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108
TRO
Gdo
ura,
M. 1
982.
La
med
ina
de S
fax:
la p
rimau
te d
e la
fonc
tion
econ
omiq
ue.
Pre
sent
et A
veni
r de
s M
edin
as. V
ols.
10
and
11. T
ours
: URB
AM
A C
olle
ctio
n, 4
7-56
. La
gdim
Sou
ssi,
M. B
. 198
4. L
e poi
ds d
e l'ar
tisan
at d
ans l
a med
ina d
e Mar
rake
ch.
Pre
sent
et A
veni
r de
s M
edin
as. V
ols.
10
and
11. T
ours
: URB
AM
A C
olle
ctio
n, 8
3-92
. N
aciri
, M. 1
985.
Reg
ards
sur r
evol
utio
n de
la c
itadi
nitd
au
Mar
oc. I
n To
wns
men
ci
ties,
urb
aniz
atio
n in
the
Ara
b w
orld
toda
y. S
peci
al is
sue i
n Fr
ench
and
Engl
ish. T
ours
URB
AM
A C
olle
ctio
n, 3
7-60
. Also
pub
lishe
d in
198
6 in
Bro
wn,
K.,
Jole
, M.,
Slug
lett
P., a
nd Z
ubai
da, S
., ed
s. M
iddl
e E
aste
rn c
ities
in c
ompa
rativ
e pe
rspe
ctiv
e. L
ondo
n Ith
aca P
ress
.
. 198
7. L
'amen
agem
ent d
es v
illes
et se
s gnj
eaux
. In
Le M
aroc
des
anne
es 8
0,
Mag
hreb
-Mac
hrek
118
,46-
70.
Troi
n, J.
-F. 1
984.
Med
inas
en
peril
. Im
ages
des
scie
nces
de
rhom
me.
C
ourr
ier
di
C.N
.R.S
. 57
,30-
32.
1
986.
The
role
of t
he m
edin
a in
the M
aghr
eb. U
npub
lishe
d pa
per p
rese
nted
at
the
Inte
rnat
iona
l Con
fere
nce
on M
iddl
e Ea
stern
Stu
dies
, Brit
ish S
ocie
ty o
f M
iddle
Easte
rn S
tudi
es an
d th
e Mid
dle E
ast S
tudi
es A
ssoc
iatio
n of
Nor
th A
mer
ica,
Lond
on.
Zerro
uk, L
. 198
6. T
akka
doum
: un
guar
der
peri
pher
ique
de
Rab
at. D
octo
ral t
hesis
, U
nive
rsity
of T
ours
.
MA
PS
Map
s are
take
n fro
m th
e 19
82 P
rese
nt e
t Ave
nir
des
Med
inas
. Vol
s.
10 an
d 11
, To
urs:
URB
AM
A C
olle
ctio
n: G
dour
a, 52
; Bel
fqui
h an
d Fa
dlou
llah,
168
; Har
zalla
h, 3
8;
and
Bous
quet,
13.
HO
OSH
AN
G A
MIR
AH
MA
DI A
ND
ALI
KIA
FAR
6 Th
e Tr
ansf
orm
atio
n of
Te
hran
from
a G
arri
son
Tow
n to
a P
rim
ate
City
A
Tal
e of
Rap
id G
row
th a
nd
Une
ven
Dev
elop
men
t
Sinc
e the
early
dec
ades
of t
he tw
entie
th ce
ntur
y, m
any
large
Thi
rd W
orld
cit
ies h
ave e
xper
ience
d a m
ajor t
rans
form
ation
char
acter
ized
by tw
o pa
ralle
l tre
nds:
a rap
id m
ultif
acete
d so
cioec
onom
ic an
d sp
atial
grow
th an
d a w
ide a
nd
incr
easin
g un
even
dist
ribut
ion
of b
enef
its ac
ross
socia
l clas
ses a
nd n
eighb
or-
hood
s. Th
e for
mer
is m
anife
sted
by a
popu
latio
n in
crea
se, p
hysic
al ex
pans
ion,
co
ncen
tratio
n of s
ocio
econ
omic
insti
tutio
ns, a
nd po
litico
-adm
inist
rativ
e cen
tral-
izatio
n. T
he la
tter i
s ind
icated
by
the r
apid
accu
mul
ation
of w
ealth
and
capi
tal
by a
tiny
layer
and
of p
over
ty b
y a m
ajor s
ectio
n of
the p
opul
ation
and
also
by
the s
patia
l seg
rega
tion o
f soc
ial cl
asse
s with
in th
ese c
ities
. Th
e ext
ensiv
e lite
ratu
re on
the n
ature
of th
ese p
robl
ems s
uffe
rs fro
m th
ree
misc
once
ptio
ns: s
patia
l feti
shism
, dem
ogra
phic
deter
min
ism, a
nd ah
istor
ical
evol
utio
nism
. The
firs
t mak
es sp
atia
l pro
blem
s equ
al to
or c
ause
s of
socio
econ
omic
or p
oliti
cal p
robl
ems o
f soc
ial g
roup
s, th
us co
nfus
ing
the c
ause
wi
th th
e effe
ct. T
he se
cond
also
conf
uses
caus
e with
effe
ct be
caus
e it s
ees r
apid
ur
ban
grow
th a
nd u
neve
n de
velo
pmen
t as c
onse
quen
ces o
f dem
ogra
phic
ch
ange
s and
gove
rnm
ent p
olici
es ra
ther
than
a re
sult
of th
e cap
italis
t acc
umul
a-
tion.
