessary and may be beneficial, investigation of alternative programs

Waste streams, sources and quantities of waste, materials, energy/utilities and residues are identified and quantified

Work practices are redesigned/reengineered to reduce the amount of waste generated from products, processes, and services

Significant benefits are realised from waste reduction practices and projects

Major projects including capital investments in new processes and employing external expertise to achieve significant outcomes

Changes in mindset and culture setting a transcendent goal for the enterprise intolerant of all forms of waste and un-sustainable practices

Remediation and restorative practices, qualitative improvements in strategies, improvements and affluence is dependent on improvements in environmental management performance


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The purpose of identifying evolutionary stages is to assist firms in formulating

sustainability strategies and to help assess their progress. Chapter 6 outlines a process

for linking life cycle stages with evolutionary development for a given sustainability

strategy.

5.2.4 Drivers for Sustainability

Notwithstanding the intent of this work to steer clear of political or emotional

sentiments, the amount of ‘green’ thinking in society is on the increase with inevitable

impact on business and technology, hence manufacturers. The model in Figure 5.3

summarises the drivers for Sustainability under five headings:

1. Unacceptable Cost Increases

The running down of the environment carries a number of financial threats for

manufacturers. They potentially include:

•• material shortages driving up raw material purchase prices, or necessitating the

invention of alternatives, and transportation costs

•• increased costs of sustainably produced materials [61] preferred by buyers

•• increasing health costs due to increased toxicity in the workplace and elsewhere

•• escalation of insurance costs to cover risks

•• higher costs of imports due to higher transport costs

•• increased operating costs resulting from compliance with regulations

•• rectification costs

2. Business and Society Pressures

New generations are better informed and educated, and as a consequence more critical

and more demanding. Consumers scrutinise products and services increasingly and

providers who fail to adequately consider environmental impacts will suffer loss of

sales and market share. Manufacturers are now producing environmental reports

disclosing considerable information with respect to their internal processes. The reports

are accessible on the Internet and may be scrutinised by all. Current trends include

consultations with all stakeholders (society, customers, suppliers and employees) taking


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their needs and wants into consideration throughout the life cycle of products and

services.

Examples of this type of pressure were found during the Case Studies described in

Chapter 9. Company A customers, government owned railroads, are regulated with

respect to environmental performance by respective government legislation requiring

Company A as a supplier to comply.

In the case of Company B, their nappy products have come under scrutiny; Life Cycle

Assessment studies have been conducted to assess the viability of disposable nappies.

The company has strategically chosen to be a paragon of environmental responsibility

and stays well ahead of any legislation potentially affecting it. Company C has

recognised the need to consult its stakeholders with respect to its environmental

management plans, including the engagement of its personnel in the development of

Cleaner Production Projects.

Paul Hawken offers as an example a list of principles as listed in Table 5.3 to guide a

moderate size enterprise in developing strategies which respond to societal pressures.

•• replace nationally and internationally produced items with products created

locally and regionally

•• take responsibility for the effects they have on the natural world

•• do not require exotic sources (excessive amounts) of capital in order to develop

and grow

•• engage in production processes that are human, worthy, dignified, and

intrinsically satisfying

•• create objects of durability an long-term utility whose ultimate use or

disposition will not be harmful to future generations

•• change consumers to customers through education

Table 5.3 –Principles of Sustainability [62]


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3. New Opportunities

The pursuit of Sustainability will create new opportunities for manufacturers seeking

new innovative strategies. Some of these opportunities will simply arise from waste

reduction leading to cost reductions and increased market share [63]. Other

opportunities such as material substitution and dematerialisation abound, and include

the example of Interface’s textile business introducing fabrics produced from 100

percent recycled polyester instead of virgin fibres [64].

New technologies, including “green design” in which environmental attributes are

treated as design objectives and new R & D processes which include social, human and

environmental criteria in technology solution will lead to radical changes including:

•• closed loop manufacturing system with zero waste

•• changes in product design processes to include life cycle considerations and

targeting greater technology efficiency

•• new transport systems - roads, vehicles, fuels

•• ultra clean production systems and miniaturisation, possibly using

nanotechnology and molecular computing (the “desktop factory”) [65]

•• changes in vehicle design, replacing steel with aluminium or other light metals

and using different fuels such as hydrogen

•• new, renewable energy forms and technologies, including solar and wind

generated and the use of distributed power generation [70]

•• dematerialisation and material substitutions, including the greater use of “smart”

materials and environmentally friendly alternatives

•• biological systems utilising biotechnology capabilities as technological

processes and the shift to biologically inspired production processes


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4. Legislation

The amount of environmental legislation is on the increase. At one end of the spectrum

local councils regulate disposal practices, at the other country wide agreements such as

the National Packaging Covenant are brought into being. Legislation such as The

Protection of the Environment Act 1997 (NSW) [66] extends to a very wide range of

topics from water and land pollution to clean up and prevention. Manufacturers have to

work within these guidelines while observing licensing requirements and environmental

audit provisions.

Future legislation is difficult to predict, much of it will be in response to local and

global conditions. An indication of this is the Australia State of the Environment 2001

report [67] which mentions a number of Acts and agreements such as the Environment

Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, The Australian Mining Industry

Code for Environmental Management and The National Action Plan for Salinity and

Water Quality. The adoption of a national strategy, the activities of the United Nations

Environmental Protection Agency, the Kyoto Protocol/Agreement and its possible

impact on green taxes, carbon credits and environmental economics, or in the case of

Europe a continental strategy for environmental management practices, will lead to new

legislation and will drive enterprise level strategies, policies and practices.

5. Corporate Citizenship/Image

Examining the Environmental Reports of major manufacturers including Sony,

Mitsubishi, Siemens, Nestle, Unilever, 3M, IBM, Hewlett Packard, Electrolux, Coca

Cola and Kimberly Clark it is apparent that large investments are made in order to be

able to present to stakeholders and society responsible attitudes towards environmental

management.

Quoting from one of these reports, “Sony has a broad and lasting responsibility

towards both the natural environment and society. Sony will treat each employee with

respect and help increase his or her knowledge about the environment. Sony will show


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a high level of integrity in our relations with our stakeholders and society. We

recognise the importance of local environments as well as the global environment .We

will participate actively in community activities in different regions of the world aiming

always to be a good corporate citizen” [72]. As mentioned in Section 5.2.1 the Dow

Jones Index is a clear indication of how environmental practices of a firm are not only

publicly evaluated but may affect its share prices.

Examples from local consulting work include food manufacturers refusing to use

landfill for fear of creating the wrong corporate image and the across the board

responsibility taken by these manufacturers to adopt environmentally friendly practices

in their factories including water recycling and energy management programs.

A new generation of management thinkers such as Amory Lovins advocate radical

rethinking of the way businesses conduct their work. The idea of “Natural Capitalism”

[68] promotes new criteria for success replacing current ideas. Lovins is quoted

“Successful companies will be those that take their values from their customers, their

discipline from the market place, their designs from nature” [69]. These same thinkers

refer to this area as the next industrial revolution and assess firms on their level of

uptake of these ideas.

For the idea of Corporate Citizenship, which should be about the communication

between all the stakeholders in society in order to build social capital which in turn

builds sustainable societies, resting on moral principles alone is insufficient; it needs to

extend to social integration and the long term sustainability of the enterprise.

It is advocated that economic relationships be dramatically restructured on the priorities

of balancing human uses of the environment with the regenerative capacities of the

environment and the allocation of natural capital in a manner that ensures people have

the opportunity to fulfil all their needs [71]. In advocating these ideas it is recognised

that corporate culture needs to take into account Sustainable Development. The social


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and political implications of this trend will continue to impact the strategies of

manufacturers.

5.3 Business Planning (Stage 2)

The focus of the Business Strategy is distinctive competence [56], with the competitive

differentiation of the firm based on the achievement of three strategic areas:

•• cost leadership

•• product differentiation

•• focus

as linked to the competitive advantage objectives of the Operations Strategy at the next

level. This conventional definition is focused on value adding and results in financial

outcomes. In section 5.2, Sustainability strategies were integrated with Corporate

Planning. Eco-efficiency, as defined in Chapter 3, readily lends itself to integration with

Business Planning.

Industry Canada promotes the uptake of Eco-efficiency [73] to achieve

•• increasing product or service value

•• optimising the use of resources, and

•• reducing environmental impacts

as opportunities for cost savings.

The adoption of Eco-efficient processes can lead to long-term cost savings, reduce

liability, improve asset utilisation, improve productivity while reducing material usage,

raise profit margins and hence improve competitiveness [74]. Within the proposed

methodology in this Thesis, Eco-efficiency serves as a link between corporate and

operations strategies. These benefits therefore provide commercial motivation for upper

management to pursue environmentally beneficial policies.


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In the other direction, linking with operations strategies ensures downstream strategies

and tactics are consistent with board level direction and achieve objectives set out in

strategic plans. This approach is intended to overcome the problem of lack of

commitment from the top. Since Eco-efficiency and Cleaner Production are two closely

linked concepts, the use of the first clears the way for the deployment of Cleaner

Production strategies.

Typical Eco-efficiency strategies are not available from academic sources but can be

gleaned from firms’ environmental reports. The list in Table 5.4 from 3M Corporation

may serve as an example.

•• reduce energy intensity

•• reduce use of materials

•• enhance recyclability

•• use of renewable resources

•• reduce/eliminate hazards

•• increase durability

•• increase recycled content

•• use of services to help manage risks

Table 5.4 - Eco-Efficiency Goals Leading to Sustainable Development[63]

Business planning, hence Eco-efficieny, is a strategic concern at board and senior

executive levels.


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5.4 Operations Planning (Stage 3)

In the last decade operations strategy, one of the functional strategies emanating from

the corporate and business plans has developed into a complex process. Simplistically,

it focuses on one or more of the competitive priorities of the firm (cost, quality,

flexibility and delivery) in a way that underpins the higher level strategies. It is

concerned with the optimum management of resources extending to a large number of

structural and infrastructural decisions. It also embraces a wide range of hard and soft

technologies and systems reflecting the wide diversity in volumes, varieties, product

and process technologies found in factories all over the globe.

Despite the difficulties involved in developing and focusing operations strategy, the

process is central to Manufacturing Management and Manufacturing Engineering, for

over time it determines and defines operations with respect to facilities, equipment,

organisation, systems, technologies and all other resources. As the problem of

environmental sustainability continues its prominence, it is predictable that within

manufacturing enterprises the role of operations will become interlinked with

environmental management [75]. The challenge of developing an operation planning

process that embraces environmental concerns is how to minimise the potential

complexities.

In Chapter 3 the idea that Cleaner Production (CP) would provide the best guiding

framework of the available concepts to date was developed, including definitions,

relationships and underlying theories. The task in this Thesis is to integrate CP

strategies as part of the operations planning process. The life cycle view of CP (refer to

Figure 3.2) provides a way of achieving this. Revisiting and describing the life cycle

stages, as compiled from a number of generic life cycle models is summarised in Table

5.5.


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1. Resource Extraction resources, materials and energy selection in the main,

nominated to be a part of the transformation process

2. Premanufacture design, opportunity for the systematic integration of

environmental issues into product and process design

3. Process Selection process design and equipment selection, application

of CP techniques

4. Conversion operations, process optimisation including waste and

residues elimination

5. Manufacturing Support environmental management processes in

Processes Engineering, Quality, Materials Purchasing

6. Product Delivery logistics functions, optimised transport, handling and

distribution

7. Product Use intended use and impact and preventive maintenance

8. Disposal, Recycling, end of life processes, optimisation

Reuse

Table 5.5 – Cleaner Production Life Cycle Stages

The task in developing CP strategies as part of the Operations Strategy may be simple

or difficult depending on the level of understanding available within the enterprise. In

larger corporations, environmental specialists, managers and engineers/scientists should

be able to effect the conversion of Sustainability and Eco-efficiency strategies. Small to

medium size companies may require assistance. Table 5.6 provides a list of possible CP

strategies which can be adopted at the different life cycle stages. Descriptions of the

Strategy Options are not provided in this work as they are generally available from

other sources.

Life Cycle Stage Description


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Table 5.6 – Cleaner Production Strategies

The development of Cleaner Production strategies should follow the path of the present

practice of linking the operations strategy to higher level strategies by addressing the

competitive advantages sought through structural and infrastructural decisions, and as

such should not present implementation obstacles. The departure requires the additional

appreciation of the potential CP Strategy Options topics only, which is expertise in

Cleaner Production, a feasible and arguably necessary skill for manufacturing managers

and engineers.

Life Cycle Stage

Resource Extraction

Pre- Manufacture

Process Selection

Conversion Support Processes Product Delivery

Product Use Disposal, Recycling, Reuse

S t r a t e g y O p t i o n s Dematerialisation, Services (extended producer responsibility), Renewable Materials, Lower Embodied Energy Materials Extended Technical and Aesthetic Life Spans, Integrated Product Functions, Modularity, Extended Psychological Product Life Spans,

Increased Reliability & Durability, Easy Maintenance & Repair

Cleaner Materials, Recycled Materials, Reduced Material Usage, Development of Alternative Processes, Energy Efficiency, Waste Reduction

Recyclable Materials, Reduced Energy Consumption, Cleaner Energy Sources, Reduced Consumable Waste, Re-Use, Re -manufacture, Design for Disassembly, Energy & Material Recovery

Cleaner Production Processes, Waste Elimination, Fewer Operations, Reduced Consumables

Lower Material Weight & Volume

Reduced, Cleaner & Reusable Packaging, Energy Efficient Transport & Logistics,


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5.5 Implementation Notes

As a footnote to this Chapter, Steps 1 – 3 above were initially founded on existing

planning processes deployed by industry. They were then tested as part of the Case

Studies (refer to Appendices E, F, and G), leading to the following observations and

questions to be considered in future applications:

•• Top executives appear to have little difficulty in expanding their planning

processes to embrace Sustainability and are happy to include new strategies.

•• The business planning level is the first hurdle to overcome, most manufacturers

are cost driven, Eco-efficiency strategies need to clearly identify potential

financial benefits.

•• Operations Directors are likely to require assistance in the form of expertise in

Cleaner Production concepts and applications; this is probably a fertile area for

senior consultants and engineers.

•• Documentation of strategies can be as simple as a series of slides as part of a

management presentation, the difficulty lies in the development of the strategies

themselves. Some of the associated practices of mission statements, SWOT

(Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) analyses and competitive

analyses are unlikely to be required, however, objectives setting remains a

necessary condition.

•• The greatest hurdle is to restrain senior management from jumping to solutions

before working through the next stage (refer to Chapter 6) in the methodology.

•• Development of these plans to date has been a time consuming process,

typically several weeks are needed for managers to work through the three

stages, not due to the workloads involved but the innovative time needed to

develop and evaluate ideas.

•• Human Resource and Change Management concepts were not considered

strategic for this work. During the case studies, the ideas presented were readily

embraced without the need for overcoming ‘culture change’ obstacles. It may

eventuate that an eventual wider uptake of the proposed process may require

expansion into these areas but these topics are more likely to be implementation

issues.


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CHAPTER 6

LINKING STRATEGIES WITH PROJECTS (Stage 4)

6.1 Linking Strategies with Tactics

Once strategies are developed the next steps as a rule constitute the execution phase

(tactics). In this work the process involves the development of links between the

operations strategies/plans and specific methodologies/technologies used to achieve

Cleaner Production goals. In practical terms this means developing a method which will

lead to the eventual development of Cleaner Production project proposals in a manner

that achieves upper management support for projects, including appropriate levels of

funding and other project resources.

Having conceived a streamlined implementable planning approach, from the Case

Studies it became evident that to invent a way in which strategies can be converted into

tactics, that is, Cleaner Production practices and projects, is another considerable

challenge. Failing to develop such links would retain the status quo, that is, the

deployment of technologies and systems that are familiar to practitioners or are readily

available. This would lead to sub-optimisation at best but just as likely to functional

conflicts and poor outcomes. Another issue is that there are an unlimited number of

existing and ever increasing new technologies which can in some way be deployed in the

name of industrial environmental management.

This stage of the planning and implementation process, therefore, involves the

development of specific links. By focusing on these strategy/tactics links before

embarking on implementation, a path to optimum, or at least effective, technology

deployment will become evident. The need from such links became apparent very early

in the project but the solution did not present itself until a Study Tour was conducted to

North America and Europe. What was learned is that two industrial environmental

management disciplines, defined in Chapter 3, are emerging on these two continents:

•• Industrial Ecology, and

•• Life Cycle Management


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Both disciplines are expansive addressing a wide range of environmental management

issues. Both are in the domain of specialists and middle managers, and are evolving from

technical projects in an upwards direction towards the strategic levels. In both fields there

is a modicum of recognition for strategic approaches even if they have yet to be invented.

6.2 Industrial Ecology (IE) as an Enabler

IE and CP are emerging undertakings with common goals, with IE expected to emerge as

the science which will enable CP to gain effectiveness and to make greater inroads in the

application of knowledge.

Industrial Ecology was defined in Chapter 3, and as outlined it can be applied at several

levels. IE appears to be deployed by American firms which, based on past experience,

could be argued to culturally support readily accept technology initiatives to solve

industrial problems. Also as previously mentioned IE can be applied at different levels

and on a global scale it is an extremely complex concept.

Within the enterprise, however, IE has the attraction that it is able to provide policies,

tools, information and techniques on an objective basis, consistent with the objectives of

this work to adopt a dispassionate professional methodology. It is ideally suited as an

engineering discipline for it relies on the deployment of technology to solve

environmental problems. To utilise IE concepts in this work requires distilling out some

of the less abstract concepts so that they may form part of the overall methodology.

Although Braden R Allenby’s in his IE book [76] discusses a range of implementation

issues and uses case studies as examples of implementation, he does not offer an actual

methodology. But concepts such as those in Table 6.1 will be most helpful in sourcing

technology solutions and undoubtedly will lead to new technologies in future.

.


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Table 6.1 - Principles of Industrial Ecology [77]

•• Products, processes, services and operations can produce residuals, but not

waste.

•• Every process, product, facility, constructed infrastructure, and technological

system should be planned to be easily adapted to foreseeable,

environmentally preferable innovations.

•• Every molecule that enters a manufacturing process should leave that process

as a saleable product.

•• Every erg of energy used in manufacture should produce a desired material

transformation.

•• Industries should make minimum use of materials and energy in products,

processes, services and operations.

•• Materials used should be the least toxic for the purpose, all else equal.

•• Industries should get most of the needed materials through recycling streams

rather than through raw materials extraction, even in the case of common

materials.

•• Every process and product should be designed to preserve the embedded

utility of the materials used.

•• Every product should be designed so that it can be used to create other useful

products at the end of its current life.

•• Every industrial landholding, facility, or infrastructure system or component

should be developed, constructed or modified with attention to maintaining

or improving local habitats and species diversity, and to minimising impacts

on local or regional resources.

•• Close interactions should be developed with materials suppliers, customers,

and representatives of other industries, with the aim of developing

cooperative ways of minimising packaging and of recycling and reusing

materials.


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The principles in Table 6.1 provide a valuable set of guidelines for considering

Sustainability and environmental impact at every stage in the life cycle of a product or

service and as such should be used as Cleaner Production strategies.

Reliance on a finite set of principles is important since IE is an integrative as opposed to

reductionist field integrating a number of disciplines. In addition, the principles provide a

sound basis for framing implementation projects. Daniel Esty of the Yale School of

Forestry and Environmental Studies concludes that “Industrial Ecology thinking will

often be useful to firms seeking to improve their resource productivity and thus their

competitiveness” [78]. This and other comments in his article confirm that IE at the firm

level may not produce optimum financial performance but is suitable as an operations

strategy tool for improving material productivity and waste minimisation.

IE extends beyond the study of materials and energy flows. It requires an understanding

of how industrial systems work before deploying CP concepts for sustainable long term

operating modes [79]. The above conclusions represent the reasons for looking to IE to

overcome the difficulty of putting environmental strategies into effective practice.