The
fina
l misc
once
ptio
n re
sults
from
a la
ck o
f dist
inct
ion
betw
een
the
grow
th p
roce
ss an
d qu
alita
tive c
hang
e, th
at is
, the
fund
amen
tal d
iffer
ence
be
twee
n gro
wth/
expa
nsio
n and
deve
lopm
ent.
Ironi
cally
, thi
s las
t misc
once
ptio
n lie
s at t
he h
eart
of th
e oth
er tw
o, fo
r whe
n qu
alitat
ive c
hang
es ar
e red
uced
to
quan
titati
ve gr
owth
proc
esse
s, hi
story
beco
mes
redu
ced t
o a li
near
cont
inuu
m of
10
9
110
AM
IRA
HM
AD
I AN
D K
IAP
even
ts ov
er ti
me a
nd th
e spa
ce-ti
me c
onsti
tutio
n of p
heno
men
a los
es it
s dyn
atn
ism. W
ith ti
me's
impa
ct nu
llifie
d, sp
atial
form
gets
fetis
hize
d in
to a
dim
ensi
whos
e dev
elopm
ent p
atter
ns be
com
e ref
lectiv
e of t
he gr
owth
of it
s mate
rial c
on
tent,
which
is as
sum
ed to
be la
rgely
impa
cted b
y exo
geno
us fo
rces
, suc
h as s
ta po
licies
. Wha
t gets
total
ly lo
st is
the q
ualit
ative
dev
elopm
ent o
f for
m an
d co
ten
t tha
t fol
lows
the l
atter
's gr
owth
to a
certa
in m
inim
um.
An al
terna
tive t
heor
etica
l fra
mew
ork
for u
nder
stand
ing
the r
easo
ns b
eh
the r
apid
tran
sform
ation
, as w
ell as
the s
imul
taneo
us ra
pid
grow
th an
d un
ev
deve
lopm
ent i
n Thi
rd W
orld
citie
s, sh
ould
inco
rpor
ate a
diffe
rent
conc
eptio
n hi
story
, one
that
vie
ws c
ities
as h
avin
g go
ne th
roug
h qu
alita
tivel
y di
ffer
stage
s of d
evelo
pmen
t cor
resp
ondi
ng to
quali
tativ
ely di
ffere
nt st
ages
of ca
pital
ist
accu
mul
atio
n. S
tarti
ng w
ith th
is co
ncep
tion,
it al
so b
ecom
es p
ossib
le
to re
cons
titut
e spa
ce-ti
me-
mat
ter r
elat
ions
hips
into
an in
tera
ctiv
e tot
ality
whe
re
each
dim
ensio
n's d
evel
opm
ent b
ecom
es re
flect
ive o
f the
oth
er d
imen
sions
' im
pact.
Our
posit
ion i
s tha
t the
mate
rial d
imen
sion,
the a
ccum
ulati
on pr
oces
s in
parti
cular
, lea
ds th
e hist
orica
l dev
elopm
ent p
roce
sses
that
shap
e the
form
and
cont
ent o
f citi
es.
In th
e fol
lowi
ng p
ages
, we a
pply
the a
bove
pro
posit
ions
to u
nder
stand
the
rapi
d tra
nsfo
rmat
ion
and
unev
en d
evel
opm
ent o
f Teh
ran,
Iran
's ca
pita
l city
. Si
nce t
he ea
rly d
ecad
es o
f thi
s cen
tury
, the
city
has
expe
rienc
ed a
signi
fican
t m
etam
orph
osis
and
has w
itnes
sed
two
para
llel t
rend
s: a r
apid
and
mul
tifac
eted
soci
ospa
tial g
row
th an
d in
crea
sing
sepa
ratio
n am
ong
its so
cial
clas
ses.
The
form
er is
man
ifeste
d by t
he ci
ty's
rapi
d pop
ulati
on in
crea
se, p
hysic
al ex
pans
ion,
conc
entra
tion
of in
stitu
tions
, and
adm
inist
rativ
e cen
traliz
atio
n. T
he la
tter i
s in
dica
ted b
y th
e rap
id ac
cum
ulati
on o
f wea
lth an
d ca
pital
by
a tin
y lay
er o
f the
cit
y's re
siden
ts, p
over
ty o
f mos
t of t
he p
opul
ation
, and
spati
al se
greg
ation
of i
ts so
cial c
lasse
s. Th
e ra
pid
grow
th a
nd in
crea
sing
cont
radi
ctio
ns in
Teh
ran
refle
ct it
s tra
nsfo
rmati
on fr
om a
prec
apita
list c
ity in
the e
ight
eent
h thr
ough
the e
arly
twen
-tie
th ce
ntur
ies t
o a t
rans
ition
al ca
pita
list c
ity in
the 1
920
to 1
950
perio
d to
a de
pend
ent c
apita
list c
ity af
ter th
e 195
0s.' T
his t
rans
form
ation
was
a di
rect
resu
lt of
the o
ne-h
undr
ed-y
ear t
rans
ition
of Ir
anian
socie
ty, i
n whi
ch ca
pital
accu
mul
a-tio
n wa
s firs
t bas
ed o
n ru
ral s
ubsis
tence
pro
ducti
on an
d lat
er o
n in
terna
tiona
lly
orie
nted
pro
duct
ion
for e
xcha
nge
and
prof
it in
citi
es. T
he c
ities
wer
e tra
nsfo
rmed
from
cent
ers o
f con
trol a
nd ru
ral e
xtra
ction
to p
rodu
ction
sites
and
mar
ket a
reas
. Bec
ause
Teh
ran
was
the p
oliti
cal c
ente
r of t
he co
untry
in th
e tra
nsiti
on p
erio
d, it
gra
dual
ly ac
quire
d its
pre
dom
inan
t pos
ition
(Fig
ure 6
-1).