6.3 Life Cycle Management as an Enabler

Life Cycle Management (LCM) is not a completely new management invention. It is in

principle already implemented in companies world-wide, because all companies have

management activities in relation to their suppliers, production, distributors, customers

and through these activities the companies manage the life cycle of their products, more

or less directly. However, most companies do not include the environmental dimension in

these management activities. Life Cycle Management is basically a question of adding

the environmental life cycle dimension to the already implemented business management

concepts [80].

The advantage of defining Life Cycle Management within a traditional business

management framework is the existing large number of preconditions, mechanisms and

concepts which automatically follow the business management approach. Examples are


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concepts and tools related to strategic and organisational issues, co-operation with

external parties, decision making processes, various implementation issues, continuous

performance improvements, and much more which are part of the everyday working life

of any professional business organisation [80].

At this time in our evolution, Life Cycle Management is an increasingly accepted starting

point for introducing environmental initiatives. LCM tends to be relatively

straightforward and logical at a conceptual level. However, a common understanding and

definition of the concept in companies as well as in academia do not appear to have been

established so far.

The Hartmann Group defines Life Cycle Management as “business management based

on environmental life cycle considerations” [80]. This is a summary of a number of

concepts and definitions, but is directly relevant to this Thesis as it equates to all

management activities within the firm aimed at minimising environmental impacts and

resource consumption.

Another definition states Life Cycle Management is any management activity that

contributes to the minimisation of the environmental impacts and resource consumption

throughout the full life cycle of a product or a service [82]. This is achieved through the

optimisation of the value chain as its fundamental viewpoint. It requires a continuous,

integrated optimisation of the economic, technological, and social aspects of products. As

a management paradigm, it includes concepts, tools and procedures to reach this

objective [81].

LCM can be used in all environmental approaches. It is increasingly used in association

with Cleaner Production and can be seen as an integral to the concepts of Design for

Environment and Environmental Manufacturing and further functional areas like

Purchasing, Logistics and Marketing [83]. LCM therefore appears to provide an effective

link between strategies, systems and technologies.


85

Although the definitions are not easily mapped into organisation structures, some general

conclusions about it are helpful:

•• LCM extends beyond production processes to all life cycle stages and is therefore

more pervasive than previous attempts at environmental management

•• it forms a part of the business thus it is feasible to incorporate it into existing

industrial and management practices

•• although some authors view LCM as strategic, in the context of this work it does

not appear as yet to be a top management consideration, rather it fits comfortably

with a functional approach which is depicted in figure 6.1.


2. Premanufacture

3. ProcessSelection

4. Conversion


6. Product Delivery


LCM

•Design for Environment

• Environmental Purchasing

• Environmental Manufacturing

• Environmental Distribution

• Environmental Marketing

7. Product Use

Figure 6.1 – Life Cycle Management (LCM) – Scope

LCM appears to be deployed by European manufacturers to try and link environmental

management with commercial considerations. “Life Cycle Management can be seen as a


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necessary challenge to the predominantly rational and technical approach towards the

innovation of cleaner products and sustainable development” [81]. As was the case in

IE, LCM incorporates Cleaner Production processes, in a narrow sense, and recognises

that CP is one of the pillars of LCM.

6.4 Linking Strategies to Execution

6.4.1 Scrutiny of the Linking Process

Having researched IE and LCM to the point that they are able to be defined and

understood, and how they may be deployed at the firm level, the next step is to develop

the linking process.

Figure 6.2 – Linking Strategy with Execution

This is deemed a crucial step in this work and yet was an obstacle for a long period.

Having decided early in the project that strategic planning and a top down approach is

essential for effectiveness, and having devised a strategic planning approach for industrial

Cleaner Production Strategies

Industrial Ecology Principles

Life Cycle Management Goals

Technology and Systems Projects


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Environmental Management, it was not readily apparent how to proceed with their

implementation. All strategic planning literature for manufacturing agrees tactics flow

from strategy, and the links can usually be established by considering structural and

infrastructural decisions leading to the deployment of state-of-the-art hard and soft

technologies as they exist at that time. Traditionally, this type of capability building

identifies and evaluates skills, knowledge and tasks in the firm in order to develop

competitive advantage for the time horizon of the strategic plan [84]. Because the goals

are linked to competitiveness based on the well defined issues of cost, delivery, quality

and flexibility the main challenge is to configure the right product and process

technologies to achieve distinctive competence and competitive advantage in support of

the top level strategies.

This approach is not feasible when trying to build organisational capabilities for

industrial environmental management. As evident from this work, this field is still in its

infancy, there is not a wide range of management practice and standardised bodies of

knowledge which can readily be brought into the process. The Study Tour led to the

conclusion that IE and LCM represented the opportunity to develop structural and

infrastructural policies, procedures and decisions to support Sustainability strategies in a

similar manner to the traditional approaches (refer to Figure 6.2). This approach too is

time bounded, in so far as it represent the state-of-the-art at the time of this Thesis, and

no doubt sophistication will rapidly evolve as experience with IE and LCM accumulates.

The difficulty in developing the links between planning and execution is not only due to

the newness of this field but to the need to evolve considerably faster than previously.

To date, in developing competitive strategies the emphasis was on being ahead of others.

Sustainability goals on the other hand are transcendent with a sense of urgency, as

outlined in Chapter 1. There are no readily available benchmarks as yet and as this work

illustrates that, notwithstanding the quantity of material written, there is considerable

effort required to source directly relevant authoritative management, science and

engineering support for the process.

In this Chapter a new process is developed to overcome this difficulty, (refer to Figure

6.4), but it should be noted there is a subsequent difficulty to address as well. This


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involves the other end of the linkages, that is, how to implement the outcomes in an

effective and professional manner, Chapter 7 provides this process and the tools.

6.4.2 Description of the Process E

volu

tiona

ry S

tage

s

Cleaner Production Stages

Material Choices

(M)

Energy, Utility

Choices (E)

Waste, Residue Impacts

(W)

Figure 6.3 – Cleaner Production Issues for Environmental Decisions

Figure 6.3 is used in the second matrix in Figure 6.4 and it is an attempt to simplify the

process. After reviewing the relevant literature it appears possible to categorise all

industrial environmental decisions under the three headings of:

1. Material Choices

2. Energy and Utility Choices

3. Waste, Residue Impacts – Liquids, Solids and Gases

The initials M, E and W are abbreviations used in the Tool-kit database described in

Chapter 7.


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Company XYZ 3 year Strategy - Reduction of Hazardous Chemicals

5. Environmental Marketing

4. Environmental Distribution

3. Environmental Manufacturing

2.Environmental Purchasing

1. Design for Environment

Residue Impacts

Energy/Utility Choices

Material ChoicesTechnology

Issues

Figure 6.4 – Multi Year Influence of a Cleaner Production Strategy by Life Cycle Stage, Evolution, Commercial Function and Environmental Impact

Figure 6.4, using a contrived environmental management issue, illustrates the linking

process. The aim is to take a CP strategy stated in specific Industrial Ecology language as

Company XYZ 3 year StrategyConversion, Cleaner Materials, Reduction of Hazardous Chemicals

EvolutionaryStages

Life Cycle StagesResourceExtraction

Pre-Manufacture

ProcessSelection

Conversion SupportProcesses

ProductDelivery

ProductUse

Disposal,Recycling,Reuse

Disposal

Cost Reductions/Legal Issues

Planning for Waste ReductionWaste IdentifiedWasteReductions

MajorImprovements

TechnologyChangesZeroWaste

Restoration

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3


90

a first step towards a path or paths to technology deployment and their ranking as

prioritised projects. A description of this process follows:

Step 1:

It is envisaged that a matrix approach used as an example in Figure 6.4 be used for each

Cleaner Production strategy which appears as a heading.

Step 2:

The x-axis across the top of the first matrix is split into 8 columns, each column

representing a life cycle stage as described in Section 3.3.4; the columns will be used to

identify the impact of a strategy on different life cycle stages.

Step 3:

The y-axis of the first matrix is divided into 9 rows, each row representing an

evolutionary stage as described in Figure 5.3 and Table 2.7; the columns will be used to

identify the impact of a strategy with respect to the evolution of the firm towards

Sustainability.

Step 4:

Using different colours the projected time span for implementation is graphed by year,

for each life cycle and evolutionary stage. The large arrow is a similar representation of

time and is used to illustrate the multi year impact on evolution.

Step5:

The x-axis across the top of the second matrix is split into 3 columns, each column

representing the nature of the environmental impact of the strategy as illustrated in Figure

6.4. The headings at the top of the 3 columns are generically summarised headings of the

various terms used in the literature for describing environmental impacts. The third

column headed residues are synonymous with waste and includes solid, liquid and

gaseous wastes.


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Step 6:

The y-axis of the second matrix is divided into 5 rows, each row representing a functional

area under the LCM model as shown in Figure 6.1.

Step 7:

As in the case of the first matrix, using different colours facilitates visualisation of the

environmental impact by function, over time.

Implementation Notes:

The design of the first matrix incorporates Sustainable Development, Cleaner Production

and Industrial Ecology principles.

The design of the second, and subsequent matrix, is founded on Life Cycle Management

principles.

The two matrices in combination form the backbone of the linking process and enable the

incorporation of firm level IE and LCM bodies of knowledge to be utilised in translating

strategies into execution.

Clearly, even an apparently simple process like this requires significant capability to be

useful. Population of the matrices requires knowledge of the disciplines mentioned, not

only in a conceptual context but as practicable management and engineering competence.

Contents of matrices will vary with each strategy and application area or industrial

environment. While the development of strategies is clearly a senior executive

responsibility, this linking process would require expertise from operation management,

environmental management, engineers and consultants.

The completed matrices provide focus and priorities for the firm. By virtue of the know-

how required for their completion, and with the focus established regarding:


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•• strategic priorities - Sustainability, Eco-efficiency and Cleaner Production

•• evolutionary position and development

•• life cycle stages involved

•• time horizon

•• functional impacts within the firm

•• environmental impacts with respect to materials, energy, utilities and

wastes/residues

•• areas of Industrial Ecology technologies applicable

The matrices provide the starting point for execution and should enable the selection of

effective solutions as described in the next Chapter.


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CHAPTER 7

TECHNOLOGIES AND SYSTEMS (Stage 5)

7.1 The need for a Tool-kit

While assessing Cleaner Production initiatives to date, it became apparent there are a very

large number of CP projects of differing complexities, using a myriad [85] [86] of

technologies and applied in a wide range of manufacturing environments.

Not only are these solutions not linked to strategies and other functional areas, there is no

evidence to suggest that alternatives to the technologies used were evaluated for optimum

outcomes before projects were staged. To achieve the objectives of this Thesis, it is a

requirement that the technologies used to achieve the strategies are the most relevant and

effective of those available, rather than those readily simply available or ones with which a

given practitioner is familiar.

Similarly, there does not appear to be a database or any other repository of CP

technologies. For specific technology areas such as DfE there is the occasional text book

[87], but these are the exceptions, and again the technology is an island as regards the other

issues mentioned. It therefore became apparent that the Thesis also needs to provide an

implementation path with respect to technology selection.

After considerable examination the conclusion was reached that a database of solutions

based on an easily referenced classification system is needed hereafter referred to as the

Environmental Systems and Technologies Tool-kit. While the population of the data base

with all known technologies, if at all feasible, is beyond this work it was decided to

develop the model as a starting point.

7.2 Objectives of the Tool-kit

The objectives of the Environmental Systems and Technologies Tool-kit are to


94

•• provide manufacturing managers and engineers with a capability to select

appropriate systems and technologies for achieving Cleaner Production

objectives and

•• enable the initiation of system and technology projects required to implement

Cleaner Production strategies.

Consistent with these objectives, the Tool-kit aims to assist managers and engineers to

integrate environmental constraints into their organisation by offering systems and

technologies best suited to meet environmental objectives. It is not designed to provide an

automatic selection of the optimum tool but to present an array of choices for selection.

For the purposes of this work, the proposed Tool-kit refers to two of the five functional

areas comprising the Life Cycle Management functional divisions as nominated in the

previous Chapter as these two are primary or mainstream manufacturing disciplines. They

are Design for Environment and Environmental Manufacturing (hence excluding

Purchasing, Logistics and Marketing), disciplines that affect all product life cycle stages

and are hence interrelated. Therefore, the Tool-kit considers systems and technologies for

both functional units and for the entire product life cycle.

As it is beyond the scope of this project to list all available systems and technologies as

part of this work, the intent is to develop a suitable classification system (Tool-kit) for the

selection and application of systems and technologies. The configuration is designed to

allow the addition of other functional units and systems and technologies, as appropriate.

For the purposes of the Tool-kit, the term “systems and technologies” should be

understood here in a broad sense, encompassing techniques, methods, equipment and

software.


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7.3 Designing the Tool-kit

7.3.1 Optimisation of Design Considerations

Sections 7.3.1.1 – 7.3.1.6 outline the design considerations for the main lifecycle stages

used in the main matrix in Figure 6.4, excluding Process Selection and Support Processes.

7.3.1.1 Resource Extraction

Approaches for the resource extraction phase focus on selecting the most environmentally

appropriate materials and substances, and on optimising material use for products and their

manufacture.

Selecting environmentally benign materials depends largely on the life cycle of the

product. For example, using bronze is justified for a sculpture which is admired for many

centuries, but not for a disposal product. Further examples for materials which should be

avoided because of causing hazardous emissions during their production, use or disposal

are colorants, heat or UV stabilisers, fire retardants, softening agents and fillers.

Environmentally benign materials are, for example, renewable materials which derive from

a living tree, plant, animal or ecosystem which has the ability to regenerate itself. Other

material should be avoided if they are not replenished naturally, or take a long time to do

so, implying that the source can become exhausted in time.

The embodied energy of a material refers to its energy demand for extraction, production,

and refinement before its use in product manufacture. Some materials have higher energy

content than others and therefore, they should only be used if they lead to other positive

environmental features. For example, the use of aluminium could be justified in products

which are often transported and for which recycling systems exists, as aluminium is light-

weight and most suitable for recycling.

In contrast to extraction and processing of a needed raw material, an efficient recycling

operation for this material may be an adequate alternative at much lower expenditures of

cost and environmental impact.


96

Recycled materials are materials gained from products that have been used before. Sources

for recycling are industrial off-specification material generated from an industrial process

and not used, and post-consumer material recovered after industrial or domestic use.

Recyclable materials are those that can be easily reprocessed and utilised. Recyclable

materials should be used where possible. Materials should be selected which result in high-

quality recycled materials. Use of recyclable materials could produce significant cost-

savings as they reduce the amount of waste sent to landfill.

Optimising or reducing material usage, means using the least possible amount of material

by developing lean but strong product design. By optimising the volume and weight of

materials less energy is used during resource extraction, production, distribution and

storage. Reducing the weight means using less material and thus reducing resource

extraction which lowers the amount of energy, waste and environmental impact during

transportation. A reduction in volume leads to reduction in size of packaging and to

transportation of more products in a given transportation facility.

7.3.1.2 Pre-Manufacture (Product Design of Physical Qualities)

This product design phase is the most important stage as 80-90% of a product is

determined during this stage. Thus the potential to reduce the environmental impact is

highest in this stage.

Concepts applied in the product design and development phase should focus on basic

assumptions regarding the functions of a product, determining the end-users’ needs, and

how the specific product will meet end-users’ needs. The main emphasis of technologies

applied in this stage is on physical qualities to optimise product functions, improve product

reliability, durability and maintenance, modular product structure, and improve recovery,

reuse and recycling potential through design modifications and material substitution.

When analysing a product’s primary and secondary functions, designers may discover that

some components are superfluous. Integrating product functions or products into one

product may save material and energy by taking advantage of common components, by

using the same energy supplier, for example, combining a printer, fax, scanner and

photocopier whereas common components such as the printing mechanism, power supply


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and scanning assembly perform several different functions. In this way superfluous

components could be eliminated.

Increasing the reliability and the durability of products is a common task to product

developers. Methods such as Failure Mode and Effect Analysis enable designers and

engineers to develop sound products and to eliminate weak links. Reliability is defined as

“The probability that a product will perform its intended function in a given environment

and for a specified period of time, without failure” [89].

Maintainability is defined as “The measure of the ability of an item to be retained in or

restored to a specified condition when maintenance is performed by personnel having

specified skill levels, using prescribed procedures and resources, at each prescribed level

of maintenance and repair” [90]. The aim is to reduce possible damage to the product and/

or equipment during maintenance and service or to eliminate the need for maintenance and

thereby extend the life of the product.

Designing for upgradeability is becoming an important selling point for equipment where

technology is improving at a rapid rate. Computers are good examples where the choice of

a modular structure or adaptable product makes it possible to revitalise a product from a

technical or aesthetic point of view. This enables the product to keep pace with the

changing needs of the end-user. A modular structure allows the integration of a new

technology into an older product. A modular product may be upgraded several times over

its life span by replacing old modules with new ones. Use of a modular structure reduces

waste as new products need to be purchased less frequently.

The approaches summarised under the term optimisation of physical qualities focus on

enhancing a product’s

•• function,

•• technical life span, i.e., the time during which a product functions to specifications,

and

•• aesthetic life span, i.e., the time during which a user finds the product attractive


98

Designers who balance and optimise the technical and aesthetic life-span requirements of a

product can reduce the energy and materials dedicated to these requirements. In some

cases, this means designing for a short life span, in others, for a long life span.

7.3.1.3 Production Processes

Optimising production processes lowers environmental impacts by minimising the use of

auxiliary materials and energy. Furthermore, optimising production should lead to reduced

raw material loss and low waste generation.

This approach represents the aims of Cleaner Production through process modifications

and improvements. It is an effective means to reduce pollution and can provide many

benefits by improving efficiency and reducing costly production downtime, and by

increasing regulatory compliance.

Process modifications and improvements can be realised by using alternative

manufacturing technologies which can help generate benefits of process optimisation,

quality control, energy conservation and preventive management. Reducing production

steps, using the lowest possible number of production techniques, and optimising the usage

of manufacturing consumables (using fewer and or cleaner consumables) results in further

improvements.

Optimising production processes to reduce the “non-product output” of waste and

emissions per production unit increases the efficiency of material use and decreases the

amount of material sent to a landfill. To achieve this objective, designers and engineers

should select shapes that eliminate processes such as sawing, turning, milling, pressing and

punching in order to reduce waste and look for opportunities to recycle manufacturing

residues in-house.

Optimising production processes also means optimising energy consumption by using

cleaner energy sources such as natural gas, wind, hydro or solar energy. Furthermore,

optimising energy consumption attempts to increase the efficiency with which energy is

used and to reduce the amount consumed at all stages of production [97].


99

Together with reducing waste during production and establishing in-house recycling

programs, the re-design of parts/components is an additional, effective means of reducing

the use of auxiliary materials required for manufacturing processes.

7.3.1.4 Product Delivery

This consideration is needed to ensure that materials, components, and products are

transported from suppliers to the factory to the customer in the most efficient manner.

Optimising distribution systems involves consideration of packaging materials, modes of

transport, modes of storage and handling and logistics.

Reducing the quantity and weight of packaging, or by introducing take-back systems it is

feasible to lower resource use, energy use for transportation and produce less waste and

thereby cut costs as well. Packaging development should be considered separately from

product development as packages have their own life cycle with associated environmental

impacts. Thus, packaging engineers should also apply the concepts mentioned in this

chapter (e.g. optimise physical qualities, material usage, production, end of life).

7.3.1.5 Product Use

Many products consume considerable energy, water, and/or other consumables during their

life span and in maintenance and repair. Environmental analysis of durable products such

as washing machines show that the largest environmental impacts can come during the

use-phase of a product’s life cycle [94]. Therefore, designers and engineers should pay

greatest attention to the use phase for products such as domestic appliances, office

machinery and vehicles, as these products cause the most environmental damage during

this phase.

Design engineers should focus on applications that lead to lower, or more efficient, use of

consumables such as water, oil, filters and detergents. The reduction of consumables

should be applied along with the physical optimisation. Similar to packaging, consumables

and auxiliary products or materials should be regarded with their own life cycle. Thus, the

application of the strategies presented in this chapter can be applied for each consumable

or auxiliary product as well.


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Furthermore, the aim of the use optimisation is to lower the energy consumption and to use

more environmentally responsible energy sources. The use of cleaner energy sources can

reduce harmful emissions at the energy-generation stage, (especially for energy-intensive

products). In developing products, design engineers should consider to use the least

harmful energy sources and encourage the use of cleaner energy such as natural gas and

low-sulphur, coal, wind energy, hydro-electric power and solar energy. If the least harmful

energy source is not available, design engineers should try to find high-efficiency

alternatives.

7.3.1.6 Disposal, Recycling, Reuse (End of Life Systems)

The aim of optimising the end of life systems is to re-use valuable product parts and

components and ensure proper waste management. This concept involves reuse, design for

disassembly, product remanufacturing, material recycling and recovery and waste

treatment.

The optimum is to close the loop of manufacturing processes. Internal recycling involves

recycling of waste products, auxiliary materials, and other emissions within existing

manufacturing processes. The recycled waste could be used for different useful

applications or reintroduced in the same or a different manufacturing process [92]. If

internal recycling is not worthwhile, for example, because of a too small quantity of a

specific waste, external recycling could be an alternative.

Another way of closing the material flow loop leads to remanufacturing which provides a

means for recycling materials. Recycling may only be slightly more environmentally and

economically efficient than the disposal of waste. Reusing manufactured components

should be a more beneficial pathway, provided that those components, which would be

refurbished and/or partially rebuilt, can be reused in the manufacture of another product

[95, 96].

If a product or component is not reused, it should finally go through processes of material

recovery, energy recovery, and waste treatment.


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Waste treatment technologies concentrate on reducing the volume of waste materials or

convert waste into less mobile forms. In contrast, material recovery seeks to convert the

waste stemming from a product into a raw material that can be used as feedstock (material

recovery). In some cases, the recovered product may provide an energy source for power-

generation. Examples for material and energy recovery are thermal processes which can be

used for recovering minerals from waste streams and for recovering energy in the form of

steam or electricity [97].

Note that material recovery is only effective if it directly or indirectly reduces natural

resource consumption. In other words, the recovery process consumes less energy and

generates less waste than the extraction of the needed raw material [98].

The last step in the hierarchy of possible actions is the dumping of waste products on land,

making use of storage facilities, limiting leakage and the control of emission to

surrounding areas [92].


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7.3.2 Optimisation of Manufacturing Goals

As described in Chapter 3, this Thesis employs the Cleaner Production definition invented

by the UNEP as a framework. This definition refers to Cleaner Production as a conceptual

and procedural approach which considers the whole product or process life cycle and

attempts to prevent and minimise the short and long-term risk to humans and to the

environment.

The Cleaner Production Concept aims to consider all environmental problems relating to a

product system at the same time and in relation to each other. The effects of materials and

energy together with solid, liquid and gaseous wastes or residues are all considered

simultaneously. Thus for manufacturing processes, Cleaner Production means conserving

raw material and energy, eliminating toxic raw and auxiliary materials and reducing the

quantity and toxicity of emissions and wastes.

For products, it means reducing the environmental impacts of the product throughout its

life cycle, from raw material extraction, through to production and to ultimate disposal.

Through the application of a preventive environmental strategy to production processes

and products, Cleaner Production not only leads to a cleaner environment but also to

economic savings for industry [85]. At the simplest level, manufacturing companies need

to consider three sets of concerns to achieve the objectives of Cleaner Production (refer to

Figures. 6.3 and 7.1). These three goal areas may be stated as improving the input and

output elements of manufacturing processes in order to:

•• increase efficiency in material usage,

•• increase efficiency in energy and utilities usage, and

•• achieve reductions in waste generation

The first could be achieved by reducing the material usage and by substituting materials,

while in the case of the second, non-renewable energy should be replaced by renewable

energy sources and energy usage should be reduced. The third aims to reduce the waste

generation resulting from products and manufacturing processes.

These three main goals, however, should not be seen independently. Rather, they are inter-

related and influence each other in different ways. In some cases the accomplishment of

one goal helps to progress towards another and in some instances the opposite may occur.


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Material

Usage (M)

Waste (Residuals) Generation

(W)

For example, the reduction in material usage by designing thinner components could result

in a reduction in energy usage, whereas the recycling of a specific material may reduce the

raw material extraction but increase the energy usage.

Many design and manufacturing systems and technologies exist which offer a pathway for

manufacturers to produce environmentally friendly products. By using these systems and

technologies to achieve one goal, manufacturers should make progress towards the other

two goals as well or at least aim not to take retrograde steps in terms of the other goals.

Figure 7.1 - Goals of Environmental Design and Manufacturing

Cleaner Production requires the consideration of the entire life cycle of a product and/or of

a process. Thus the three environmental goals above should be taken into account in every

stage of the relevant product life cycle.

Energy Usage

(E)

Reductions

in


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7.3.3 Categories of Cleaner Production Technologies

Cleaner Production techniques are consistent with LCM for Environmental Design and

Manufacturing, and together with Assessment Tools (refer Figure 7.3), they form Tool

Categories for the Tool-kit; a general set of techniques and approaches with which

particular technologies are associated are described in Figure 7.2: [97].

Figure 7.2 - Cleaner Production Techniques and Approaches

•• Reduction at Source: Material Substitution - substitution is an approach to replace

or eliminate hazardous and toxic materials. Furthermore substitution can result in

the use of recyclable materials in place of non-recyclables.

•• Reduction at Source: Design change - when new products are introduced, often

with a wholly new manufacturing process – or when current products are

redesigned, many opportunities exist for cleaner production techniques to be

applied.

Cleaner Production techniques for product design include incremental changes in

materials to replace packaging or components that produce waste problems,

maximisation of the scope for recycling and reuse of products and packaging; and

improvements in the energy use efficiency of the product (Refer to Section 7.3.1).


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•• Reduction at Source: Process Change - Another procedural approach to implement

Cleaner Production is the change of manufacturing processes by good

housekeeping or by changing the process technology.

At the simplest level, Cleaner Production can involve housekeeping changes such

as careful maintenance to avoid waste through leaks or unnecessary repetition of

process activities (such as cleaning of components), improved usage of water,

solvents, degreasers, oil/lubricants, abrasives, solders and cutting tools [99].

This approach also involves changing existing process technologies, for instance

replacing process techniques to reduce later waste and risk. A radical redesign of

manufacturing processes may be considered in exceptional circumstances for

existing products, but major changes are more likely when a new plant is built to

make new products [91].

Process changes include process, equipment, piping, and/or layout changes and

changes in operational settings which reduce environmental impact. Such

improvements may involve the introduction of automation and may require a large

capital outlay [92, 93].

•• Closed Loop: On-site recycling - Finally, by closing the loop, manufacturing

processes approach to the overall objective of zero emissions. Closed loop systems

include recycling, material recovery and remanufacturing technologies.


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7.4 From Operational Strategies to Systems and Technologies

Once Operational or Cleaner Production Strategies are developed as described in Chapter

6, design and manufacturing managers and engineers face the problem of how to

implement them in an optimum manner. Optimisation requires not only the considerations

described in 7.3.1.1 - 7.3.1.6 but the realisation that strategies may overlap and influence

one another and thus may not be able to be approached independently. Similarly, managers

and engineers should have regard for the effect of their technology and systems selection

on the entire product life cycle.

7.4.1 Categories of Tools

To date a large range of systems and technologies have been used to address environmental

problems and this trend can be expected to continue. A set of Cleaner Production

categories and a classification of techniques is used in the design of the Tool-kit (refer

section 7.3.3 and Figure 7.3) in the form of a general set of techniques and approaches with

which particular technologies are associated [90,91,92,93]. The Cleaner Production

categories are linked with operational strategies through LCM functions, as described in

section 6.3 and Figure 6.4, enabling managers and engineers to select systems and

technologies according to specific operational conditions.

This description of the Tool-kit categories follows. The LCM functions of Environmental

Design and Environmental Manufacturing may be related to Cleaner Production categories

as shown in Figure 7.3.


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Resource ExtractionResource Extraction

Pre-ManufacturePre-Manufacture

ProductionProcessesProductionProcesses

Product DeliveryProduct Delivery

Product UseProduct Use

End of LifeSystems

End of LifeSystems

LCM – EnvironmentalDesign and Manufacturing

Goals(section 7.3.1-2)

LCM – EnvironmentalDesign and Manufacturing

Goals(section 7.3.1-2)

Material SubstitutionMaterial Substitution

Design ChangeDesign Change

Technology ChangeTechnology Change

Closed Loop SystemClosed Loop System

Cleaner Production Categories

– Technology Options(section 7.3.3)

Cleaner Production Categories

– Technology Options(section 7.3.3)

Assessment ToolsAssessment Tools

Figure 7.3 – Design and Manufacturing Goals and Cleaner Production Categories

Depending on the industry sector and the technologies of a manufacturing enterprise, CP

categories could be extended or limited. In the following pages, the Tool-kit refers to the

five Cleaner Production categories listed in Figure 7.3

To determine the optimum solution for Cleaner Production, every product life cycle stage

should be assessed considering each goal. For this reason the Assessment Tools category is

added to the categories presented in section 7.3.3. A description of the proposed Cleaner

Production categories follows:


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1. Assessment technologies within the Assessment Tools category enable managers

and engineers to investigate a specific environmental problem resulting from a

product, a process or a service perspective. The environmental problem could refer

to insufficient compliance with regulations, stricter social requirements or to a

strategic specification of the environmental goals set up by the company. The

purpose of the assessment is to determine their environmental impact (e.g. in

comparison to a reference product) and to identify potential improvements.

Furthermore, the Assessment Tools can assist the selection between several

alternatives. This category includes software tools, checklists and assessment

methodologies.

By using appropriate feedback managers and engineers could focus on product life

cycle stages with the highest environmental impact and limit assessment tools and

methods to these identified stages.

2. Material Substitution aims to avoid hazardous and non-recyclable materials. This

category consists of technologies such as material databases, material lists, and

negative lists (list of materials which should not be used) enabling managers and

engineers to eliminate hazardous and toxic materials and non-recyclable materials.

The purpose of improving the efficiency of resource use is to reduce the material

and energy demand and waste generation. This purpose can be achieved by

categories three and four, respectively, changing the product design and/ or by

changing manufacturing processes.

3. Design Change offers technologies which tend to improve product characteristics

in terms of environmental impacts such as recycling potential, choice of

manufacturing processes, distribution and usage. This category includes checklists

for design considerations, software tools for product development and design

technologies for testing the manufacture and usage of products.

4. Process Change consists of technologies concerning processes, equipment and/or

layout changes and changes in operational settings. The purpose of these

technologies is to reduce the environmental impact stemming from manufacturing.

These include resource extraction, manufacturing processes, distribution systems,


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usage (including maintenance and service), and end of life systems (including

waste treatment, incineration and disposal techniques).

Most of the technologies in the fourth category also aim to close material cycles.

5. Closed Loop System is added which follows the overall objective of Cleaner

Production: zero emission. This category consists of recycling, remanufacturing

and recovering technologies.

Beyond these consideration are external recycling, waste treatment and disposal, they

are not considered here as technologies as they are of End of Pipe treatments, however,

they could be included in the categories Process Change and/or Closed loop System.

As the operational strategies may aim to fulfil one or more environmental goals, managers

and engineers need to select systems and technologies accordingly. Therefore, systems and

technologies within each category will further be coded with an M, for reducing,

substituting or eliminating materials, an E for reducing, substituting or eliminating energy

or utilities use and a W, for reducing or eliminating waste generation (Refer to figure 7.1).

This indication signals if a specific system or technology impacts one, two or all three

environmental goals.


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Figure 7.4 - Relationship between Technologies and Accomplishment of Goals

7.4.2 The Classification Matrix

The combination of product life cycle stages and Cleaner Production Categories leads to

the classification matrix (see fig. 7.5). The matrix consists of 30 cells to which systems and

technologies can be allocated. The number of technology cells can vary as companies can

adjust both the product life cycle and the Cleaner Production categories relating to their

individual purposes.

For each industry sector such as metal, plastic, chemistry, pulp and paper, food,

pharmaceutical, and electronic industries, a classification matrix could be set up containing

appropriate technologies.


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Figure 7.5 - Classification Matrix for Design and Manufacturing Technologies.

The classification matrix consists of technology cells indicated with two coordinates where

the first number stands for the category and the second number for the product life cycle

stage. Some technologies can be applied in every life cycle stage and managers and

engineers might be interested in technologies for the whole life cycle. As such, the

classification matrix further includes the cells 1.0 to 5.0 in which such technologies will be

allocated relating to one of the five categories (the zero refers to all life cycle stages in this

case). In addition, technologies can be allocated to several life cycle stages or to several

categories such as software tools with functions for materials selection and product design

considerations.

The classification matrix enables managers and engineers to limit their search for

appropriate technologies by choosing the Cleaner Production category and by selecting

product life cycle stages which should be improved.


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7.4.3 Linking Technology Cells to Technologies

Each technology cell of the classification matrix leads to a technology list. Depending on

the industry sector and the company’s unique needs, these lists can further be categorised

so that each cell provides the user with a comprehensive overview of technologies:

Figure 7.6 - Link between the Classification Matrix and Technology Lists.

Technology lists contain information about the industry sector, the category and the

product life cycle stage. The main part of the lists is divided in n sub-categories to which

technologies are assigned. The sub-categories can be indicated with a third number.

This identification of technologies gives managers and engineers the ability to pre-select

appropriate technologies. By choosing one of the documented technologies, managers and

engineers get to a technology page which includes detailed information and further

sources. The heading of technology pages includes additional information about the sub-

category and the name of the technology.


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The classification matrix for Cleaner Production technologies presents a general

framework for the Tool-kit which can serve as a basis for specific applications. Once, the

design and manufacturing goals and the Cleaner Production categories are nominated

retrieval of the appropriate technologies from the Tool-kit is automatic.

7.4.4 Implementing and Maintaining the Tool-kit

The detailed development of the Cleaner Production Tool-kit for environmental systems

and technologies is not part of this Thesis but some possible options are examined.

Using computer technology, one approach could be to design a web-site where users can

access technology lists by clicking on the appropriate technology cells. As a next step,

users could obtain more information about individual technologies by clicking on them.

The framework of the classification matrix would be converted by using a tree structure

where the first level refers to the product life cycle and the second lever refers to the

categories. Furthermore, each category should be divided according to the sub-categories

in which the technology information sheets would be uploaded.

A more convenient solution would be to design a database to avoid redundant information

storage. Designing a database should be considered carefully, as this solution is more cost

intensive and requires more time. A database should be designed if the technologies exceed

a number where the administrative overhead is otherwise excessive.

Once the Tool-kit is developed, it is the task of the developer to ensure that it is maintained

and populated with technologies. To maintain valid classifications, specialist skills for the

selection of appropriate content and for the technical support need to be maintained to

ensure up-to-date information about environmental technology options.

Some ideas for how to identify, analyse, select and provide information about technologies

include:

1. Research and Information Gathering

Monitoring technical developments to identify emerging and new technologies is the

first and most important task in maintaining the Tool-kit. Information about emerging

environmental technologies could be gathered from scientific journals, web sites,


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expert forums or networks and national and international departments for

environmental issues such as the US EPA, UNEP, OECD and the Frauhofer Institute.

2. Analysing Technologies

Selected systems and technologies for Cleaner Production need to be analysed in terms

of the criteria needed for classifying and describing them. These criteria include

•• the industry sectors in which the system or technology could be applied,

•• the Cleaner Production category and the appropriate sub-category,

•• the product life cycle stages in which the system or technology could be

applied,

•• the purpose of the system or technology,

•• the contribution to accomplish the three environmental goals,

•• the development status of the system or technology which could be

embryonic, emerging or mature,

•• a concise description of the system or technology,

•• sources for further information, and

•• experience with previous applications if possible.

3. Summarising the Results of Step 2

Having finished step 2, the results of the analysis should be structured and summarised

in an information sheet for technologies:


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Figure 7.7 - Information Sheet for Technologies.

4. Sharing and Using Information about Technologies

Once the contents are revised and accepted for the information sheet for technologies,

information is made available for managers and engineers by, for example, uploading it

to the web-site. It is now possible to search for and select technologies according to the

criteria described previously.

5. Collecting Experience about Applied Technologies

After applying selected technologies, managers and engineers should summarise their

experience and the achieved results and share this information by adding it to the

information sheet (experience of previous application, see Figure 7.7).

Some examples for subdividing the Cleaner Production categories follow in section 7.5

and a selection of environmental systems and technologies for several sub-categories is

presented to illustrate the classification of environmental systems and technologies.


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7.5 Classifying Environmental Technologies

7.5.1 Technologies within the Assessment Tools Category

Most technologies in this category evaluate the whole life cycle of a product or a process.

Nevertheless, they can be applied for individual stages. Assessment technologies could be

classified in the sub-categories technical, economical and integration of technical and

economical aspects, whereas this Thesis focuses on the technical aspect.

Van Berkel et al. propose to classify assessment technologies in inventory, improvement,

prioritisation and management tools whereas each category could be further subdivided in

product and process oriented tools [16, 17].

Tischner et al. propose a similar categorisation in tools for environmental analysis,

creativity techniques, setting priorities/decision making and cost accounting [18]. These

categories could yield a more detailed allocation of technologies, but it seems to

complicate a clear classification as most technologies for analysing a problem can also be

applied to generate improvement ideas and to assist in selecting between several

alternatives.

Moreover most assessment tools and methods are designed in such a manner that they can

be used for the evaluation of products and processes. However, the categorisation may

differ from case to case. This Thesis refers to the sub-categories technical, economical and

integration of technical and economical aspects as these sub-categories apply for every

product life cycle stage.

Table 7.1 shows a technology list for the assessment category, cell 1.0. As mentioned

earlier, this category includes technologies which consider every product life cycle stage.

Additionally, there are assessment tools which focus on specific life cycle stages such as

SWAMI and PEMS (see appendix A). SWAMI focuses on the life cycle stage production

and is a software tool using process analysis for identifying waste minimisation and

pollution prevention opportunities within industrial settings. PEMS is a Life Cycle

Assessment software that focuses on the distribution phase. The inventory includes

materials, energy, transportation and waste management information.


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1.0 Industry Sector: All

Category: assessment technology Product Life Cycle: all

1.0.1 Sub-category: technical aspect

ABC analysis W

CED (Cumulative Energy Demand) Analysis E

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) M E W

Material and Energy Balance M E W

Material Flow Accounting/Analysis (MFA) M W

MET (Material, Energy, Toxic) Matrix M E W

1.0.2 Sub-category: economical aspect

Total cost accounting

Life cycle costing

1.0.3 Sub-category: integration of technical and economical aspects

Ecodesign Matrix M E W

EcoDesign Portfolio M E W

Environmental Quality Function Deployment M E W

Table 7.1- Technology List for Assessment Tools and Methods.


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The technologies listed in Table 7.1 are explained in Appendix A. Further assessment

technologies can be found in Brezet and van Hemel, van Berkel et al., Tischner et al. and

Simon et al. [100 - 104]. As an example, this is the information sheet for the MET matrix:

1.0.1 MET (Material, Energy, Toxicity) Matrix

Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: all

Category: assessment technology Sub-Category: technical aspect

Purpose of the technology: A MET matrix is based on an input/output analysis of

materials, energy, and toxicity. It is used as a tool to take stock of the most important

environmental aspects of a product with minimum efforts.