The
city
, ove
r tim
e, b
ecam
e di
sting
uish
ed fo
r its
heav
y co
ncen
tratio
n of
ec
onom
ic, so
cial,
and p
oliti
cal a
ctivi
ties.
This
trans
form
ation
led t
o the
capi
tal's
rapi
d po
pulat
ion
grow
th, p
hysic
al ex
pans
ion,
and
wide
ning
socio
econ
omic
and
spati
al co
ntra
dicti
ons.
The T
rans
form
atio
n of
Teh
ran
111
FIG
UR
E 6
-1.
Iran
ian
prov
ince
s an
d m
ajor
citi
es,
1976
.
Tehr
an in
Pre
capi
talis
t Ira
n
In th
is so
ciety
, whi
ch la
sted u
ntil
the e
nd of
the f
irst q
uarte
r of t
he tw
entie
th
cent
ury,
agr
icul
ture
was
dom
inan
t, an
d la
ndlo
rds o
wne
d or
con
trolle
d th
e lan
d—th
e prim
e mea
ns o
f pro
ducti
on—
thro
ugh
a var
iety
of m
eans
, inc
ludi
ng
inhe
ritan
ce, r
oyal
gran
ts, an
d com
miss
ions
(Lam
bton
1969
). Pe
asan
ts we
re no
r-m
ally
tied
to a
plot
of l
and.
Citi
es se
rved
prim
arily
as p
oliti
cal,
adm
inist
rativ
e, an
d com
mer
cial c
enter
s, th
at is,
their
basic
func
tion w
as no
t pro
ducti
on bu
t con
-tro
l and
dist
ribut
ion
of th
e nat
iona
l sur
plus
. The
coun
trysid
e pro
duce
d th
e
112
AM
IRA
HM
AD
I AN
D M
AH
AR
,:
surp
lus,
and
the
tow
ns a
ppro
pria
ted
mos
t of i
t by
polit
ical
pow
er a
nd th
roug
h,'
exch
ange
mec
hani
sms (
Am
irahm
adi 1
982)
. Sin
ce ac
cum
ulat
ed su
rplu
s did
not
go
to p
rodu
ctiv
e use
s and
ther
eby
requ
ired
an ad
ditio
nal l
abor
forc
e for
pro
duc-
tion
and
asso
ciat
ed ec
onom
ic ac
tiviti
es, c
ities
did
not
gro
w m
uch.
Urb
an g
row
th
was
also
lim
ited
by re
stric
tions
on
the m
ovem
ent o
f pea
sant
s and
the l
ow ra
te o
f po
pula
tion
incr
ease
due
to h
igh
deat
h ra
tes.
Onl
y ci
ties o
n m
ajor
tran
sit ro
utes
an
d se
ats o
f pol
itica
l pow
er g
rew
subs
tant
ially
. The
low
leve
l of u
rban
-rura
l di
spar
ity re
mai
ned
larg
ely
cons
tant
des
pite
hea
vy su
rplu
s ext
ract
ion
from
the
coun
trysid
e. Th
us, o
ver t
he e
ntire
186
7 to
192
1 pe
riod,
the
Irani
an u
rban
pop
ulat
ion
grew
by
only
a 1
.64
perc
ent a
vera
ge p
er y
ear a
s com
pare
d to
2.4
1 pe
rcen
t for
th
e ru
ral p
opul
atio
n an
d 0.
96 p
erce
nt fo
r nom
ads.
The
grow
th ra
tes f
or la
rger
ci
ties w
as so
mew
hat h
ighe
r, 2.
17 p
erce
nt a
vera
ge p
er a
nnum
ove
r the
186
7 to
19
13 p
erio
d (A
mira
hmad
i 198
2). A
mon
g su
ch ci
ties w
ere T
ehra
n in
the n
orth
- ce
ntra
l reg
ion
and
Tabr
iz an
d K
houy
in th
e nor
thw
est p
art o
f the
coun
try.
Tehr
an w
as a
smal
l vill
age a
nd a
sate
llite
of t
he im
porta
nt ci
ty o
f Ray
unt
il th
e sev
ente
enth
cent
ury.
For
cent
urie
s, th
e tow
n ha
d gr
own
slow
ly. B
etw
een
the
mid
-fifte
enth
and
mid
-eig
htee
nth
cent
urie
s, Ira
nian
kin
gs o
rder
ed th
e con
struc
-tio
n of
wal
ls, t
ower
s and
gat
es, g
over
nmen
t off
ices
, and
roya
l bui
ldin
gs in
Te
hran
or h
eld
thei
r win
ter c
ourts
in th
e ci
ty. T
he c
entra
l loc
atio
n of
Teh
ran,
w
hich
mad
e acc
ess t
o di
ffere
nt p
arts
of th
e roy
al ju
risdi
ctio
n ea
sy, w
as n
o do
ubt
an im
porta
nt fa
ctor
in th
is ea
rly g
row
th o
f the
city
.2 A
fter i
t was
sele
cted
'as th
e ca
pita
l of t
he co
untry
by
the f
ound
er o
f the
Qaj
ar d
ynas
ty (1
796-
1925
), it
grew
in
to a
prin
cipa
l com
mer
cial
cent
er w
ith a
maj
or b
azaa
r (m
arke
tplac
e) an
d m
any
smal
l-sca
le tr
adin
g an
d ga
rden
ing
activ
ities
(Bah
ram
beyg
ui 1
977)
. Fol
low
ing
thes
e de
velo
pmen
ts, th
e ci
ty's
popu
latio
n, e
stim
ated
at f
iftee
n th
ousa
nd in
the
1620
s, su
rged
to ab
out f
ifty
thou
sand
by
the 1
800s
and
reac
hed
the 1
20,0
00 to
15
0,00
0 le
vel i
n th
e sec
ond
half
of th
e nin
etee
nth
cent
ury
(Tab
le 6
-1).