Accomplishment of goals: all

Development status: mature

Description: The matrix combines an input-output model with the product life cycle. For

each product life cycle stage information related to the items materials, energy, and

toxicity are collected and presented in a simple matrix. If quantitative data is missing, the

results can be based on an interpretation of qualitative statements. The matrix can also be

used for weak-point analysis and identification of potential environmental improvements.

The three categories of environmental concerns are distinguished as follows:

1. Materials cycle: environmental concerns regarding nature and amount of resource

consumption and waste generation.

2. Energy use: energy used in each phase of the life cycle of the product.

3. Toxic emissions: toxic emissions to water, air, and soil.

The MET matrix can provide Managers and Engineers with as much data and information

as possible about a product’s environmental aspects in a systematic and clearly arranged

way.

Sources for further information: Brezet, H.; van Hemel, 1997 [19].

Experience of previous application:

Table 7.2 - Information Sheet for the MET Matrix.


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7.5.2 Technologies within the Material Substitution Category

The Material Substitution category consists of technologies enabling managers and

engineers to select environmentally benign materials for the manufacture of products.

These technologies include databases, software tools, checklists and handbooks.

Sub-categorisation depends on the life cycle phase. As an example, a suggestion for the

phases resource extraction and production is given below. The resource extraction phase

could be sub-divided in the main raw material groups depending on the industry. For

example, for the metal industry the sub-categories are ferrous and non-ferrous metals and

for the plastic industry thermoplastics, thermosets and elastomers [105].

Additionally, a sub-category “general” is proposed as most of the databases and software

tools consider all material groups. IdeMat is a powerful software tool for material

selections in the design process which meets all these criteria and thus it can be allocated to

the sub-category, general (see Appendix B). Another example for this sub-category is

materials checklists that provide information for designers, which materials should not be

used to comply with regulations and/ or company policy (see Appendix B).

Furthermore, most of the software tools for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), such as

SimaPro, include databases for material selection so that they can also be applied for

Material Substitution (compare references mentioned in Appendix A, LCA).

As another example, a sub-categorisation for the production phase is given. During the

manufacture of products auxiliary materials such as lubricants, solvents and coatings are

used. Therefore cell 2.2, Material Substitution during production, can be subdivided

relating to the auxiliary material groups. Table 7.3 gives a model technology list.


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Category: material substitution Product Life Cycle: production

2.2.1 Coatings

CAGE M W

2.2.2 Solvents

PARIS II M E W

SAGE M W

2.2.3 Lubricants

Table 7.3 - Technology List 2.2 for Material Substitution during Production

The technology information sheets to the technologies listed in table 7.3 are presented in

appendix B.

7.5.3 Technologies within the Design Change Category

The Design Change category includes among others design checklists and software tools.

In general, design checklists consider every life cycle stage. An example for a design

checklist is given by the Minnesota Office of Environmental Assistance [106]. The

checklist is associated with the product design matrix developed by Graedel and Allenby

[107] and enables a product design team to determine the environmental impact of a

product.

Software design tools can be classified in the sense of DFX for each life cycle stage. For

example, the production phase can be divided into the sub-categories Design for Assembly

(DFA) and Design for Manufacturing. Table 7.4 shows an example for the technology list

according to the cell 3.2.


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Category: design change Product Life Cycle: production

3.2.1 Design for Assembly (DFA)

BDI – DFA Software M E W

LASeR M E W

PRICE Systems M E W

3.2.2 Design for Manufacturing (DFM)

BDI – DFM Software M E W

PRICE Systems M W

Table 7.4 - Technology List 3.2 for Design Change during Production

The technologies listed in Table 7.4 are described in Appendix C which also includes

examples for software tools for the use phase such as BDI – DFS software and LASeR,

which could be divided into the sub-categories Design for Serviceability (DFS) and Design

for Maintenance (DFM), and the end of life phase such as BDI – DFE software and

euroMat, which could be subdivided into Design for Recycleability and Design for

Disassembly or End of Life (DFD).

7.5.4 Technologies within the Process Change Category

This category consists of technologies such as process techniques, including equipment

and changes in operational settings which reduce the environmental impact during the

manufacture of products. Environmental technologies in this field can be allocated

according to each product life cycle stage. In the following, the phases resource extraction

and production are discussed in more detail for the metal industry sector.

Technologies for resource extraction can be divided in the sub-categories ferrous and non-

ferrous metals as described. Dry quenching is an example for a technology allocated to the


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sub-category ferrous metals. The purpose of this technique is to reduce emissions from

coking operations (see Appendix D).

For the production phase, technologies can be subdivided according to the DIN standards,

DIN 8580, into primary shaping, metal forming, cutting, joining, coating and changing of

material properties (see fig. 7.8). Each of these groups can be further subdivided according

to the DIN standards. Additionally to the DIN standards, a sub-category ‘removal of paint

and coating’ is proposed as these techniques are often associated with high environmental

impacts [108]. As an example, the third group, cutting, will be discussed in more detail.

Fig. 7.8 - Classification of Manufacturing Processes

Cutting can be divided into the sub-categories severing (DIN 8588), machining with

geometrically well-defined tool edges (DIN 8589 Part 0), machining with geometrically

undefined tool edges (DIN 8589 Part 0), chipless machining (DIN 8590), disassembly

(DIN 8591) and cleaning and evacuation (DIN 8592). Table 7.5 shows an exemplary

technology list for the classification of manufacturing technologies.


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4.2 Industry Sector: metal

Category: process change Product Life Cycle: production

4.2.3 Sub-category: cutting

4.2.3.1 Severing

4.2.3.2 Machining with geometrically well-defined tool edges

Dry machining M W

4.2.3.3 Machining with geometrically undefined tool edges

Dry machining M W

4.2.3.4 Chipless machining

4.2.3.5 Disassembly

4.2.3.6 Cleaning and Evacuation

Completely Enclosed Vapour Cleaner (CEVC) W

Vacuum Furnace M W

4.2.7 Sub-category: Removal of Paint and Coating

Plastic media blasting (PMB) M E W

High pressure water blasting M W

Table 7.5 - Technology List 4.2 for Process Changes during Production


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The technology information sheets for the listed technologies in table 7.5 can be found in

Appendix D. Further technologies can be found in Randall, Eversheim et al. and Higgins

[108-110].

7.5.5 Technologies within the Closed Loop System Category

The fifth category consists of technologies such as recycling, remanufacturing, and

recovery.

The category can be divided into similar sub-categories as the category Material

Substitution. In the metal industry sector, this leads to sub-categories such as recycling

systems for residues stemming from making ferrous metals and non-ferrous metals

(resource extraction phase). For the production phase, Closed Loop Systems and

Technologies can be divided into sub-categories related to recycling systems needed for

auxiliary material groups like metalworking fluids (lubricants), solvents, cleaners and

coatings.

In the resource extraction phase, for example, slag generated from blast furnaces during the

iron-making operations is typically disposed of as solid waste instead of being reused.

However, slag can be rapidly cooled down and granulated under controlled conditions for

use in cement. Furthermore, blast furnace slag is used in the manufacture of cement

clinker, ceramic wares, glazed tiles, roofing, tiles, glass, and slag wood [111]. Besides the

environmental benefits, it has been shown that using a mixture of 3 to 4% granulated slag

in raw materials reduces energy consumption by 6 to 7% and increases productivity by 10

to 20% in the glass manufacturing process [112].

In the case of metalworking fluids, reconditioning waste consists of removing impurities

such as dirt, metals, or bacteria. Next, to restore the fluid to its near-original condition

concentrates and individual constituents such as surfactants, bactericides, emulsifiers,

conditioners, antioxidants, or other can be added which make the fluid effective in

metalworking operations. Before requiring reconditioning, many metalworking fluids can

be reused for months or even years. Higgins and Drake present a range of recycling

systems for metalworking fluids [113].


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CHAPTER 8

MEASURING PERFORMANCE (Stage 6)

8.1 The Need for Indicators

The earlier comments regarding the status of industrial environmental management also

apply to the area of environmental performance measures. Much has been written without

achieving standardisation in the form of easily understood and readily implementable

performance measures within manufacturing firms. As before, a variety of terms and ideas

have been used and promoted including goals, themes, indicators, indices and metrics. It is

generally agreed this too is still in an embryonic stage of development. Serious explorations

began in the late 1980s [113], and out of the many ideas the two terms which stand out as

most practicable for the purposes of this work are indicators and metrics.

Figure 8.1 – Development of Indicators and Indices [114]

Figure 8.1 has been used for the development of Sustainability measures thus providing

both a convenient starting point and the ready acceptance of the term Indicators, with the

definition that Indicators are measurable aspects of an enterprise that provide summarised

information on how it is performing [115]. Indicators in this field have more recently

increasingly been referred to as Environmental Performance Indicators (EPIs), and there

Indicators

Models

Indices

Statistics

Raw Data

Levels of aggregation

Engineers

Primary Users Management


126

have been attempts to link EPIs with Industrial Ecology as Eco-efficiency metrics with the

objectives of:

•• performance evaluation – program effectiveness

•• management feedback - encouraging, assisting and rewarding implementation

The pursuit of effective metrics in this work is consistent with trends evolving in the last

decade, when performance measures became an integral part of manufacturing

management. Today’s measures range from strategic to operational, individual to process,

global to local and so on. It is therefore considered a reasonable proposition that if Cleaner

Production strategies and tactics are to be integrated with other existing processes within

the firm, there should exist a corresponding set of metrics. It is recognised, however, that

an unlimited number and types of measures are easily developed to suit a given

organisation and set of circumstances, hence the task is to develop a set of guidelines for

general use which is consistent with the aims of the proposed methodology.

8.2 Required Characteristics

Traditionally, performance measures were productivity measures which in turn evolved

into feedback with respect to competitive priorities (operations strategies) and effectively

became performance measures for managers controlling these processes [116].

Corporations, as their environmental management practices evolve, are acquiring direct

experience with such measures. R.J. Eaton of DaimlerChrysler writes “Success depends on

having the correct set of metrics in place to gauge our progress in meeting our business

objectives, and we include our environmental responsibilities as part of those objectives”

[117].

In an Australian Government publication [118] it is stated that “It is important to make a

distinction between the effects of the organisation’s operational activities, and the activities

which are the actual business of the organisation. It should be relatively straightforward to

report the former but may be more difficult to report the latter”. To achieve the aims of

this Thesis there should be an attempt to do both.


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Most Environmental Performance Indicators (EPIs) track non-strategic and non-

performance based factors such as emissions, recycling and waste. Integration of EPIs with

business indicators is still relatively rare [119]. Having selected a framework for this Thesis

and having focused on a finite number of concepts and disciplines a first attempt will be

made in this Chapter to develop measurement guidelines for both performance and impact.

As an initial step it is proposed that metrics have the key characteristics to:

•• address informational needs at all levels in the enterprise with respect to the

effectiveness of internal processes

•• provide feedback for improvements

•• measure environmental performance

The selected indicators must have sufficient breadth to cover all the Cleaner Production

issues yet be concise enough to report against specific targets. Table 8.1 attempts to

summarise the required general characteristics [120]:

11.. Strategic relevance

- indicators should be easy to interpret

- they should refer to specific objectives or targets

- they should be able to be charted for trends if required

- they should be changeable as circumstances change

2. Technical soundness

- indicators should be based on cleaner production principles

- they should be capable of being benchmarked against best practice

- they should adopt new CP, IE., and LCM concepts as they emerge

3. Implementation application

- indicators should be based on readily available realistic data

- they should avoid unnecessary complexity

- they are likely to require frequent updating and maintenance

Table 8.1 – General Characteristics of Indicators/Metrics


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In this Thesis, reporting for external use is not considered, frameworks for reporting as part

of an Environmental Management System exist elsewhere [121], for such metrics are

strategic only to the extent that they are due diligence orientated, that is, responsive to legal

and other external influences. The industry centric issues for tracking environmental

performance of [122]:

•• compliance with regulatory statutes and covenants

•• achievement or strengthening competitive advantage, and

•• improvement of corporate stewardship or citizenship and reputation

should be addressed as part of strategic planning in which case the characteristic in Table

8.1 address such needs.

Since most metrics developed to date focus on environmental burdens and Eco-efficiency

concerns [122], the task is to build on these attempts to extend the use of metrics to include

Sustainability, hence a wider range of issues. In developing appropriate metrics for

industry, it may be useful to understand some of the apparent reasons for lack of

standardised industry centric measures from the literature:

•• the larger corporations only are in a position to devote adequate resources to the

development of metrics, their efforts are not readily visible externally

•• attempts to include Sustainability and Industrial Ecology concerns in metrics leads

to complexities and a proliferation of indicators due to the considerable difficulty in

assessing the synergy between industrial activity and their impact on the

anthroposphere

•• lack of “best practices” data bases for benchmarking

•• environmental metrics are not yet viewed as essential, the way the types of

performance measures are used in industry for assessing achievements against

strategies, projects and on-going activities, whether linked to strategies or

otherwise.


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8.3 Process Performance Measures

1. Corporate Strategic Planning (Stage 1)

An outcome of any strategic planning process is objectives setting targets. Hence a

simple Sustainability indicator at the strategic level would be the extent to which

objectives are achieved.

Quantitative improvement achieved (actuals) x 100 = % of strategic Target as per Sustainability strategic objective achieved objective

For example, let us say that for a given enterprise the strategic objective is to reduce

energy consumption across the firm for the next five years by X%. An annual

Sustainability indicator for this strategic objective could be:

% reduction in total energy usage per annum (actual) x 100 = % of target reduction Target % reduction for the year achieved

As a general guide, Indicators could be linked to the drivers for Sustainability in

Figure 5.2 referred to as the “Forces of Change”:

•• compliance with legislation

•• exploitation of new opportunities

•• strengthening of competitive advantage (costs)

•• improvement in corporate citizenship/image

•• meeting external (business and society) needs and wants

2. Business Planning (Stage 2)

Similarly, assessment of performance against business plans could result in a similar

simple indicator measuring the extent to which objectives are achieved.


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%age reduction in total energy expenditure per annum (actual) x 100 = % of target Target % reduction for the year savings achieved

Quantitative improvement achieved (actuals) for a product or process x 100 = % of strategic Target as per Cleaner Production objective achieved Strategic objective

%age reduction in energy usage for a product or process per annum x 100 = % of target Target % reduction for the year savings achieved

Financial benefits achieved (actuals) x 100 = % achievement Target as per Eco-efficiency strategic objective

Using the same example, the Eco-efficiency indicator in this case would become:

3. Operations Planning (Stage 3)

Measuring the performance of the Operations Planning process is also similar to the

other levels except:

•• metrics may be for an individual product or process

•• time horizons and periods may be shorter

a. Performance against objectives

Using the example of energy reductions, cascading from the strategic and business

plans, the Indicator measures the achievement against the objectives set by

management:


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b. Performance over time

As an alternative or to complement the single indicator in a. above, values could be

graphed as a form of time series analysis against a baseline as illustrated in Figure 8.2.

Cleaner Production Strategy - process performance indicator

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

months

Cum

ulat

ive

Ene

rgy

Usa

geR

educ

tions

(%)

Target Actual

Figure 8.2 - Cleaner Production Strategic Planning Process Measurement

4. Linkages (Stage 4)

In Chapter 5 the concept of how to link Cleaner Production strategies with execution

using Industrial Ecology and Life Cycle Management principles was developed. Due

to both of the breadth of these bodies of knowledge and the fact that they are in their

infancy simple metrics to measure the effectiveness of these linkages have yet to

evolve. It is suggested that post-implementation benchmarking against “best practice”

be attempted to assess the relative effectiveness of the process by collecting industry

data for comparisons (refer to Figure 8.3). This type of data would not generally be

available at present but as the uptake of IE and LCM increases in industry, data

should become increasingly available. The benchmarking envisaged would help

evaluate the direction and scope of the approaches selected in terms of:


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•• number of stages in the life cycle impacted

•• degree to which the firm’s evolution was advanced

•• professional competence in selecting IE sciences and technologies

•• functional impact


2. Premanufacture

3. ProcessSelection

4. Conversion


6. Product Delivery


LCM

•Design for Environment

• Environmental Purchasing

• Environmental Manufacturing

• Environmental Distribution

• Environmental Marketing

7. Product Use

Figure 8.3 – Measuring the Linking Process

5. Technology and systems (Stage 5)

Unlike the measurement of the previous stages, metrics for this stage are

straightforward as they are the same as measuring the outcome of any technical

project, that is, assessing the deliverables against project goals.

Benchm

arking Studies against best practice

Life Cycle Stages 1-8


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Tonnes of Material Used Tonne of Product Produced

Quantity of Energy or Water

Tonne of Product Produced

Quantity of each type of Residue Tonne of Product Produced

8.4 Environmental Performance Measures

1. Corporate Strategic Planning (Stage 1)

At this highest level, Sustainability indicators are based on aggregates of information

pertaining to impacts on the environment of corporate strategies. Thus they reflect the

returns on effort by the firm and company managers towards improvements in

industrial environmental management performance [123].

These measures are difficult to standardise as each measure is linked to a unique

strategy. It can however be expected that they are unlikely to be Absolute Indicators,

that is, typically single figures of total resource use, residues and wastes, rather they

are more likely to be Relative Indicators such as production or service specific ratios,

energy and water quotas, material ratios and emission quotas as indicated in Table

8.4. [124]

Figure 8.4 – Corporate Environmental Performance Measures

22.. Business Planning (Stage 2)

Eco-efficiency Indicators are concerned with reporting the results of resources and

residues reductions relative to the dollars invested. Adapting Figure 8.4 for the

purpose, examples of these measures may appear as in Table 8.5:


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Value of Material Reductions ($) Investments in Performance Improvements ($)

Value of Energy or Water Reductions ($)

Investments in Performance Improvements ($) Value of Reductions of each type of Residue ($)

Investments in Performance Improvements ($)

Figure 8.5 – Eco-efficiency Environmental Performance Measures

3. Operations Planning (Stage 3)

The aim of operational indicators is to measure environmental impact in terms of

inputs and outputs of materials, energy/utilities and residues. Potentially there could

be any number of such measures, the following are some examples:

Material consumption

•• Quantity of materials (raw or packaging) used per product

•• Quantity of processed, recycled, re-engineered or reused materials used

per product or process

•• Quantity of packaging materials discarded per product or process

•• Quantity of waste generated by product or process

Energy/Utilities

•• Quantity of each type of energy used

•• Quantity of non-renewable energy used per product or period

•• Quantity of water per unit of product

•• Quantity of water used not recycled

Residues

•• Quantity of solid and liquid waste for disposal by product or period

•• Quantity of hazardous of wastes by process or period

•• Quantity of specific emissions by product, process and period

•• Quantity of air emissions with climate changing potential

Figure 8.6 – Cleaner Production Environmental Performance Measures [122]


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4. Linkages (Stage 4)

As noted, the breadth and newness of IE and LCM result in a dearth of indicators. One

useful approach from the literature is The AT&T Materials Matrix system [125], (refer to

. This approach takes both a life cycle and a systems approach consistent with the two

bodies of knowledge and attempts to develop a workable methodology. The matrix

approach is both qualitative and quantitative thus requiring assessments. It appears

simplistic but it is a useful tool in evaluating complex systems involved in industrial

activities.

The technique uses a 5 x 5 assessment matrix, one axis representing the generic life cycle

of a material, product or process and is varied accordingly. The other axis uses 5

categories of environmental concerns.

Ecological/ biological impacts

Energy use

Solid residues

Liquid residues

Gaseous residues

Initial production/processing

Secondary production/processing

Application: manufacturing stage

Application: usage stage

Disposal; recycle

Figure 8.7 –AT&T Performance Measure for Industrial Ecology

The industry ecology assessor studies the object of the assessment and assigns ratings

ranging from 0 (poor) to 4 (low environmental impact) thus the overall maximum rating

for the 25 matrix elements is 100. This type assessment underpinned by detailed

checklists [126] is familiar to engineers thus avoiding potential complexities. The

approach is semi-quantitative by design in response to the conundrum of indicators that

are able to quantify environmental impacts.