In th
e ne
xt fi
fty y
ears
, unt
il ar
ound
192
0, th
e po
pula
tion
of th
e ca
pita
l of
Pers
ia (a
s the
coun
try w
as ca
lled
by th
e out
side w
orld
unt
il 19
37) i
ncre
ased
by
at le
ast a
noth
er fi
fty th
ousa
nd. I
n 19
22,
the
city
's fir
st of
ficia
l cen
sus,
cond
ucte
d by
the m
unic
ipal
ity, r
epor
ted
a pop
ulat
ion
of 2
10,0
00. 3
Te
hran
's po
litic
al d
omin
atio
n du
ring
the Q
ajar
per
iod
allo
wed
it to
extra
ct
surp
lus (
in th
e fo
rm o
f tax
es, r
ent i
n ki
nd, a
nd la
bor)
from
the
hint
erla
nd a
nd
prov
ince
s (Ba
hram
beyg
ui 1
977)
. The
mon
ey w
as sp
ent o
n th
e roy
al co
urt a
nd
the
nobi
lity,
on
cere
mon
ial e
vent
s, on
Eur
opea
n tri
ps o
f the
sha
hs (k
ings
) and
th
eir e
ntou
rage
s, on
the
build
ing
of n
ew w
alls
and
city
gat
es, a
nd o
n lu
xury
pa
laces
.4 Th
e city
was
by
no m
eans
a ce
nter
of p
rodu
ctio
n bu
t rat
her a
cent
er o
f ad
min
istra
tion
and
com
mer
ce (B
ahra
mbe
ygui
197
7; C
oste
llo 1
981)
. Ear
lier i
n th
e per
iod
(aro
und
the 1
620s
), Te
hran
was
said
to h
ave b
een
a "ga
rriso
n to
wn"
The T
rans
form
atio
n of
Teh
ran
113
TABL
E 6-
1 Po
pula
tion
of T
ehra
n, S
elec
ted
Yea
rs, 1
620-
1950
Year
or P
erio
d Po
pula
tion
Estim
ates
1620
-162
7 15
,000
1780
-180
0 45
,000 t
o 50,0
00
1810
-182
0 45
,000 t
o 60,0
00
1840
60
,000
1850
-186
0 80
,000 t
o 120
.000
1870
-187
5 12
0,000
18
85-1
895
150,0
00 to
200,0
00
1900
-192
0 20
0,000
to 25
0,000
19
25
250,0
00
1932
31
0,000
19
34
360,0
00
1940
40
0,000
19
42
540,0
00
1950
1,0
09,53
9
Sour
ce:
Dat
a co
mpi
led
from
est
imat
es q
uote
d in
Bah
ram
beyg
ui 1
977;
Kar
iman
19
76; a
nd T
abriz
i 198
1.
(Bah
ram
beyg
ui 1
977)
. Ind
eed,
of f
iftee
n th
ousa
nd in
habi
tant
s of t
he ci
ty, t
hree
th
ousa
nd w
ere r
epor
ted to
hav
e bee
n so
ldier
s (Ba
hram
beyg
ui 1
977)
. Be
fore
the t
wen
tieth
cent
ury,
the c
lass
stru
ctur
e of T
ehra
n, li
ke o
ther
maj
or
Irani
an to
wns
of t
he p
erio
d, c
onsis
ted
of se
vera
l pro
perti
ed c
lass
es a
t the
top,
in
clud
ing
the
nobi
lity,
cou
rtier
s, la
ndlo
rds,
high
er e
chel
ons o
f the
cle
rgy,
and
w
ealth
y m
erch
ants;
a la
rge n
umbe
r of m
iddl
e-cl
ass i
ndiv
idua
ls, m
ainl
y ar
tisan
s an
d sh
opke
eper
s of t
he b
azaa
r; an
d co
mm
on p
eopl
e, m
ostly
the l
ower
leve
l of
wor
kers
in th
e baz
aar a
nd o
n su
burb
an ag
ricul
tura
l lan
d.5 G
iven
that
the l
arge
st pr
oper
tyle
ss c
lass
, the
pea
sant
ry, l
ived
in th
e co
untry
side,
the
nonp
rope
rtied
Te
hran
is di
d no
t mak
e up
a si
gnifi
cant
ly h
igh
prop
ortio
n of
pop
ulat
ion
in th
e cit
y. A
lthou
gh li
fe w
as h
ard
for m
any
urba
nite
s, ab
solu
te p
over
ty w
as n
ot a
m
ajor
pro
blem
, as e
vide
nced
by
fore
ign
trave
lers
' and
dom
estic
writ
ers'
acco
unts
(Am
irahm
adi 1
982)
. Sim
ilarly
, spa
tial s
egre
gatio
n am
ong
soci
al
grou
ps ex
isted
but
was
not
cons
picu
ous.