Lif

ecyc

le s

tage


136

On completion of the assessment the main uses are cited as:

•• ranking of the material, product or process studied

•• improvement analyses

For the purposes of this work the Matrix could be adapted to the Life Cycle stages and

environmental concerns headings used previously, as in Figure 8.8, and the information

obtained from this process could be linked to the Cleaner Production strategy which

initiated the linkage in the first place. Any conclusions should include the extent to which

the linkage supported the achievement of the strategy.

Environmental Concern

Residues (Wastes) (W)

Material impacts

(M)

Energy Impacts

(W) Solid Liquid Gaseous

Pre-Manufacture

Resource Extraction

Production Processes

Product Delivery

Disposal; recycle

Disposal, Recycling, Reuse

Figure 8.8 - Performance Measure for Industrial Ecology adapted from The AT&T

Materials Matrix system

5. Technology and systems (Stage 5)

Chapter 7 describes a classification system (Tool-kit) for design and manufacturing

technologies. The aim of the Tool-kit is to provide managers and engineers with a

method for choosing systems and technologies to achieve strategic objectives, related to

the three environmental goals; after applying selected systems and technologies,

Lif

ecyc

le s

tage


137

managers and engineers should have the means to evaluate the environmental

performance of system and technology projects.

The environmental performance improvements from systems and technologies are

decided by the company’s choice of approach and after setting project objectives. A

simple procedure to measure the performance of new applied systems and technologies

may be achieved through comparison to previous performance.

The relative value changes are calculated for each selected system or technology to be

measured by dividing a selected environmental performance value calculated before

applying a new technology by its value after applying the technology. Examples of such

values could be the ISO14031 measures of:

•• Materials – Quantity of materials used per unit of production

•• Energy - Quantity of energy used per unit of production

•• Residues - Quantity of waste used per unit of production

or their MEPI equivalents (material, energy and waste intensity measures) [127].

For calculating the percentage change, the calculated ratio is multiplied by 100 which

yields the percentage change.

Values measured before applying a technology – x 100 = %.

Values measured after applying the technology


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8.5 Summary

Table 8.2 summarises the disparate indicators so that they may be viewed as a whole.

Company Material, Energy/Utility & Residue performance quantified

Percentage of essential summarised information provided

• Indicators -Feedback

Incremental improvements

Achievement of project objectives

• Systems and Technologies - Projects

Matrix analysisBenchmarking by lifecycle & functional area

• LCM/IE - Links

Consumption & residue aggregates by product/process

Achievement of operational strategy

• Cleaner Production –Operations Planning

Returns on investmentsAchievement of financial strategy

• Eco-efficiency –Business Planning

Relative aggregates, strategic ratios

Achievement of corporate strategy

• Sustainability –Strategic Planning

Environmental Performance Indicator

Process Performance Indicator

Stage

Table 8.2 – Summary of Cleaner Production Indicators

The last two columns of Table 8.2 represent the two groups of indicators considered

essential for this methodology. As there are potentially considerable complexities in the

integration of the firm’s environmental management performance and the environment,

this area is the attention of much discussion and development. It may be reasonable to

anticipate new developments before too long.

The shaded area under step 6 implies that it is feasible to measure feedback itself if it is

of value and some guidance is provided in that direction, however, as all data collection

requires resources it may not be practical to try and implement this type of process for

commercial reasons.


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CHAPTER 9

CASE STUDIES

The research Project Plan in Chapter 4 (refer to Figure 4.2) includes 3 Case Studies to be

undertaken. The first of these served as a learning opportunity to develop the concepts

while the next two were conducted to validate the applicability of the concepts

developed. It was intended that, provided suitable opportunities could be found, the latter

be used to test the entire proposed process, stage by stage from Strategic Planning

through to Performance Indicators.

There are a great many impediments to tying up the resources of a manufacturing

organization for the purposes of an academic case study. Time limitations in particular

meant the methodology used relied on working with senior management as available for

the development of strategies and their nominees as their workloads permitted for the

other Stages.

By way of assessment criteria, although Performance Indicators as outlined in Chapter 8

are useful as part of testing the methodology, the effectiveness of these case studies is

primarily based on broader criteria, that is on the ability to:

•••••••••••• list significant environmental improvements from the deployment of the process

•••••••••••• demonstrate the use of each of the six stages in the planning and implementation

process

•••••••••••• demonstrate that the one process can be fitted to different manufacturing

operations

•••••••••••• derive new learning

In the first instance, the proposed methodology is a Manufacturing Management process.

Its deployment will therefore vary in each application depending on the:

•••••••••••• Availability and commitment of management and key personnel

•••••••••••• Complexity of the organisations and of its business/products


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•••••••••••• Extent of knowledge and awareness of Environmental Management by

participants

Accordingly, the 3 case studies described in this Chapter required different approaches in

applying the process and for arriving at the desired outcomes. It is also important to

recognize that application of the methodology for the purposes of a case study means

collapsing the elapse time of the programs from a time horizon of 1-5 years to months.

Due to the required involvement of board level management, case studies were several

months in duration and it was necessary to adapt to availability limitations in each case. It

was therefore also necessary to compromise at times with respect to the amount of detail

able to be extracted.

9.1 Company A

9.1.1 Introduction

The objective of this first case study was to test the concept of the proposed

methodology, specifically the planning stages. While the methodology appeared to be

viable in concept, it was deemed necessary to test its relevance and feasibility before

proceeding with the rest of this work.

Company A is a wholly owned subsidiary of a U.S. global corporation engaged in the

manufacture of railway friction brake shoes and disc brake pads. The range of products

meets breaking requirements from heavy haul to light rail and tramways, and meets the

demands of mass transit and metropolitan rail services.

It has a 40 year history in Australia and hence enjoys a degree of autonomy in the

management of its local operations, an important requirement for this trial. Products are

sold to a wide range of customers, local and overseas, including government corporations

which are expected to adopt increasingly stringent requirements with respect to the

environment.


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Product formulations have been designed to maximize adhesion at all times and are

designed for high speeds and frequent stopping, wet or dry. Formulations vary for

different applications.

The company was kind enough to make available its corporate/strategic plan on a

confidential basis.

In the next two sub-sections lists of materials and processes used by the Company are

listed to provide some insight to the complexities present.

9.1.1.1 Materials

Formulations do not contain asbestos, zinc compounds, lead or cast iron debris. Materials

in current production include the list in Table 9.1.


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•• Shredded waste newspaper •• Mineral wool •• Chopped glass fibre •• Chopped steel wool fibre •• Resin •• Tetra bromo bisphenol •• Phenolic resin •• Rubber latex •• Powdered nitrile rubber •• Wollastonite •• Thiofide MBTS •• Tyrin •• Talc •• Aloxite •• Calcium tearate •• Barites •• Limestone •• Rutile •• Sri Lankan graphite •• Hydrated lime •• Zircon sand •• Black iron oxide •• Ground silica •• Coal dust •• Sulphur •• Hoskins blacking •• Orasol black •• Cast iron grit •• Aluminium powder •• GilsoniteProcessed sand •• Ground rubber •• Hoganas iron powder •• Hexamine •• Formaldehyde •• Phenol •• Cashew nut shell liquid •• Ethanol •• Trichloroethylene •• Steel

Table 9.1 – Formulations used in the manufacturing process


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9.1.1.2 Manufacturing Processes and Equipment

Materials are mixed, weighed and formed in to “bricks” which are preheated, moulded,

and cured. Table 9.2 lists the processes and equipment deployed in production.

•• Chemical bulk storage

•• Cashew nut shell liquid heat treatment

•• Bulk material storage

•• Bulk material weighing to batches

•• Mixers – plowshare and blender types

•• Performing

•• Resin manufacture

•• Hot moulding process

•• Vapour degreasing and coating

•• Mechanical steel stamping presses and toolong

•• Batch gas and electric ovens

•• Dust collection bag hoses

•• Fume extraction high temperature incinerator

•• Steam raisin plant

•• Air compressors

•• Full scale rail dynamometer

•• Material testing laboratory

Table 9.2 – Processes and Equipment Deployed

9.1.2 The Planning Process

Although the company is actively engaged in conducting Cleaner Production projects it

was indisputably established that existing strategic plans did not include strategies and

objectives towards Sustainability.


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The uniqueness of the objective required the development of an acceptable approach to

the Company. After meetings with the CEO and Chief Engineer it was agreed to ‘piggy

back’ onto the regular management meetings. These sessions brainstormed the issues and

their relative priorities.

9.1.2.1 Step 1 – Corporate Strategy

At the highest level, for the existing product and process technologies and an

environmentally friendly service, the potential strategies for best practice were identified

as the following Sustainability issues:

•• Material Separation and Recycling

•• Reuse

•• Product Redesign

•• Reduced Packaging

-- simplify

-- eliminate

•• New Transportation/Handling Methods

•• Lower Energy Usage

•• Product Stewardship

These strategies were further refined and prioritized as shown in Table 9.3.


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Strategy Driver Priority

Product/Process Redesign Costs, Competitors 1

New Transportation(1),

Handling (2) Methods

Costs 2

Lower Energy Usage Costs 3

Reuse (Products) Costs, Corporate

Citizenship

4

Material Separation, Recycling

(Process/Product)

Consumers/Markets, Costs 5

Reduced Packaging Legislation,

Consumers/Markets

6

Product Stewardship Competitors 7

Table 9.3 – Company A’s Corporate Plans for Sustainability

9.1.2.2 Step 2 – Business Strategy

Having established Sustainability strategies the next step was to translate them into

business goals in the form of Business Strategies. The resultant Business Strategies for

Eco-efficiency are listed in Table 9.4.


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Strategy Driver Eco-efficiency Priority

Expected Benefit

Product/Process Redesign Costs, Competitors 5-10% COG

Reduction

1

New Transportation(1),

Handling (2) Methods

Costs 10% Labour Savings 2

Lower Energy Usage Costs 1-2% COG

Reduction

3

Reuse (Products) Costs, Corporate

Citizenship

10% COG Reduction 4

Material Separation,

Recycling (Process/Product)

Consumers/

Markets, Costs

Not known

5

Reduced Packaging Legislation,

Consumers/Markets

Not known

6

Product Stewardship Competitors Price advantage,

market protection

7

Table 9.4 – Company A’s Business Plans for Sustainability

9.1.2.3 Step 3 – Functional (Manufacturing) Strategy

As is the case for planning processes in general within manufacturing companies, it

would be the task of manufacturing and engineering management to develop operational

strategies to achieve the Cleaner Production goals emanating from corporate and business

plans. Due to availability limitations it was agreed to develop just one Cleaner Production

strategy to indicate how the process would work.

The first of several possible strategies developed with the manufacturing function of the

Company is in Table 9.5. The table underneath the strategy indicates the manufacturing

endeavours impacted by this strategy.


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Cleaner Production strategy #1 -

“Change/redesign products and production processes”.

Focus Technology Comments Priority

•• Process

Simplification

New Chemical

Formulation

Shorter Cycles

Times

1

•• New

Formulation

Existing

Engineering

Processes

Lower Density and

Cost, Same

Performance

2

•• Shape Change

Design Change 3

•• Tighter Tolerance

CNC M/Cs

Better Tooling,

Repeatability

4

•• Waste Reduction-

Compression

Moulding

Better Tooling,

Repeatability

Mass Control

5

Table 9.5 - Example of Company A’s Manufacturing Strategy for Sustainability through

Cleaner Production

9.1.3 Conclusions – Case Study A

Steps 4-6 of the proposed methodology were neither able to be tested at this early stage of

the project and, nor was their trial required to achieve the objective of the case study as

they are essentially the formalisation and standardisation of existing practices. It is not

difficult, however, to envisage how IE and LCM concepts would apply, how the Tool-kit

could be deployed and how performance could be measured.

The crucial question for this Thesis was whether the expansion of industry standard

planning processes to include Sustainability issues was practicable. In assessing the

process afterwards, the Management of the Company agreed that the methodology was

both feasible and useful.


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It was interesting to note the majority of drivers were cost related, although business

pressures from customers and competitors, legislation and corporate citizenship were also

recognized as survival issues. This tends to corroborate the evolutionary stages described

in Figure 5.3 and the conviction that in the early years Sustainability drivers will be legal

and cost based.

9.2 Company B

9.2.1 Introduction

The second case study carried the objective of validating the proposed methodology.

Company B is a global marketer of consumer goods with many well known tissue/towel,

personal care (diapers, feminine protection adult incontinence) and health care brands

through the Personal Care, Business-to-Business and Consumer Products Divisions with

sales in excess of $14 billion. The stated values of the organisation today, expressed

through its “Leadership Agenda”, include a range of strategy areas in which it will

measure itself against the world’s best. One of these is Sustainable Growth which

incorporates the requirement to “act as responsible stewards of corporate and

environmental resources”.

Furthermore, in 1994 the then CEO initiated a business orientated environmental

program. The early request for candidate objectives were formalised in a company wide

program called Vision 2000. This program has since been succeeded by the Vision 2005

Strategy and these initiatives suggest the Company is a leader in incorporating

environmental considerations in its planning processes. This evolution appeared to be

similar to the strategic approach recommended by the writer.

The Company maintains its image as a leader in Environmental Management, its

Environmental Report is available as part of its corporate profile on its website and

provides considerable detail with respect to its environmental and energy policies and

projects.


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While there is a comprehensive local operation including head office functions and

manufacturing sites, strategies are formulated at board level in the U.S.A. and are

promulgated to all operations. As part of this Case Study it was necessary to gain an

introduction to the Corporate Director of the Environment overseas to gain an insight

intohow corporate plans are formulated.

It was also apparent that it would not be feasible to influence the established processes of

the corporation hence it was agreed to adapt the approach accordingly.

9.2.2 The Research

A number of interviews with key personnel in Management, Environmental

Management, Operations Management and at project level, as well as with Management

in the U.S.A., were conducted. The purpose of the interviews was to:

•• understand how the Company plans and executes its Environmental

Management initiatives

•• compare this approach with the methodology advocated in this Thesis

•• analyse the gaps, if any, and modify the approach as needed.

The outcome of the research revealed that Company B is at an advanced stage with

respect to other corporations’ environmental programs and should be regarded as ‘best

practice’. As a consequence the most appropriate approach to this case study turned out

to be a comparative analysis consisting of:

•• step by step analysis of the proposed planning and execution methodology with

the Company’s practices.

•• identification of differences (if any) and gaps.

•• conclusions with respect to the outcomes.

•• suggestions for improvements


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9.2.2.1 The Existing Process

Step 1 - Corporate Strategic Planning and Sustainability

Company B’s vision emanating from its corporate strategic planning process is to lead

the world in all it does and this goal extends to Environmental Management. The

resultant initiatives and programs have to make environmental and business sense. This

has two major strategic implications for Sustainability:

a. to be a leader means being ahead of potential legislative and other compliance

requirements for products and manufacturing processes

b. being ahead of other manufacturers of like products also leads to a high business

benchmark rating, i.e., the Dow Jones Sustainability Index, which in turn may

lead to favorable business outcomes, e.g., share prices.

The corporate policies underpinning the Strategy as stated in the Company’s 2002

Environmental Report comprise:

•• Protection of the Biosphere

•• Sustainable Use of Natural Resources

•• Use and Conservation of Energy

•• Reduction and Disposal of Waste

Step 2 - Business Strategic Planning and Eco-efficiency

The corporate strategies mentioned above have resulted in 6 specific Business Planning

objectives contained in the Environmental Vision 2005 program:


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a. Efficient Water Use

Water use targets to further reduce total water use have been set for each tissue, pulp

and paper manufacturing facility. As an indication of the success of this program

worldwide use of water in the last 2 years was reduced by 15.2%.

b. Energy Efficiency Improvement

Benchmarks for energy efficiency are in place for each major production process,

converting process and site utility operations. By meeting these benchmarks

estimated cost savings of $152 million US would be achieved.

c. Reduction in Carbon Emissions

Recognising the goals of carbon emissions reduction outlined in the Kyoto Protocol,

to date KCC has reduced its worldwide carbon emissions per dollar sales by 23.3%.

Further reductions are targeted.

d. Solid Waste Recycling

Objectives include the elimination of all manufacturing wastes being sent to landfills.

Current diversion levels are at 88%. Value-added landfill alternatives have generated

$24 million US to date. Alternatives include recycling, compression of materials into

fuel cubes and other plans for waste-to-energy facilities.

e. Packaging Reduction

A 10% reduction in transportation and final product packaging is targeted and would

achieve a $67 million US reduction in packaging material costs per year. To date

improved design and dematerialization have reduced materials going to landfills by

more than 58,000 tons per year.

f. Environmental Management System (EMS)

A new EMS program is planned with the primary goal of ensuring that significant

facility environmental aspects and regulatory requirements are identified and


152

controlled. An efficient EMS is expected to reduce unnecessary compliance costs

and disposal costs while improving product yields.

Step3 - Manufacturing (Operations) Strategy and Cleaner Production

Conversion of business strategies into functional, i.e., manufacturing strategies in the

organisation, is expected to occur at plant level. At this stage of evolution, manufacturing

strategy formulation to achieve corporate objectives does occur but not for Cleaner

Production strategies. Environmental Management projects can get less attention than

mainstream planning priorities (when compared with other competitive issues as per the

Company’s World Class Manufacturing program).

Step 4 -Commercial Processes linking strategies with execution – Industrial Ecology and


On receipt of corporate environmental objectives Head Office and Plant Environmental

Managers/Coordinators, who report to the Plant Managers, meet to review the corporate

objectives. After consideration of these objectives, and considering local environmental

issues plus inputs from auditors, a Plant Environmental Plan is prepared. This Plan

includes:

•• activities to achieve environmental Vision 2005 objectives

•• projects

•• compliance reporting tasks and dates

•• employee training activities

•• other related activities

These steps are seen as essential at the plant level but they are not necessarily driven by

corporate, business and operations strategies. The Environmental Management expertise

is from the Australian Environment Manager and technical personnel from the Plants.

There was no evidence of formal Life Cycle Management or Industrial Ecology based

programs, i.e., segmentation by function or life cycle.


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Step 5 - Technologies and Systems - Facility Policies and Projects

Technologies and Systems used to implement Environmental Plans are typically based on

recommendations from corporate inspections/audits. These occur annually at the pulp and

paper mills and two yearly at ‘dry’ manufacturing facilities. Expertise in the selection and

application of appropriate systems and technologies at this stage is from the Australian

Environment Manager at head office and the International Auditor who works in the

Environment and Energy function at corporate headquarters in the USA. Besides

possessing technical expertise the Auditor also promotes Vision 2005 objectives at the

Mill level.

Step 6 - Measurements – Indicators/Feedback

The Plants’ Environmental Plans are updated quarterly and are presented to local

Management. By way of feedback, progress reports against audits are also required. Any

incidents are reported monthly. Waste reports by type of waste, water usage, and recycled

materials are reported monthly. Energy use by primary source is reported

comprehensively and monthly in a standardised format. It covers external self-generated

sources of energy and is normalized against production levels.

9.2.2.2 Assessments

Step 1 - Inclusion of Sustainability concerns at the corporate (highest) planning level is

exactly what the proposed approach advocates for effectiveness and indicates Company

B is a pioneer in this practice.

Step 2 - Although the term Eco-efficiency is not used as part of the business planning

process, the planned outcomes of significant commercial benefits from environmentally

friendly practices is by definition eco-efficiency, and as in the case of Strategic Planning,

it is consistent with the proposed approach.

Step 3 - Operations strategies concentrate on a set of best practice guidelines which do

not as yet include Environmental Management as a strategic element. While there is a


154

high awareness of the corporate environmental goals, their conversion into projects at

Plant level depends on the perceived relevance and feasibility of the targets.