For i
nsta
nce,
diffe
rent
nei
ghbo
rhoo
ds
or re
siden
tial d
istric
ts ex
isted
in T
ehra
n, b
ut th
e pop
ulat
ion
was
rela
tivel
y m
ixed
114
AM
IRA
HM
AD
I AN
D K
IAFA
R
acro
ss th
e city
bou
ndar
ies (d
efin
ed b
y wa
lls an
d ga
tes).
Spati
al sp
ecial
izatio
n of
ac
tiviti
es, h
owev
er, d
id o
ccur
. Lik
e mos
t oth
er P
ersia
n to
wns,
the c
ity h
ad v
ari-
' ou
s dist
ricts
with
diffe
rent
func
tions
. Spe
cifica
lly, T
ehra
n had
four
distr
icts t
hat,
as a
resu
lt of
the p
opul
atio
n in
crea
se an
d th
e phy
sical
expa
nsio
n of
the c
ity,
grew
into
six
after
186
7 (B
ahra
mbe
ygui
197
7; O
liver
180
7). T
hey
inclu
ded
the
com
mer
cial
dist
ricts
of th
e ba
zaar
, the
roya
l dist
rict
(Ark
, or
cita
del),
the
' 1 politico-administrative district (d
owla
t, or
gov
ernm
ent),
and
thre
e res
iden
tial
distr
icts (
Sang
elaj,
Oudl
ajan,
and C
haleh
-Maid
an).
6 In
sum
, cor
resp
ondi
ng w
ith th
e dom
inan
t sys
tem o
f pro
ducti
on an
d ac
cu-
mul
atio
n pr
oces
s in
the e
ntire
Iran
ian
soci
ety,
'old
Teh
ran,
in th
e pre
capi
talis
t pe
riod,
whi
ch la
sted
until
afte
r the
mid
-nin
etee
nth
cent
ury,
had
a re
lativ
ely
smal
l pop
ulat
ion
size,
grew
stea
dily
but
slow
ly, 7
and
did
not e
xper
ienc
e pro
-no
unce
d co
ntra
dicti
ons a
mon
g th
e bul
k of
its p
opul
ation
(peo
ple o
utsid
e of t
he
cour
t and
thei
r ass
ocia
tes)
. The
clas
s stru
ctur
e of t
he ci
ty re
mai
ned
basic
ally
in
tact,
and
for c
entu
ries,
ther
e wer
e no
signi
fican
t cha
nges
in in
com
e dist
ribu-
tion
patte
rns a
nd fo
rmati
on o
f new
urb
an so
cial g
roup
s (Ja
vahe
r-Kala
m 1
946;
Ka
riman
1976
; Najm
i 198
5; S
hahr
i 197
8).
Tehr
an in
the T
rans
ition
al C
apita
list P
erio
d
Star
ting i
n the
seco
nd ha
lf of
the n
inete
enth
cent
ury,
as a
cons
eque
nce o
f a
serie
s of i
nter
nal t
rans
form
ation
s, str
uctu
ral d
evelo
pmen
ts at
the g
loba
l lev
el,
And
dire
ct ex
tern
al in
fluen
ces,
Iran
pass
ed th
roug
h a p
roce
ss o
f cha
nge t
hat
signi
fican
tly al
tered
man
y fa
cets
of th
e soc
iety,
inclu
ding
its e
cono
mic
syste
m,
polit
ical
stru
ctur
e, so
cial
pow
er b
ase,
and
stat
us o
f the
stat
e. W
hile
thes
e tra
nsfo
rmati
ons w
ere h
ighl
ight
ed b
y th
e Con
stitu
tiona
l Rev
olut
ion
of 1
905-
9, it
wa
s not
until
the 1
920s
that
the p
roce
ss of
tran
sitio
n fro
m pr
imar
ily pr
ecap
italis
t ac
cum
ulati
on to
capi
talism
got u
nder
way
and i
ts im
pact
notic
ed. T
hese
chan
ges
were
conc
urre
nt w
ith, a
nd in
tensif
ied by
, a sh
ift in
the p
oliti
cal r
egim
e. Th
e reg
ime,
whi
ch ca
me t
o po
wer
thro
ugh
a cou
p d'e
tat b
y Re
za K
han,
la
ter R
eza S
hah,
the f
ound
er o
f the
Pah
lavi
dyn
asty
(192
5-19
79),
ende
d th
e m
ore t
han
a cen
tury
old
rule
of a
bsol
utist
Qaj
ars.
Resp
ondi
ng to
real
ities
, the
ne
w re
gim
e too
k the
histo
rical
task o
f driv
ing t
he co
untry
towa
rd fu
ll-sc
ale ca
pi-
talis
t dev
elop
men
t by
esta
blish
ing
an in
fant
stat
e-ca
pita
lism
wra
pped
in an
au
thor
itaria
n pol
itica
l sys
tem. T
he re
gim
e reb
uilt
the w
eake
ned s
tate m
achi
nery
, re
orga
nize
d th
e anc
ient
bur
eauc
raci
es, a
nd m
oder
nize
d th
e soc
iety
bas
ed o
n W
ester
n mod
els (B
anan
i 196
1). T
he m
onop
oliza
tion o
f for
eign t
rade
, the
estab
-lis
hmen
t of s
tate b
anks
and
com
mer
cial a
genc
ies, t
he cr
eatio
n of
state
-own
ed
indu
strie
s, th
e ass
umpt
ion
of an
activ
e and
aggr
essiv
e gov
erni
ng ro
le b
y th
e
The
Tran
sfor
mat
ion
of T
ehra
n 11
5
state,
and,
in g
ener
al, th
e con
trol o
f the
majo
r mea
ns o
f urb
an ec
onom
ic ac
tivi-
ties w
ere t
he m
anife
statio
ns of
the n
ew po
litica
l-eco
nom
ic sy
stem
in Ir
an.8
Th
e dete
rmin
ation
of th
e firs
t Pah
lavi r
egim
e to f
ollo
w a p
atter
n of c
apita
l-ist
deve
lopm
ent,
howe
ver,
was n
ot su
fficie
nt fo
r cap
italis
m to
beco
me t
he do
m-
inan
t mod
e of
pro
duct
ion
in a
shor
t per
iod
of ti
me.
Pre
capi
talis
t rel
atio
ns
rem
aine
d str
ong
in e
very
asp
ect o
f Ira
nian
soci
ety
durin
g th
e ne
xt se
vera
l de
cade
s. It
was o
nly i
n the
late
1950
s and
espe
cially
in th
e ear
ly 19
60s t
hat c
api-
talist
relat
ions
and i
nstit
utio
ns gr
ew do
min
ant (
Amira
hmad
i 198
0). N
oneth
eless
, un
der t
he ne
w re
gim
e, ac
cum
ulati
on be
cam
e urb
an-c
enter
ed, d
omin
ated b
y ser
-vi
ce an
d ind
ustri
al se
ctors.
Th
e cen
traliz
ation
of th
e res
tructu
red,
auth
orita
tive s
tate w
as ac
com
pani
ed
by th
e con
cent
ratio
n of n
ew in
dustr
ial, f
inan
cial,
and c
omm
ercia
l esta
blish
men
ts in
Teh
ran
and,
far l
ess,
in a
few
oth
er m
ajor
citi
es, i
nclu
ding
Tab
riz a
nd
Esfa
han.
By 19
50, m
ore t
han 3
8 per
cent
of la
rge i
ndus
trial
estab
lishm
ents
were
lo
cated
in T
ehra
n.9 C
omm
ercia
l tra
nsac
tions
and
econ
omic
activ
ities
wer
e pri-
mar
ily ca
rried
out
for p
rofit
. At t
he sa
me t
ime,
and
as a
resu
lt of
the s
tate-
led
capi
talist
syste
m o
f acc
umul
ation
, two
new
clas
ses e
mer
ged
in Ir
an, p
redo
m-
inan
tly in
a fe
w b
ig c
ities
: a n
ew m
iddl
e cl
ass,
whi
ch in
clud
ed a
gro
win
g nu
mbe
r of s
tate-
empl
oyed
bur
eauc
rats,
tech
nocr
ats, t
each
ers,
and
stude
nts,
and
an in
dustr
ial w
orki
ng cl
ass.
The m
embe
rs of
the t
wo ne
w cla
sses
wer
e bas
ically
th
e you
nger
gene
ratio
n of t
he tr
aditi
onal
mid
dle c
lasse
s, es
pecia
lly th
e ba
zaar
is
(peo
ple a
ssoc
iated
with
the b
azaa
r), an
d low
er le
vel w
orke
rs fo
rmer
ly in
volv
ed
in tr
aditi
onal
trade
s and
activ
ities
. Onl
y a fe
w ca
me f
rom
the p
easa
ntry
. In a
ddi-
tion,
the W
ester
n-or
iented
bour
geoi
sie, w
hich
was
alre
ady e
mer
ging
in th
e latt
er
part
of th
e nin
eteen
th ce
ntur
y, gr
ew in
size
and p
rosp
erity
due t
o the
incr
easin
g in
tegra
tion
of th
e loc
al ec
onom
y in
to th
e glo
bal c
apita
list s
ystem
. An
abso
lute
majo
rity o
f the
se pe
ople
lived
in th
e cap
ital c
ity of
Teh
ran (
Adib
i 197
9; B
harie
r 19
71). Th
e abo
ve d
evelo
pmen
ts ga
ve ri
se to
the g
rowt
h of
Teh
ran,
bot
h in
term
s of
pop
ulat
ion
and
area
, and
to a
wid
enin
g so
cioe
cono
mic
gap
amon
g so
cial
gr
oups
. In 1
920,
Tehr
an w
as vi
rtuall
y of t
he sa
me p
opul
ation
size
as T
abriz
and
not m
uch
larg
er th
an E
sfah
an, S
hira
z, an
d M
ashh
ad, t
he o
ther
larg
e Ira
nian
cit
ies. I
t had
less
than
2 pe
rcen
t of t
he to
tal na
tiona
l pop
ulati
on. D
urin
g the
1920
to
195
0 pe
riod,
the c
ity d
evel
oped
into
the p
rimat
e city
of t
he co
untry
afte
r ex
perie
ncin
g a po
pulat
ion e
xplo
sion
(see
Tab
le 6-
1). B
y 195
0, Te
hran
beca
me a
"m
illio
n city
," ho
usin
g mor
e tha
n 30 p
erce
nt of
Iran
's to
tal ur
ban p
opul
ation
. A
signi
fican
t por
tion
of th
e pop
ulat
ion
incr
ease
was
due
to im
prov
emen
ts in
na
tiona
l hea
lth. A
n eq
ually
impo
rtant
par
t of T
ehra
n's p
opul
ation
gro
wth
was
the r
esul
t of a
n inc
reas
ing m
igra
tion t
o the
city
. I°
Alon
g with
the p
opul
ation
grow
th ca
me t
he ph
ysica
l exp
ansio
n of t
he ci
ty
(Fig
ure 6
-2).