This does represent a gap between the recommended methodology and the Company’s

current practice. Incorporation of Cleaner Production concepts into mainstream

operations planning could help prioritise environmental initiatives and increase the rate of

change, that is, speedier implementation and adoption of new solutions to achieve

corporate goals.

Sep 4 - The current practice is the norm in industry, that is, environmental management

activities being directed by local priorities, e.g., legislation, efficiency, waste

minimisation, rather than LCM and IE concepts. The Company is ahead of most

enterprises as some of the activities are linked to corporate goals and integration of plans

from the top and activities at plant level are evolving. As this integration advances, it is

likely the plant level of expertise will continue to increase accordingly.

Step 5 - As part of the proposed methodology in this work an environmental Tool-kit has

been specified. This is a new concept, no such capability is available to manufacturers in

general, hence technology and systems expertise are obtained in the usual manner from a

number of internal and external sources as considered appropriate.

Step 6 – In Chapter 7 it is described that the ideal performance measures should provide

feedback in two areas generally:

•• effectiveness of the company’s approach

•• environmental performance

The latter is clearly satisfied as demonstrated by the Company’s Environment Reports but

whether there is any attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of the Company’s approach at

each level is not evident.


155

9.2.3 Conclusions – Case Study B

In assessing the Company’s Environmental Management process versus the

recommended approach of this Thesis there is considerable synergy between the two.

Both processes have the same thrust and are heading in the same direction, that is, have

like objectives. Since the latter is an academic work, it does not incur the burden of

having to evolve over time whereas Company B started this process in 1994 and is well

into its second five year program.

While it is the view herein that there are some gaps in the Company’s process including:

•• in the translation of corporate strategic and business objectives into plant level

operational strategies, and

•• limited uptake of operations orientated Environmental Management disciplines

(LCM, IE and Cleaner Production)

which would enhance existing programs, such gaps represent opportunities as the

Company’s approach continues to evolve to a more formal process in these stages at

plant level.

The corporate planning level processes are an excellent example of how manufacturing

enterprises should escalate their environmental programs.

The activities at the implementation level are very similar to the activities of other

manufacturing organisations, it is anticipated however that as programs such as Vision

2005 become increasingly mainstream plant level planning and implementation will be

emphasized to a greater extent and this will present further opportunities for innovative

solutions.

Similarly, with respect to feedback, while there are a considerable number of

performance measures and reports used these will continue to evolve in step with internal

and external reporting requirements.


156

The most positive aspect of this case study is the evidence that what is being considered

as a much needed approach by industry to accelerate sustainability from a manufacturing

engineering and academic perspective is actually in the process of becoming mainstream

at this organisation. Without this process, the significant achievements cited earlier

would not have been possible, instead a major world wide corporation has embraced and

is implementing a range of environmentally friendly programs.

Company B’s evolution over the last 10 years confirms the validity of the methodology

and supports the conclusion that this process is capable of being replicated by other

manufacturing enterprises, large and small.

9.3 Company C

9.3.1 Introduction

The third case study also had the objective of validating the proposed methodology.

Company C is part of a worldwide organisation with its Head Office in the UK which has

been associated with metallurgical industries for over 70 years. Its products were born

from the need to find better ways of producing castings and are the result of close

cooperation with foundry operators. It is firmly established as a leading supplier of

metallurgical chemicals to the higher quality segments of the foundry industry.

The Australian operation has a full complement of head office functions, manufacturing

and distribution facilities as well as state level service functions. Its management enjoys a

degree of autonomy and is able to take an interest in new initiatives and most importantly

for this Thesis, it has been able to fulfil the top management role required. Local

Management is increasingly aware of Sustainability issues and their relevance.

The Company is a pioneer and leader in molten metal filtration and feeding systems

technologies. Major product groups include:

•• Tundish and ladle linings


157

•• Melt additives

•• Moulding products

•• Feeding systems

•• Furnace linings

•• Ceramic filters

•• Ceramic and refractory shapes

•• Direct pour devices

9.3.2 Application of the Methodology

As in the case of Company A, the company is actively engaged in conducting Cleaner

Production projects but existing strategic plans do not include strategies and objectives

towards Sustainability.

After meetings with the CEO it was agreed to develop the top level, strategic and

business plans with him, and to address the remainder with the Manufacturing Director.

The following describes the process:

Step 1 – Corporate Strategy

It was brainstormed that to achieve the Company’s vision to become the ‘best company’

requires the Environmental Management corporate strategies for Sustainability listed in

Table 9.6.

•• Compliance with EPA legislation and Covenants

•• Inclusion of the Community’s expectations in the design of products, services

and processes

•• Cost reductions in materials, energy/utilities and residues by adopting a zero

waste ideal

•• Waste minimisation in the Supply Chain, customers and suppliers

Table 9.6 – Company C’s Corporate Plans for Sustainability


158

Step 2 – Business Strategy

Translating Sustainability strategies into business goals in the form of Business Strategies

resulted in the plans for Eco-efficiency listed in Table 9.7.

Legislation and Covenants

•• Fully comply with or stay ahead of all regulations

•• Plan for minimising potential risks

Community expectations

•• Be aware of community (suppliers, customers, neighbours, employees)

needs/wants at all times and exchange knowledge

•• Incorporate customers design needs/wants with respect to environmental

management

Cost Reductions

•• Materials

-- Reduce material usage by X%

-- Substitute others’ by-products or wastes for primary raw materials

•• Energy

-- Reduce energy consumption by X%

•• Residues

•• Work towards zero waste by eliminating process (solids and liquids)

waste.

The Supply Chain

•••••••• Reduce excess/obsolete stocks by X%

•••••••• Increase the use of returnable packaging

•••••••• Reduce the use of packaging materials (incl. cardboard) by X%

NB. – quantifying % reductions was not a requirement for the case study

Table 9.7 – Company C’s Business Plans for Sustainability

Step 3 – Functional (Manufacturing) Strategy

Company C’s Business Strategies for Sustainability lead to the following Operations

Strategies for Cleaner Production, developed with the Manufacturing Director:


159

Legislation and Covenants

•• Develop and maintain an Environmental Management System (EMS) which

documents all applicable legislation and provides for regular audits

•• Stay abreast of legal requirements by acquiring expertise in environmental

legislation and covenants

•• Identify all potential environmental risks by process/product/material and

their respective probable impacts

Community expectations

•• Design a consultation process with the community (suppliers, customers,

neighbours, employees) to obtain their specific needs and wants.

•• Operations to participate in the design process to prevent potential waste or

pollution

Cost Reductions

•• Materials

--- Reduce material usage through the identification of opportunities for

dematerialisation and waste minimisation

--- Establish an environmental purchasing program for substituting by-

products and waste for primary raw materials

•••••••• Energy - Reduce electricity and gas consumption across the company

•••••••• Residues and Waste Minimisation - Develop a waste measurement system

leading to a waste reduction program

The Supply Chain

•• Introduce a formal inventory system for reducing excess/obsolete stocks of

different classes of inventory

•• Develop new policies for increased order quantities to allow the use of

returnable packaging to customers/from suppliers

•• Investigate innovative packaging approaches in the supply chain

Table 9.8 – Company C’s Manufacturing Strategy for Sustainability through Cleaner

Production


160

Step 4 -Commercial Processes linking strategies with execution – Industrial Ecology and


As in the case of Company A, one particular strategy was selected for a pilot to validate

the process. In Tables 9.6 – 9.8 this strategy is in italics, and follows a Cost Reduction

drive leading to the Operational Strategy of reduced material usage for the nominated

product group of Exothermic Insulating Sleeves

Figure 9.1 was used to pave the way for linking the Strategy with specific actions. It

identified the life cycle stages affected, that is, the stages of Conversion, Support

Processes and Product Delivery and enabled homing in on specific options, that is,

Recycled Materials and Waste Minimisation, as shown in italics.

Figure 9.1 – Company C’s Cleaner Production strategy Options

Figure 9.2 was used to establish the commercial functions likely to be affected:

Eothermic/Insulating Sleeve - Cleaner Production Strategy Choices

Life Cycle Stage

Resource Extraction

Pre- Manufacture

Process Selection

Conversion Support Processes Product Delivery

Product Use Disposal, Recycling, Reuse

S t r a t e g y O p t i o n s Dematerialisation, Services (extended producer responsibility), Renewable Materials, Lower Embodied Energy Materials Extended Technical and Aesthetic Life Spans, Integrated Product Functions, Modularity, Extended Psychological Product Life Spans,

Increased Reliability & Durability, Easy Maintenance & Repair

Cleaner Materials, Recycled Materials, Reduced Material Usage, Development of Alternative Processes, Energy Efficiency, Waste Reduction

Recyclable Materials, Reduced Energy Consumption, Cleaner Energy Sources, Reduced Consumable Waste, Re-Use, Re -manufacture, Design for Disassembly, Energy & Material Recovery

Cleaner Production Processes, Waste Elimination, Fewer Operations, Reduced Consumables

Lower Material Weight & Volume

Reduced, Cleaner & Reusable Packaging, Energy Efficient Transport & Logistics,

Strategies for Pi lot


161

Figure 9.2 – Company C’s Cleaner Production Strategy’s Functional Impact

The functions in bold letters, Design for Environment, Environmental Purchasing and

Environmental Manufacturing are the functions the Company considered would be

impacted.

Combining all this information into the linking process described in Section 6.4, Figures

9.3 and 9.4 display the multi-year impact of the strategy and its effect on the Company’s

evolution towards Sustainability. It was estimated that the life of the strategy is 4 years as

shown in the first matrix. The large arrow indicates the life cycle stages affected.

Exothermic/Insulating Sleeve – Waste Reduction and Recycled Materials Substitution Strategies

Links to Technologies – LCM Functional Impact


2. Premanufacture

3. Process Selection

4. Conversion


6. Product Delivery

7. Product Use

8. Disposal, Recycling, Reuse

• Design for Environment • Environmental Purchasing • Environmental Manufacturing • Environmental Distribution • Environmental Marketing


162

Figure 9.3 – Multi-year Impact of Company C’s Pilot Cleaner Production Strategy

Exothermic/Insulating Sleeve – Waste Reduction and Recycled Materials Substitution Strategies

Links to Technologies – Cleaner Production Issues by Function

5. Environmental Marketing

4. Environmental Distribution

3. Environmental Manufacturing

2.Environmental Purchasing

1. Design for Environment

Residue Impacts

Energy/Utility Issues

Material IssuesTechnology

Issues

Figure 9.4 – Functional and Environmental Impact of Company C’s Pilot Cleaner

Production Strategy by Year

Exothermic/Insulating Sleeve – Recycled Materials and Waste Reduction Substitution Strategies

Links to Technologies

Evolutionary Stages

Cleaner Production Scope Resource

Extraction Pre- Manufacture

Process Selection

Conversion Support Processes

Product Delivery

Product Use

Disposal, Recycling, Reuse

Disposal Cost Reductions/ Legal Issues Planning for Waste Reduction Waste Identified Waste Reductions

Major Improvements Technology Changes Zero Waste Restoration

Yr 1 Yr 2 Yr 3 Yr 4


163

Step 5 - Technologies and Systems - Facility Policies and Projects

Once the technological nature of the task was established, this step was about applying

the appropriate technology to achieve the strategy. It was neither feasible to apply the

Tool-kit in Chapter 7 nor practical as the recycling and waste minimisation work had

started before the strategies were developed and essentially consisted of the crushing of

out of specification sleeves and reusing the material in the production process. It may be

said this step was retrofitted to Figure 7.3.

Over the four year horizon it is planned to eliminate waste altogether, obviously

necessitating additional solutions in future including product and process redesign

initiatives extending beyond this case study. It was agreed with the Company that Figure

9.5 shows how a solution in Year 1 would be arrived at.

Exothermic/Insulating Sleeve – Waste Reduction and Recycled Materials Substitution StrategiesTechnology/Systems Options Categories

ExtractionExtraction

DesignDesign

Production – Process Selection, Conversion,

Support Processes

Production – Process Selection, Conversion,

Support Processes

DistributionDistribution

UtilisationUtilisation

End of LifeEnd of Life

Product Life CycleStages

Product Life CycleStages

Material SubstitutionMaterial Substitution

Design ChangeDesign Change

Technology ChangeTechnology Change

Closed Loop SystemClosed Loop System

Solution CategoriesSolution Categories

Assessment ToolsAssessment Tools

Figure 9.5 – Categorising Cleaner Production Tools for Recycling and Waste

Minimisation


164

Step 6 - Measurements – Indicators/Feedback

Table 9.9, adapted from Table 8.2, displays the measures derived from the case study. In

any one environment and for any one strategy the measures will vary, and the measures

produced will depend on the availability of information.

Cleaner Production Indicators

(Company Material,performance quantified)

(Percentage of essential

summarised information

provided)

6) Feedback

5) Systems and Technologies

(Matrix analysis potentially)4) LCM/IE

.6% reduction Sleeves material usage5% target reduction for the years

3) Cleaner Production

Value of material savingsInvestments in performance improvements

2) Eco -efficiency

1) Sustainability -Strategic

Environmental Performance Indicator

Process Performance Indicator

Stage

tonnes of material used(4749)

tonnes of product produced(4685)

Actual %reduction in material expenditure p.a.

Target % reduction for the year (20%)

Quantity of recycled/reusedMaterials per Sleeve

(6 grams)

(Potential comparison of technologies used with Co. Divisions in other countries)

Actual %reduction in material use p.a.

Target % reduction for the year (20%)

Zero waste in sleeve manufacturing-To date progressively - 96%-% remanufacture of balance – 100%

Cost of waste before the project ($48703) X 100

Cost of waste after the project ($39819)

Table 9.9 - Exothermic/Insulating Sleeve – Waste reduction and Recycled Materials

Substitution Strategies Measures

The measures reported in the table are those that were readily obtainable; they indicate

how the outcomes may be assessed, including the effectiveness of the process and the

corresponding environmental impacts.

9.3.3 Conclusions – Case Study C

As the last case study, it is the most complete as all elements of the methodology were

attempted to be applied. It clearly demonstrated that with committed top management

participation it is quite feasible to develop Sustainability, Eco-efficiency and Cleaner

Production strategies for a small to medium size manufacturing operation.


165

It was also demonstrated that with the support of Manufacturing Management the

Cleaner Production strategies, using LCM an IE principles, could be converted into

specific technology projects focused on environmental performance improvements

consistent with the company’s stated strategies.

Other outcomes of interest included:

•• the importance of Company C’s culture, in particular of management support and

commitment

•• to condense what might otherwise take many years of evolution, particularly in

the absence of environmental specialists in a SME, into a relatively short (six

months) program, a formal methodology is needed

•• the presentation materials based on the Thesis were indispensable in

communicating the objectives of the initiative - notwithstanding an organisation’s

interest in improving its environmental performance the concepts need to be

presented in formal manufacturing management/engineering terms while the

deliverables need to reflect commercial realities

•• implementation of the methodology, though far from simple, with specialist

support is capable of being carried out without formal qualifications or specialist

expertise in Environmental Management


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CHAPTER 10

CONCLUSIONS

10.1 Project Outcomes

The main conclusion is that the Thesis topic leads to a wide range of technical and

non-technical outcomes, leading to the expansion of ideas rather than a deeper

probe of a specific area of research. Returning to the original motivation for the

project, at the time of this Thesis the battle for Sustainability is being lost.

Broadly, the reasons are a lack of:

•• awareness or knowledge

•• motivation to actively pursue improvements

In Chapter 1 it was stated that manufacturing industry is a major contributor to the

deterioration of the environment, hence the reason for inventing the advocated

planning and implementation methodology. While it is new in content, a similar

process for planning has been in existence for the last ten years in medium to

large firms. This latter point leads to the goal of accelerated change.

One of the main conclusions reached right at the outset is that it is more urgent to

overcome the problems of inaction mentioned above then to add other

technological solutions to the myriad already in existence. No doubt new

technologies will lead to improvements in Environmental Management but there

are already a sufficient number of existing systems and technologies which are

capable of being rapidly deployed if not reversing the trends, provided the will

and know-how exist among managers and specialists of manufacturing

enterprises. Hence the reason for the approach, that is, the reflective nature of the

research, and for a number of diverse outcomes.

These outcomes are intended to be contributions to Sustainability and may be

summarised as:

1. A new methodology for speedier uptake of Cleaner Production


167

The methodology put forward in this work, in Chapters 4 – 8, and depicted in

Figure 10.1 as the complete process has the potential to assist organisations

that are already on the way towards striving for Sustainability.

Corporate Strategy:

S u s t a i n a b i l i t y

Corporate Strategy:

S u s t a i n a b i l i t y





Business Strategy:


Business Strategy:


Links:


Links:


Execution:


Execution:



I n d i c a t o r s


I n d i c a t o r s

M e t a S t r a t e g yM e t a S t r a t e g yForces of Change

(Drivers)

Figure 10.1 –“The Strategy Development and Implementation with Cleaner

Production” Process

Development of a structured methodology for integrating Sustainability and

Cleaner Production concepts with a manufacturer’s strategies at all levels

offers the advantages of a formal approach with measurable outcomes,

commercial and societal, using performance measures and indicators. As

mentioned elsewhere, the process would lead to the initiation of


168

environmental management projects that are supported by upper management,

properly funded and resourced, and most importantly, directly linked to the

strategies of the firm.

2. A vehicle for providing strategic direction and implementation assistance

to manufacturing enterprises for adopting a prevention orientation

For all enterprises, especially SMEs who do not have the resources and

expertise to adopt Cleaner Production strategies and projects in a considered

manner, this work contains sufficient material written in common language to

enable them to:

•• start on the path towards Sustainability

•• develop strategies suitable for their environment

•• understand how to select suitable implementation systems and

technologies

3. A new body of knowledge and profession

Another goal of this work is to initiate a profession for manufacturing

engineers in this field. There is sufficient need, scope, complexity and

challenge for industrial environmental management to become an area of

specialisation for manufacturing specialists. It would involve the integration

of manufacturing engineering techniques with Cleaner Production, Industrial

Ecology and Life Cycle Management approaches. It is not difficult to

visualise a curriculum and all the accoutrements typically accompanying a

profession.

4. A Tool-kit of hard and soft technologies

In Chapter 6 a framework for a classification system for the deployment of

hard and soft technologies, for a variety of industries and applications was

described. When fully developed, this database containing essential

information about each technology deployed in Cleaner Production, including

implementation experiences would greatly assist firms in the selection of

optimum systems and technologies.


169

5. Encouragement of further research and development

Achievement of the project objectives required the investigation of a broad

range of topics. Due to the popularity of the Sustainability theme many

diverse ideas, systems and technologies, hard and soft, are being deployed in

all industries under a plethora of headings. Although it was intended to

encapsulate all the complexities as a new profession, as a first work of its type

in this line of engineering it is inevitably just a first step and, as all first works,

it invites improvements, expansion and greater depth of study. (Refer to

Section 8.3)

10.2 Case Studies

Chapter 9 contains three case studies undertaken to verify the feasibility of the

methodology proposed in Chapter 4. The first was a learning assignment carried

out early in the project at a manufacturer of train braking systems. The details of

the case study describe:

•• Sustainable Strategies and their relative priorities

•• Eco-efficiency strategies including their financial potentials

•• Sample Cleaner Production Strategies for the first Sustainability strategy

Section 9.2 contains a case study carried out at a manufacturer of a range of

consumer products typically paper based, after the methodology was well

developed. Due to the size of the corporation, the extent to which the local

operation follows global procedures and the fact that components of the

methodology were already in place, the work was essentially an evaluation of the

company’s environmental management operations as compared with the proposed

methodology. The analysis covered:

•• Corporate Planning

•• Business Planning

•• Operations Planning

•• Commercial Processes linking strategies with execution


170

•• Technologies and Systems

•• Performance Measures

and concluded there was considerable synergy between the two. Section 9.3 describes the outcome of the third case study at a division of a global

manufacturer of foundry service products. This was a particularly successful

introduction of the methodology for the local division enjoys considerable

autonomy and is motivated to be environmentally responsible. It demonstrated

that it is feasible to develop Sustainability, Eco-efficiency and Cleaner Production

strategies for a small to medium size manufacturing operation.