In 1
920,
Teh
ran
had
an a
rea
of 2
,450
hec
tares
(app
roxi
mate
ly
Krn.
PF
2_4
1i.
116
AMIR
AHM
ADI A
ND K
1AB
The T
rans
form
atio
n of
Teh
ran
117
FIGU
RE 6
-2. P
hysic
al ex
pans
ion
of T
ehra
n, 1
868-
4971
.
PH
YS
ICA
L E
XP
AN
SIO
N O
F T
EH
RA
N ,
1868 -
1971
Shem
ira
TEH
RA
N
•
Ray
Cit
adel
are
a 1
Old
wal
led
cit
y u
nti
l 186
8 1 ■0
S
ub
urb
s ar
ou
nd
186
8
MI
Vill
ages
1
.1
Exp
ansi
on
in 1
868
=
Exp
ansi
on
in 1
937
tin
Exp
ansi
on
un
til 1
955
IMII
Exp
ansi
on
un
til 1
971
ED
Sour
ce: A
dapt
ed fr
om M
icha
el E
. Bon
ine,
"C
ities
of t
he M
iddl
e Ea
st a
nd N
orth
Afr
ica,
" in
S.
D. B
runn
and
J. F
. Will
iam
s, C
ities
of t
he W
orld
(New
Yor
k: H
arpe
r an
d R
ow, 1
983)
. Ori
gina
lly
from
Mar
tin S
eger
, "St
rukt
urel
emen
te d
er S
tadt
Teh
eran
uni
t das
Mod
ell d
er M
oder
nen
Orie
ntal
-is
hen
Stad
t,"Er
dkun
de 2
9, I
(197
5): 2
3.
6,00
0 ac
res;
one h
ectar
e is 1
0,00
0 sq
uare
mete
rs or
appr
oxim
ately
2.4
7 ac
res),
wi
th an
aver
age d
ensit
y of
85.
7 pe
ople
per h
ectar
e (35
.5/ac
re).
The c
ity b
oun-
darie
s, id
entif
ied w
ith w
alls,
gates
, and
a su
rroun
ding
dry
moa
t bui
lt ye
ars e
ar-
lier,
were
clea
rly se
para
ted fr
om th
ose o
f the
near
by ci
ty of
Ray
(abo
ut te
n mile
s to
the s
outh
) and
the s
ubur
ban
villa
ge-tu
rned
-tow
n of
Taj
rish
in S
hem
iran
(app
roxi
mate
ly ei
ght m
iles t
o th
e nor
th).
By th
e mid
-twen
tieth
cent
ury,
Teh
ran
had
expa
nded
to m
ore t
han
8,00
0 he
ctar
es, w
ith an
aver
age d
ensit
y of
187
.5
pers
ons p
er h
ecta
re (m
ore t
han
seve
nty-
seve
n pe
r acr
e). T
he ci
ty ex
pans
ion
embo
died
a m
ajor t
rans
form
ation
in it
s phy
sical
iden
tity a
nd sp
atial
quali
ties.
In ac
cord
ance
with
his
auth
orita
tive p
olici
es o
f mod
erni
zatio
n, an
d in
an
effo
rt to
sym
boliz
e the
beg
inni
ng o
f a "n
ew er
a," R
eza S
hah
(192
5-19
41) h
ad
the c
ity w
alls t
orn d
own i
n 193
7. He
also
chan
ged t
he ur
ban f
abric
by co
nstru
ct-in
g w
ide a
venu
es cu
tting
thro
ugh
old
quar
ters
(Loc
khar
t 193
9). D
urin
g hi
s re
ign,
a ne
w ci
ty w
as b
uilt
to th
e nor
th o
f the
exist
ing
quar
ters
, with
mod
ern
struc
ture
s, wi
de an
d occ
asio
nally
land
scap
ed st
reets
, and
freq
uent
squa
res.
The
mod
ern
gove
rnm
ental
bui
ldin
gs, r
equi
red
for t
he ex
pand
ed b
urea
ucra
cies,
as
well
as ho
uses
of th
e upp
er cl
asse
s wer
e prim
arily
put i
n the
se ne
wer q
uarte
rs .
11 The modern city was essentially designed and developed based on European ar
chite
cture
styl
es an
d ur
ban
desig
n co
ncep
ts. It
enjo
yed
basic
amen
ities
, suc
h as
elec
trici
ty an
d te
leph
one s
yste
ms.
A fe
w co
mm
erci
al st
rips w
ere c
reat
ed
along
the n
ewly
bui
lt str
eets,
form
ing
shop
ping
subc
enter
s tha
t cha
lleng
ed th
e vi
tality
of th
e tra
ditio
nal c
entra
lly lo
cated
shop
ping
distr
ict, t
he ba
zaar
. Th
e phy
sical
appe
aran
ce an
d qu
aliti
es o
f mod
ern
Tehr
an w
ere i
n sh
arp
• co
ntra
st to
thos
e of t
he ol
d dist
ricts,
mos
t of w
hich
had e
volv
ed in
conf
orm
ance
to
the t
radi
tiona
l Mid
dle E
aste
rn u
rban
mod
els a
nd la
cked
mod
ern
conv
eni-
ence
s.12
The p
rivile
ges o
ffere
d by
mod
ern
distr
icts a
ttrac
ted th
e bett
er-o
ff po
r-tio
n of
the p
opul
ation
of o
lder
neig
hbor
hood
s: m
oder
n bo
urge
oisie
and
uppe
r pe
tty bo
urge
oisie
, par
ticul
arly
the n
ew so
cial g
roup
of te
chno
crats
and e
duca
ted
prof
essio
nals.