The Case Studies reinforced the idea that it is feasible to deploy CP, LCM and IE

principles, in converting high level strategies into specific technology projects

focused on environmental performance improvements.

10.3 Future Research

1. The new methodology for speedier uptake of Cleaner Production

The concept is based on manufacturing management and Sustainability

concepts as they exist at this time. Both bodies of knowledge are still

evolving, particularly the latter, hence the methodology should be reviewed

and updated as additional proficiency becomes available. This includes the

monitoring of developments in CP, LCM and IE.

2. Implementation assistance to manufacturing enterprises

This subject matter should readily lend itself to the development of a line of

consulting, delivered either by professional consultants or academic

specialists, and possibly fully or partly funded by governments. Development

of the program would lead to creating:

•• Packaged products and services (deliverables)

•• Presentation materials

•• Documentation of the process

•• Subsequent products and services based on the experience gained

from assignments

•• Valuable documentation from projects completed


171

3. A new body of knowledge and profession

To initiate a profession for manufacturing engineers in this field would require

research into what topics would realistically constitute a curriculum. The

integration of manufacturing engineering techniques with Cleaner Production,

Industrial Ecology and Life Cycle Management approaches could mean

specialisation in years 3 and 4 of a Bachelor’s degree. Introduction of a

qualification in “Industrial Ecology” or perhaps “Industrial Environmental

Management” would need the difficult task of developing courseware for the

disciplines in the curriculum, where very little usable material exists.

4. The Tool-kit of hard and soft technologies

The classification system for the deployment of hard and soft technologies out

of necessity is conceptual only in this work. The actual development and

maintenance of extensive data bases of existing and emerging systems and

technologies could lead to a significant number of research opportunities.

Examples of projects might be the development of databases for an industry

sector, for a technology area or for a category of tools. The research would

comprise the population of the databases and the development of authoritative

descriptive data for each “Tool”.

5. Advanced research and development

As previously stated, this is a first step in the creation of a stand alone

manufacturing management/engineering profession. Even at this early stage,

the fields of Cleaner Production, Industrial Ecology, not to mention

Sustainability, have received considerable attention from researchers around

the world in different contexts, academic and industrial. The task of continued

assessment of developments and their interpretation or adoption as a

manufacturing engineering discipline would be a natural continuation of this

project.

Hence a list of other potential areas for advanced research work includes:

•••••••••••• In-depth investigation of strategic issues with the aim of further

defining and quantifying the drivers for Sustainability.


172

•••••••••••• Development of advanced manufacturing/operations strategic planning

processes to evolve the human dimension, and hence preventive

approaches, in engineering disciplines, particularly as they impact

environmental management.

•••••••••••• If the proposed concept herein becomes widely accepted, detailed

implementation procedures will need to be developed which should

include a broader range of considerations for successful

implementation such as culture change (Change Management), job

skills (Human Resource Management) and team approaches (Project

Management).

•••••••••••• In parallel with the development of a Tool-kit setting up another data

base of recorded Cleaner Production implementations, similarly

classified, by industry sector and technology, would be a very useful

learning tool.

•••••••••••• It became apparent that additional development work on Performance

Indicators would be most useful and has considerable potential for

further research.


173

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Report Appendices, Part II, Appendix 2: Environmental Performance

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188

Appendix A: Technologies within the Assessment Tools Category

Product Life Cycle Stage – All Stages Technical Aspect 1.0 ABC Analysis Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: all Category: assessment technology Sub-Category: technical aspect Purpose of the technology: The ABC Analysis focuses on assessing hazardous substances. Accomplishment of goals: Waste Development status: mature Description: The assessment of environmental impacts incorporate a number of groups of criteria which lead to three values:

• A: problematic, action required, • B: medium, to be observed and improved, • C: harmless, no action required.

The assessment can be conducted in a simple table whereas the columns refer to the three criteria and the rows to the potential environmental impacts (toxicity, air pollution, water pollution), the compliance with environmental regulation, social requirements and the product life cycle stages. Sources for further information: Lehmann, S. (Ed.)/ Institut für ökologische Wirtschaftsforschung (1993): Umwelt-Controlling in der Möbelindustrie. Ein Leitfaden. Berlin, 1993. Experience of previous application:


189

1.0 Cumulative Energy Demand (CED) Analysis Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: all Category: assessment technology Sub-Category: technical aspect Purpose of the technology: This tool identifies and assesses a product’s environmental impacts across its life cycle on the basis of its energy input and content. – The analysis is primarily used for energy-intensive products. Accomplishment of goals: Energy Development status: mature Description: For a CED analysis all direct and indirect energy inputs connected to the product system should be compiled. Direct energy inputs are those needed for resource extraction, production, use, distribution and end of life. Indirect energy inputs are those that are delivered primarily for other purposes than producing the product itself, e.g. infrastructure. A CED analysis normally results in the following data:

• Cumulative direct energy inputs into the product • Cumulative indirect energy inputs into the product (depending on scope of

planning and system borders) • Cumulative energy content of the product (the energy content of the end

product could be recycled). Those data can be used as a rough basis for evaluating the environmental compatibility of a product. Software: Furthermore, the Internet site (see source for information) offers a software program (GEMIS) for calculating the cumulative energy demand, which can be downloaded free of charge. Sources for further information: VDI Richtlinie 4600: Cumulative Energy Demand – Terms, Definitions, Method of Calculation. (German title: Kumulierter Energieaufwand – Begriffe, Definitionen, Berechnungsmethoden.) VDI-Gesellschaft Energietechnik, June 1997; VDI Richtlinie 4600 Blatt 1: Cumulative Energy Demand – Examples. (German title: Kumulierter Energieaufwand – Beispiele.) VDI-Gesellschaft Energietechnik, June 1996; Umweltbundesamt: Kumulierter Energie Aufwand: Mehr als eine Zahl! http://www.oeko.de/service/kea/ (29.07.2003); Software GEMIS http://www.oeko.de/service/gemis/en/index.htm (29.07.2003). Experience of previous application:


190

1.0 Life Cycle Assesment (LCA) Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: all Category: assessment technology Sub-Category: technical aspect Purpose of the technology: Life Cycle Assessment is an analytical method to identify and assess the potential environmental impacts associated with a product throughout its complete life cycle. The quantification of environmental impacts makes it possible to compare alternative designs and to identify the environmental improvement potential of a product throughout its life cycle. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature (a lot of specialised LCA software is available) Description: A complete LCA begins with raw materials acquisition and follows manufacturing stages until the product is produced, used and discarded. According to ISO 14040 the methodology involves a framework in which

• the goals and scope are defined (purpose and scope of the LCA, functional unit, data-quality assessments),

• inventory analysis (system boundaries, process flow charts, data collection, calculation, sensitivity analysis) and

• impact assessment (classification, characterisation, valuation) are formulated and

• the results are interpreted. As noted in the Standard there is no single method for conducting an LCA and the framework is made sufficiently broad to allow the study of wide ranging environmental practices. Depending on the environmental goal different LCA approaches and software can be applied. Software:

• SimaPro: Developed for LCA experts and designers, additional databases can be integrated.

• EPS Design System 4.0: LCA tool for decision support in product development and Environmental Management System. Focus on mechanical engineering and automobil sector, allows sensitivity and uncertainty analysis.

• Umberto: LCA package which can be used for determining material flows. • PEMS: LCA tool for evaluating the life cycle of packages (see PEMS (1.3)).

Sources for further information: ISO EN DIN 14040 (1997): Environmental Management – Life Cycle Assessment – Principles and Framework; Wenzel, H.; Hauschild, M.; Ating, L.: Environmental Assessment of Products. Volume 1, Methodology, tools and case studies in product development. London: Chapman & Hall, 1997; see references in: Brezet, H.; van Hemel, C.: EcoDesign, a Promising Approach to Sustainable Production and Consumption. Paris: United Nations Publication, 1997. Experience of previous application:


191

1.0 Material and Energy Balance Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: all Category: assessment technology Sub-Category: technical aspect Purpose of the technology: The Material and Energy Balance is used for the quantification of all material and energy flows at the level of separate production processes or production units. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: The Material and Energy Balance can be applied as part of an environmental improvement project for manufacturing processes. - The basis for all material balances is the law of conservation of matter, which states that matter cannot be created or destroyed in a given system (same law applies for the energy). (This does not apply to nuclear reactions.) In the case of stoichiometric calculations, this means that the weight of products of a reaction have to equal the weight of reactants. In the case of processes, this is not necessarily the case. It is possible to have an unsteady-state situation in which accumulation or depletion within the process may occur. In general, therefore, the following equation applies: Mass Input = Mass output + Mass Accumulation. For each of the unit operations identified in the process flow diagram, a Material and Energy Balance can be compiled. The analysis of the balance contributes to the understanding of the relative importance of different causes of waste generation and energy consumption and is needed for the evaluation of the relative importance of each of the possible waste generation causes. The compilation of the balance might be hard and time-consuming, as there is generally a lack of detailed data. Therefore, the compilation of a material balance is often limited to the most important material flows and/or processes. Criteria for this selection can be the volume, cost or environmental burden of the respective material flow or processes. Software: See SWAMI (1.2). Sources for further information: Ayres, R., U.; Ayres L.W.: Accounting for Resources, 2. The Life Cycle of Materials. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 1999; Fine, H. A.; Geiger, G.H.: Handbook on Material and Energy Balance Calculations in Metallurgical Processes. Warrendale: The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society (TMS), 1993. Experience of previous application:


192

1.0 Material Flow Accounting/ Analysis (MFA) Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: all Category: assessment technology Sub-Category: technical aspect Purpose of the technology: Material Flow Accounting has been developed and applied to systematically describe the flow of materials including resources, products, wastes, and other emissions. Accomplishment of goals: Material, Waste Development status: mature Description: MFA is a systematic tool, which comprehensively describes material inflows to a system, material outflows from the system, as well as material throughputs throughout the system. Both of the terms, Material Flow Accounting and Material Flow Analysis are abbreviated as MFA whereas “Accounting” is often used in the integration of environmental and economic aspects. The term “analysis” is used more in general. However, both of them are often used as an identical term without definite differences. MFA deals mainly with solid materials, but sometimes accounts for air and water as well. In some cases, accounting for water and air is often important to keep the mass balance (see Material Balance) between inputs and outputs. The system to be analysed by MFA is a unit of human activities, e.g. a household, an industrial process, an enterprise, an economic sector, a municipality, a country. Sources for further information: Moriguchi, Y.: Environmentally Conscious Design and Inverse Manufacturing, 2001. Proceedings EcoDesign 2001: Second International Symposium on , 11-15 Dec. 2001, pp. 880 –885. Experience of previous application: 1.0 MET (Material, Energy, Toxicity) Matrix Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: all Category: assessment technology Sub-Category: technical aspect Purpose of the technology: A MET matrix is based on an input/output analysis of materials, energy, and toxicity. It is used as a tool to take stock of the most important environmental aspects of a product with minimum efforts. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: The matrix combines an input-output model with the product life cycle. For each product life cycle stage information related to the items materials, energy, and toxicity are collected and presented in a simple matrix. If quantitative data is missing, the results can be based on an interpretation of qualitative statements. The matrix can also be used for weak-point analysis and identification of potential environmental improvements. The three categories of environmental concerns are distinguished as follows:

• Materials cycle: environmental concerns regarding nature and amount of resource consumption and waste generation.

• Energy use: energy used in each phase of the life cycle of the product. • Toxic emissions: toxic emissions to water, air, and soil.

The MET matrix can provide Managers and Engineers with data and information about a product’s environmental aspects in a systematic and clearly arranged way. Sources for further information: Brezet, H.; van Hemel, C.: EcoDesign, a Promising Approach to Sustainable Production and Consumption. Paris: United Nations Publication, 1997.


193

Economical Aspect 1.0 Total Cost Assessment/ Accounting (TCA) Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: all Category: assessment technology Sub-Category: economical aspect Purpose of the technology: Total cost assessment or accounting focuses on the economic assessment of cleaner production investment. Accomplishment of goals: Development status: mature Description: TCA is a long-term oriented cost accounting method which aims to identify hidden, less tangible and liability costs. The TCA captures a longer time horizon in comparison with the payback time method, using the net present value (NPV) to discount future cash flows. Software: Several Software tools, such as MILA software, are available (see Brezet and van Hemel, 1997 [5]). Sources for further information: Brezet, H.; van Hemel, C.: EcoDesign, a Promising Approach to Sustainable Production and Consumption. Paris: United Nations Publication, 1997. Experience of previous application: 1.0 Life Cycle Costing (LCC) Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: all Category: assessment technology Sub-Category: economical aspect Purpose of the technology: Life cycle costing or life cycle accounting is a method which addresses all the costs and benefits for which actors have to account for. Accomplishment of goals: Development status: mature Description: Life cycle costing assesses the costs in each stage of the product life cycle whereas the different cost factors are investigated on the basis of current and/ or future costs. Sources for further information: Brezet, H.; van Hemel, C.: EcoDesign, a Promising Approach to Sustainable Production and Consumption. Paris: United Nations Publication, 1997. Experience of previous application:


194

Integration of technical and Economical Aspects 1.0 EcoDesign Matrix Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: all Category: assessment technology Sub-Category: integration of technical

and economical aspect Purpose of the technology: The Ecodesign Matrix compares different alternatives and eliminates unsatisfactory solutions by combining ecological, economic, customer-related and social improvement potential with technical and financial feasibility. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: The assessment is conducted in a simple matrix whereas columns refer to the advantages and improvement potentials for the environment, for the company, for the customer and the society, and the technical and financial feasibility. The rows refer to solutions. The matrix can be completed for several solutions. If a solution does not perform well on even one point, it should either be eliminated or improved accordingly. Sources for further information: Stevels, A.: Eco-efficient design, the Philips experience. In: Center for Sustainable Design (Ed.): Towards Sustainable product design – 3rd International Conference, London, 26 – 27 October 1998. Experience of previous application: 1.0 EcoDesign Portfolio Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: all Category: assessment technology Sub-Category: integration of technical

and economical aspect Purpose of the technology: The EcoDesign portfolio compares different alternatives with the objective of eliminating unsatisfactory alternatives and identifying the best solution. It combines ecological, economic aspects with technical feasibility. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: The assessment is conducted in a portfolio with four fields. The co-ordinate refers to the ecological improvement potential and the abscissa (x co-ordinate) to the technical and ecological feasibility and/or the market potential. Solutions in the top right hand box lead to an economic/ ecological win-win situation and should be selected for development. Solutions in the bottom right hand box promise quick wins, with an emphasis on the technical and economic side. Those in the top left hand box are interesting from an ecological point of view. And those in the bottom left hand box should be removed as they offer neither economic nor ecological advantages. This type of diagram could be used in different versions for different problems. For example, in the case of material selection, the axes might stand for “environmental impact of the material” and “material cost”. Sources for further information: Brezet, H.; van Hemel, C.: EcoDesign, a Promising Approach to Sustainable Production and Consumption. Paris: United Nations Publication, 1997. Experience of previous application:


195

1.0 QFDE Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: all Category: assessment technology Sub-Category: integration of technical

and economical aspect Purpose of the technology: Quality Function Deployment for Environment has been developed by incorporating environmental aspects into QFD to handle the environmental and traditional product quality requirements simultaneously. Design engineers can find out which parts are the most important parts to enhance environmental consciousness of their products. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: QFDE exist of two phases. In the first phase, the voice of a customer for a product are deployed to more detailed Engineering Metrics (EM) to clarify their positions. In the second phase, the relationship between the above EM items and components of the product are clarified. Through these steps, the design engineer can identify functions and components on which to focus in order to satisfy the customer requirements. An important tool in QFDE is the House of Environmental Quality which facilitates an all-inclusive co-ordination of ecological and other criteria before and during the Ecodesign process, revealing influences and relationships between different aspects. This tool sets user, environmental and a company’s internal requirements in relation to ecological solutions and design strategies, thus, permitting an assessment of the quality of solutions in all these areas. Sources for further information: Masui, K.; Sakao, T.; Inaba, A.: Quality Function Deployment for Environment: QFDE (1st report) – A Methodology in Early Stage of DfE. In: Environmentally Conscious Design and Inverse Manufacturing, 2001. Proceedings EcoDesign 2001: Second International Symposium on 11-15 Dec. 2001, pp. 852 –857. Experience of previous application: Product Life Cycle Stage – Production Technical Aspect 1.2 SWAMI - Strategic Waste Minimisation Initiative (Software) Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Assessment tools Sub-Category: technical aspect Purpose of the technology: SWAMI is a software tool using process analysis for identifying waste minimisation and pollution prevention opportunities within an industrial setting. Accomplishment of goals: Material, Waste Development status: Description: The software requires user-supplied information for a process definition, as well as material inputs and products for each operation unit and outputs associated with waste streams. The software is able to perform mass balances, drawing process diagrams and directing towards possible waste minimisation audits. Sources for further information: Centre for Environmental Research Information. US EPA: SWAMI Distribution Centre, Tel. +1 – 513 – 569-7562 (United States). Experience of previous application:


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Product Life Cycle Stage – Distribution Technical Aspect 1.3 PEMS (LCA software for Packaging) Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Distribution Category: Assessment tools Sub-Category: technical aspect Purpose of the technology: PEMS is a LCA software that focuses on packaging. The inventory includes materials, energy, transportation and waste management information. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: PEMS provides Life Cycle Assessment software for the packaging, paper, printing and publishing industries. It is a user-friendly program which can be used to assess environmental impacts and to aid decision making. Sources for further information: Pira International: PEMS. http://www.pira.co.uk/pack/environmental.htm (25.08.2003). Experience of previous application:


197

Appendix B: Technologies within the Material Substitution Category

Product Life Cycle Stage – Resource Extraction General 2.1 EuroMat – (Design for Environment Tool) Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Resource Extraction Category: Material Substitution Sub-Category: general Purpose of the technology: EuroMat is a software tool which supports design engineers selecting recyclable and environmentally conscious materials. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: emerging Description: Euromat starts with the specification of the technical requirements for the product or component. Next, technically feasible materials are selected (materials selection module) and the corresponding manufacturing and recycling processes are identified (manufacturing and recycling modules). Finally, the software compares the resulting cradle-to-grave systems from a life-cycle perspective. Therefore, it employs specifically tailored Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), Life Cycle Costing (LCC), work environment and risk assessment methods. As a result, Euromat provides design engineers with an integrative comparison and assessment of the advantages and disadvantages of different material options for a product. Sources for further information: euroMat: The Design for Environment Tool. Online in the internet: http://www.euromat-online.de/englisch/Unterseiten-engl/product.html (25.08.2003) Experience of previous application: Together with the four industry partners MAN Technologie AG, Ford Motor Company, Denios AG, and Sachsenring Entwicklungs GmbH the following euroMat applications have been carried out:

• Airbus freshwater tank. • Front subframe system of the new Ford Mondeo. • Door panel for lightweight truck.

2.1 IdeMat Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Resource Extraction Category: Material substitution Sub-Category: general Purpose of the technology: Idemat is a tool for material selections in the design process. It is a material/ processes/ component database that allows comparison of different materials. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature


198

Description: Idemat put emphasis on environmental information, but it also provides technical information about physical properties. This enables users to choose a material most suited and least environmentally damaging. With IDEMAT, user can lookup and compare information about materials, processes or components, and they also can let IDEMAT search for materials that match their criteria. Sources for further information: Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Design, Engineering and Production: IdeMAT online. Online in the Internet: http://www.io.tudelft.nl/research/dfs/idemat/index.htm (25.08.2003) Experience of previous application: 2.1 Materials Checklists Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Resource Extraction Category: Material substitution Sub-Category: general Purpose of the technology: Materials checklists provides information for designers about which materials should not be used to comply with regulations and/ or company policy. Accomplishment of goals: all (depending on checklist) Development status: mature Description: In general, materials checklists are company specific. Based on regulations and the environmental strategy of the company, the checklists include materials and substances which have been identified as hazardous to health or damaging to the environment. The checklists can be sub-divided into two or three categories of materials, depending on the recommendations for use. For example: 1. Banned substances, according to legislation in force, 2. discouraged materials, which are materials that should not be used unless alternatives are not available and 3. materials which the company would prefer not to use although they are not banned. Sources for further information: An example can be found in: Graedel, T.; Allenby, B.: Industrial Ecology. Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall, 1995. Experience of previous application: Product life cycle stage – Production Coatings 2.2 CAGE (Coating Alternatives Guides) Industry Sector: Metal, Plastic Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Material Substitution Sub-Category: Coatings Purpose of the technology: CAGE is a pollution prevention tool for paints and coatings users. Accomplishment of goals: Material, Waste Development status: mature


199

Description: CAGE is a simple software program that contains several tools to help users identify low-volatile, organic compound/hazardous air pollutant coatings that may serve as drop-in replacements for existing coating operations. Furthermore, CAGE proposes alternative coating process techniques. A questionaire will assist in determining the coating alternatives most likely to work in a particular coating process. Sources for further information: Pollution Prevention Program at Research Triangle Institute (in Co-operation with US EPA): Coatings Guide. Online in the Internet: http://cage.rti.org/ (25.08.2003) Experience of previous application:


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Solvents 2.2 PARIS II Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Resource Extraction Category: Material substitution Sub-Category: Solvents Purpose of the technology: PARIS II designs (in the computer)solvent mixtures with reduced environmental impact that match the property profile of the currently used solvent mixture. Accomplishment of goals: Material, Waste Development status: mature Description: PARIS II generates a ranked list of solvents based on closeness in meeting specified criteria. Users have to insert data about the chemical composition of solvent, operating conditions, and the tolerance ranges for solvent physical parameters including environmental parameters. Sources for further information: US EPA: PARIS II – Computer Aided Solvent Design for Pollution Prevention. Online in the Internet: http://www.epa.gov/ordntrnt/ORD/NRMRL/std/mtb/paris.htm (25.08.2003) Experience of previous application: 2.2 SAGE (Solvents Alternatives Guide) Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Material substitution Sub-Category: Solvents Purpose of the technology: SAGE is a comprehensive guide designed to provide information about solvent and process alternatives for parts cleaning and degreasing. Accomplishment of goals: Material, Waste Development status: mature Description: Sage is a simple software program that compares information about the cleaning and degreasing operations specified by the user with all available alternatives. SAGE will then try to come up with alternatives that perform the same task in a more environmentally friendly way. Sources for further information: Surface Cleaning Program at Research Triangle Institute (in co-operation with the US EPA): SAGE – Solvents Alternatives Guide. Online in the Internet: http://sage.rti.org/ (25.08.2003). Experience of previous application:


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Appendix C: Technologies within the Design Change Category

Product Life Cycle – Resource Extraction 3.1 EuroMat – Design for Environment Tool Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Resource Extraction Category: Design Change Sub-Category: General Purpose of the technology: EuroMat is a software tool that supports design engineers selecting recyclable and environmentally conscious materials. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: emerging Description: Euromat starts with the specification of the technical requirements for the product or component. Next, technically feasible materials are selected (materials selection module) and the corresponding manufacturing and recycling processes are identified (manufacturing and recycling modules). Finally, the software compares the resulting cradle-to-grave systems from a life-cycle perspective. Therefore, it employs specifically tailored Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), Life Cycle Costing (LCC), work environment and risk assessment methods. As a result, Euromat provides design engineers with an integrative comparison and assessment of the advantages and disadvantages of different material options for a product. Sources for further information: euroMat http://www.euromat-online.de/englisch/Unterseiten-engl/product.html Experience of previous application: Together with the four industry partners MAN Technologie AG, Ford Motor Company, Denios AG, and Sachsenring Entwicklungs GmbH the following euroMat applications have been carried out:

• Airbus freshwater tank. • Front subframe system of the new Ford Mondeo. • Rotational moulding tool. • Door panel for lightweight truck.

Product life cycle – Production Phase DFA and DFM 3.2 BDI – DFA software (including further modules: DFE, DFM, DFS) Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Design change Sub-Category: DFA Purpose of the technology: The DFA tool is used to simplify products. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: The DFA software enables design engineers to estimate the assembly time, and assembly costs. Further it can be integrated with the DFM tool for estimating total product costs. Sources for further information: Boothroyd Dewhurst Inc.: Software products. Online in the internet: http://www.dfma.com/software/index.html (26.08.2003). Experience of previous application:


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3.2 BDI - DFM software (including further modules: DFE, DFA, DFS) Industry Sector: metal Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Design change Sub-Category: DFM Purpose of the technology: The DFM tool allows design engineers to improve the product’s design in its manufacturing life phase. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: The DFM software is based on five different modules: Injection moulding, die casting, sheet metal working, machining and powder metal parts. The software contains interactive material and equipment databases (for material and process selection), and provides engineers with component cost information in the early design phase. Sources for further information: Boothroyd Dewhurst Inc.: Software products. Online in the internet: http://www.dfma.com/software/index.html (26.08.2003). Experience of previous application: 3.2 LASeR Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Design Change Sub-Category: DFA Purpose of the technology: LASeR is a software tool that evaluates the serviceability, recyclability and assembly of mechanical designs. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: emerging Description: The user inserts a description of a mechanical system along with cost, labour and material data. Afterwards the user returns to the navigation page and invokes the analysis routine. The user can conduct analysis for assembly or for service. The software determines the labour steps needed to accomplish the repairs and computes associated service costs. Furthermore the program offers analysis for the product retirement. It analyses selected groups of compatible components and determines the disassembly and reprocessing costs. Sources for further information: Ishii, K.: LASeR – Life-Cycle assembly, Service and Recycling – User’s Manual. Life Cycle Engineering Group at Ohio State (LEGOS), The Ohio State University, Columbus, 1994. Experience of previous application:


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3.2 PRICE Systems Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Design change Sub-Category: DFA, DFM Purpose of the technology: Price systems is a software that can be used for Life Cycle Cost Analysis combined with Design for Assembly and/or Design for Manufacture. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: Modules included in the PRICE Estimating Suite are:

• PRICE H, the Hardware Estimating Model • PRICE HL, the Hardware Life Cycle Estimating Model • PRICE S, the Software Development and Support Cost Estimating Model • PRICE M, the Electronic Module and Microcircuit Estimating Model

Detailed information about each module can be found on the web-site. Sources for further information: Price Systems: Product overview. Online in the Internet: http://www.pricesystems.com/productservice/productoverview.html (26.08.2003). Experience of previous application: Product Life Cycle – Use Phase DFL 3.4 BDI – DFS Software (including further modules: DFE, DFA,DFM) Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Use Category: Design change Sub-Category: DFL Purpose of the technology: The DFS software allows designers and engineers to enhance the product’s serviceability during its use phase. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: The software evaluates the serviceability of a product in the early design stage, where changes to the product can be made at minimal cost. It generates reports that suggest areas for redesign and areas which should be examined for service improvement. The DFS software uses the same data structure as the original DFA software and adds estimates of servicing time and cost. Sources for further information: Boothroyd Dewhurst Inc.: Software products. Online in the internet: http://www.dfma.com/software/index.html, http://www.dfma.com/publications/manuals.htm (26.08.2003). Experience of previous application:


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3.4 LASeR Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Use Category: Design Change Sub-Category: DFL Purpose of the technology: LASeR is a software tool that evaluates the serviceability, recyclability and assembly of mechanical designs. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: emerging Description: The user inserts a description of a mechanical system along with cost, labour and material data. Afterwards the user returns to the navigation page and invokes the analysis routine. The user can conduct analysis for assembly or for service. The software determines the labour steps needed to accomplish the repairs and computes associated service costs. Furthermore the program offers analysis for the product retirement. It analyses selected groups of compatible components and determines the disassembly and reprocessing costs. Sources for further information: Ishii, K.: LASeR – Life-Cycle assembly, Service and Recycling – User’s Manual. Life Cycle Engineering Group at Ohio State (LEGOS), The Ohio State University, Columbus, 1994. Experience of previous application:


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Product Life Cycle – End of Life 3.5 BDI – DFE software (including further modules: DFA, DFM, DFS) Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: End of Life Category: Design change Sub-Category: DFA Purpose of the technology: The DFE tool is used to optimise decision making at the end of life of products. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: The DFE module includes basic data on materials and recycling and builds on the DFS tool. Sources for further information: Boothroyd Dewhurst Inc.: Software products. Online in the internet: http://www.dfma.com/software/index.html; http://www.dfma.com/publications/manuals.htm (26.08.2003). Experience of previous application: 3.5 EuroMat – Design for Environment Tool Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: End of Life Category: Design Change Sub-Category: DFD or DFEoL Purpose of the technology: EuroMat is a software tool that supports design engineers selecting recyclable and environmentally conscious materials. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: emerging Description: Euromat starts with the specification of the technical requirements for the product or component. Next, technically feasible materials are selected (materials selection module), and the corresponding manufacturing and recycling processes are identified (manufacturing and recycling modules). Finally, the software compares the resulting cradle-to-grave systems from a life-cycle perspective. Therefore, it employs specifically tailored Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), Life Cycle Costing (LCC), work environment and risk assessment methods. As a result, Euromat provides design engineers with an integrative comparison and assessment of the advantages and disadvantages of different material options for a product. Sources for further information: euroMat http://www.euromat-online.de/englisch/Unterseiten-engl/product.html Experience of previous application: Together with the four industry partners MAN Technologie AG, Ford Motor Company, Denios AG, and Sachsenring Entwicklungs GmbH the following euroMat applications have been carried out:

• Airbus freshwater tank. • Front subframe system of the new Ford Mondeo. • Rotational moulding tool. • Door panel for lightweight truck.


206

3.5 LASeR Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: End of Life Category: Design Change Sub-Category: DFR Purpose of the technology: LASeR is a software tool that evaluates the serviceability, recyclability and assembly of mechanical designs. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: emerging Description: The user inserts a description of a mechanical system along with cost, labour and material data. Afterwards the user returns to the navigation page and invokes the analysis routine. The user can conduct analysis for assembly or for service. The software determines the labour steps needed to accomplish the repairs and computes associated service costs. Furthermore the program offers analysis for the product retirement. It analyses selected groups of compatible components and determines the disassembly and reprocessing costs. Sources for further information: Ishii, K.: LASeR – Life-Cycle assembly, Service and Recycling – User’s Manual. Life Cycle Engineering Group at Ohio State (LEGOS), The Ohio State University, Columbus, 1994. Experience of previous application: 3.5 ReStar Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: End of Life Category: Design Change Sub-Category: DFD or DFEoL, DFR Purpose of the technology: ReStar is a DFD software that enables the design engineers to calculate and optimise expenses for the disassembly and disposal of a product, in order to find the optimal economical and environmental solution for the disposal/recycling of a product Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: ReStar plots a curve of the required effort for disassembly, testing, repair, remanufacturing and product changes that enable recovery. Furthermore, the software plots a curve showing the revenue form resale and reuse. The tool helps design engineers find the optimal point of the two curves. Sources for further information: Navin-Chandra, D.: ReStar, A Design Tool For Environmental Recovery Analysis. In: Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Engineering Design (ICED '93), The Hague, Netherlands, August 1993, pp. 780 – 787. Experience of previous application:


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Appendix D: Technologies within the Process Change Category

Metal Industry Sector Product Life Cycle Phase – Resource Extraction Ferrous Metals 4.1 Dry Quenching Industry Sector: metal Product Life Cycle: Resource Extraction Category: Process Change Sub-Category: Ferrous metals Purpose of the technology: Dry quenching aims to reduce emissions from coking operations. Accomplishment of goals: Waste Development status: mature Description: Dry quenching techniques eliminate the vapour cloud found over typical quench towers. The technique uses inert gases as a medium to transfer heat from red-hot coke to water to make steam for either process or power generation purposes. The heat transfer media (e.g. gases) are completely enclosed and fully recycled. Sources for further information: Labee, C. J.; Samways, N. L.: Developments in the Iron and Steel Industry – U.S. and Canada – 1990. In: Iron and Steel Engineer Vol. 68, No. 2, February 1991, pp. D1 – D38 Experience of previous application: Product Life Cycle Phase – Production Material Removal Processes 4.2 Dry Machining/ Minimal Quantities of Lubricant (MQL) Industry Sector: metal Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Process Change Sub-Category: Material Removal

Processes Purpose of the technology: Dry machining eliminates problems associated with the use of lubricants. Accomplishment of goals: Material, Waste Development status: emerging Description: Dry machining is a technique which does not use lubricants during operations such as milling, drilling, rotating and grinding. – In the context of dry machining, the term minimal quantities of lubricant is used when tiny quantities of a lubricant are fed to the machining point or to the tool. Tiny quantity means that less than 50 ml of the medium is consumed per process hour. In comparison, 6 m3 of lubricant is expelled from a pump casing, which has a total lubricant capacity of 60 m3. Thus, the volume of lubricant used in MQL techniques represents an impressive reduction. By applying MQL techniques correctly, the workpieces and chips remain dry and therefore it is justified to use the term dry. A further prerequisite is the deployment of suitable cutting materials such as high temperature hardness and wear resistance of hard metals, cermets, and CBN or PCD for the realisation of dry machining operations.


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Sources for further information: Eversheim, W.; Klocke, F.; Pfeifer, T.; Weck, M.: Manufacturing Excellence in Global Markets. London: Chapman and Hall, 1997. Experience of previous application:


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Cleaning and Degreasing Processes 4.2 Completely Enclosed Vapour Cleaner (CEVC) Industry Sector: metal Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Process Change Sub-Category: Cleaning and Degreasing Purpose of the technology: The CEVC virtually eliminates air emissions deriving from the cleaning process (tests have shown over 99% reduction in solvent emissions). Accomplishment of goals: Waste Development status: mature Description: The workload is placed in an airtight chamber, into which solvent vapours are introduced. After the cleaning process is finished, the solvent vapours in the chamber are evacuated and captured by chilling and carbon adsorption. Once the solvent in the chamber is evacuated, the door of the chamber is opened and the cleaned workload is withdrawn which is free from any residual solvent. The CEVC has a relatively higher energy requirement and longer cleaning cycles because of the alternating heating and cooling stages. Sources for further information: Randall, P. M.: Engineers’ Guide to Cleaner Production Technologies. Lancaster: Technomic Publishing Co., 1996 and listed references. Experience of previous application: 4.2 Vacuum Furnace Industry Sector: metal Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Process Change Sub-Category: Cleaning and Degreasing Purpose of the technology: The Vacuum Furnace eliminates the solvent use for cleaning. Accomplishment of goals: Material, Waste Development status: emerging Description: The vacuum furnace uses heat and vacuum to vaporise oils from parts (especially metal parts). In a typical system, a load of parts is heated in a vacuum to vaporise all oils present. The vapours are then condensed and collected for later removal to be reprocessed and recycled. Another possibility is a hot wall design that eliminates furnace wall oil deposits caused by the condensation. There is no condensation as the walls are at a temperature above that. The vacuum furnace produces small waste streams consisting of the removed oil from the part. By using proper equipment, the oil can be recycled and reused or sold which would result in no waste streams. Sources for further information: Randall, P. M.: Engineers’ Guide to Cleaner Production Technologies. Lancaster: Technomic Publishing Co., 1996 and listed references. Experience of previous application:


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Removal of Paint and Coatings 4.2 Plastic Media Blasting (PMB) Industry Sector: metal Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Process Change Sub-Category: Removal of Paint and

Coatings Purpose of the technology: PMB eliminates the use of solvent strippers an volatile organic air emissions. The process uses non-toxic plastic media for the coating removal. PMB is a dry stripping process. Thus, wastewater is also eliminated. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: PMB uses low-pressure air or centrifugal wheels to project the plastic media at a surface. The blast particles have sufficient impact energy, coupled with hardness and geometry, to chip away or erode the coating. After the coating has been removed, the part can be prepared for recoating by air pressure and/ or vacuuming to remove plastic dust and coating debris. – The hardness of the plastic particles varies and depends on the coating. Using Thermoplastic media makes recycling possible. The recycled media can be reused or used to produce plastic products. In comparison to solvent stripping operations, PMB requires less electrical energy for heating and electrical equipment operations. The process requires workers to wear respiratory and eye protection equipment. Furthermore, spent plastic media contain paint/ coating chips and thus, it may be a hazardous waste. Sources for further information: Randall, P. M.: Engineers’ Guide to Cleaner Production Technologies. Lancaster: Technomic Publishing Co., 1996 and listed references; Higgins, T. E.; Thom, J.: Solvents Used for Cleaning, Refrigeration, Firefighting, and Other Uses. In: Higgins, T. E. (Ed.), Pollution Prevention Handbook, Boca Raton: Lewis Publishers, 1995, pp. 199 – 243. Experience of previous application: 4.2 High Pressure Water Blasting Industry Sector: metal Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Process Change Sub-Category: Removal of Paint and

Coatings Purpose of the technology: High pressure water blasting eliminates the use of volatile organic compounds. Accomplishment of goals: Material, Waste Development status: mature Description: To remove paint and coatings, high pressure water blasting uses a pulsed or continuous stream of water projected from specially designed nozzles at pressures of 10000 to 35000 psi. High pressure pumps supply water to a system of rotating nozzles that spray the water stream onto the surface. The paint or coating is removed by the kinetic impact of the water stream.


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Sources for further information: Randall, P. M.: Engineers’ Guide to Cleaner Production Technologies. Lancaster: Technomic Publishing Co., 1996 and listed references; Higgins, T. E.; Thom, J.: Solvents Used for Cleaning, Refrigeration, Firefighting, and Other Uses. In: Higgins, T. E. (Ed.), Pollution Prevention Handbook, Boca Raton: Lewis Publishers, 1995, pp. 199 – 243. Experience of previous application:


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Metal Surface Finish 4.2 Blackhole Technology Industry Sector: metal Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Process Change Sub-Category: Metal Surface Finish Purpose of the technology: Blackhole Technology is an alternative to the electroless copper method used in printed wire board (PWB) manufacturing. It is environmentally attractive because the technology uses fewer process steps, reduces health and safety concerns, requires less water and reduces air pollution. Accomplishment of goals: Material, Energy, Waste Development status: mature Description: The Blackhole Technology uses an aqueous carbon black dispersion (suspension) at room temperature for repairing through-holes in PWBs for subsequent copper electro-plating. The carbon film that is obtained provides the conductivity needed for electroplating copper in the through-holes. Sources for further information: Randall, P. M.: Engineers’ Guide to Cleaner Production Technologies. Lancaster: Technomic Publishing Co., 1996 and listed references. Experience of previous application: Plastic Industry Sector Product Life Cycle – Production 4.2 Air moulding (Gas Injection Moulding) Industry Sector: plastic Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Process Change Sub-Category: Primary Shaping Purpose of the technology: Air moulding is an alternative to the injection moulding process. It is environmentally attractive because products produced by this method a thin walls and range in shape and size from small bottles to automobile fuel tanks. Accomplishment of goals: material, energy Development status: mature Description: Air molding is a fast, efficient method for producing hollow containers of thermoplastic polymers. The moulding process involves blowing a tubular shape (parison) of heated polymer in a cavity of a split mould. Next, air (most of the times nitrogen) is injected through a needle into the parison which expands in a fairly uniform thickness and finally conforms to the shape of the cavity. Sources for further information: Hugo Ackermann GmbH & CO. KG: Aimould Technik. Online: http://www.hugo-ackermann.de/technologie.html (accessed: 31.08.2003). Experience of previous application:

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