As t
his s
hift
of po
pulat
ion t
owar
d the
north
ern c
ity co
ntin
ued—
a tre
nd ac
celer
ated i
n the
post-
Rem
Sha
h era
—th
e tra
ditio
nal q
uarte
rs ca
me t
o be
fille
d w
ith n
ew m
igra
nts a
nd th
e low
er cl
asse
s, w
ho m
oved
into
the f
orm
er
resid
ence
s of t
he af
fluen
t (Ba
hram
beyg
ui 19
77).
As a
resu
lt of
the n
ew in
habi
-tan
ts' fi
nanc
ial ha
rdsh
ip or
lack
of de
sire c
oupl
ed w
ith th
e gov
ernm
ent's
negl
ect,
if no
t adv
erse
polic
ies, t
he ol
der n
eighb
orho
ods w
ere n
ot pr
oper
ly m
aintai
ned o
r im
prov
ed, c
ausin
g the
ir gr
adua
l dete
riora
tion.
The p
hysic
al de
cline
of th
e tra
di-
tiona
l urb
an se
ction
s and
the g
rowt
h of
mod
ern
quar
ters i
ncre
ased
the i
ntra
ur-
ban
cont
radi
ctio
ns. B
y th
e lat
e 195
0s an
d 19
60s,
the d
istin
ctio
n be
twee
n th
e ad
min
istra
tive-
com
mer
cial s
ecto
r and
the r
esid
entia
l sec
tor,
as w
ell as
betw
een
north
and
sout
h Te
hran
, bec
ame p
rono
unce
d. T
he lo
catio
n of
new
shop
ping
ce
nter
s in
the
north
and
of i
ndus
tries
in th
e so
uth
mad
e th
e co
ntra
st ev
en
The
Tran
sfor
mat
ion
of T
ehra
n 11
9 11
8 AM
IRAH
MAD
I AN
D K
IAPA
R
shar
per.
New
facto
ries w
ere a
lso es
tablis
hed
in th
e wes
tern
and
easte
rn p
arts
of
the c
apita
l. Th
e spa
tial s
egre
gatio
n of
soci
al cl
asse
s acc
entu
ated
the g
row
ing
cont
radi
ction
s of t
he ci
ty.
Furth
erm
ore,
Tehr
an d
id n
ot ex
pand
phy
sical
ly as
fast
as it
s pop
ulat
ion
incr
ease
d, an
d th
e res
ultin
g ris
e in
dens
ity w
as n
ot p
ropo
rtion
ately
dist
ribut
ed
amon
g its
dist
ricts.
Gen
eral
ly sp
eaki
ng, t
he n
ewly
bui
lt no
rther
n di
stric
ts en
joye
d lo
w p
opul
atio
n de
nsity
, in
the f
ifty
to o
ne h
undr
ed p
erso
ns p
er ac
re
rang
e, wh
ile th
e cor
resp
ondi
ng fi
gure
for t
radi
tiona
l neig
hbor
hood
s in
the c
en-
tral a
nd so
uth p
arts
of T
ehra
n was
abou
t 100
to 12
5 per
sons
per a
cre.
The u
neve
n di
strib
utio
n of
pop
ulati
on ac
ross
the c
ity b
ound
aries
was
but
on
e man
ifesta
tion o
f the
grow
ing i
nequ
alitie
s—so
cial,
econ
omic,
and c
ultu
ral—
amon
g so
cial g
roup
s in
the c
apita
l city
. The
upp
er cl
asse
s, m
oder
n pe
tty b
our-
geoi
sie, a
nd n
ew sa
laried
mid
dle c
lasse
s ben
efite
d m
uch
mor
e fro
m th
e con
di-
tions
pro
vide
d by
a ch
ange
syste
m o
f acc
umul
ation
and
a pol
itica
l reg
ime t
hat
prom
oted
expa
nsio
n of c
apita
list r
elatio
ns. T
he st
ate's
attem
pts t
owar
d inc
reas
ed
indu
strial
pro
ducti
on, g
rowt
h of
the g
over
nmen
t's b
urea
ucra
tic ar
m, a
nd in
cor-
pora
tion
of lo
cal e
cono
my
into
the g
loba
l cap
italis
t sys
tem w
ere m
ostly
to th
e ad
vant
age o
f the
se so
cial f
orce
s. Be
nefit
ing
from
accu
mul
ated
capi
tal an
d im
prov
ed so
cioec
onom
ic co
ndi-
tions
, the
upp
er a
nd m
iddl
e cl
asse
s mov
ed to
a li
fe-s
tyle
that
was
shar
ply
diffe
rent
from
that
of t
he tr
aditi
onal
mid
dle-
and
low
er-in
com
e gro
ups,
the
emer
ging
indu
strial
wor
king
'clas
s, an
d th
e majo
rity
of n
ewly
mig
rated
pop
ula-
tion.
The
lowe
r por
tions
of t
he u
rban
socia
l hier
arch
y di
d no
t enj
oy a
tangi
ble
mat
eria
l im
prov
emen
t in
thei
r soc
ioec
onom
ic st
atus
. The
wor
king
clas
s and
ot
her l
ow-in
com
e gro
ups w
ere b
y no m
eans
fina
ncial
ly se
cure
nor a
ble t
o obt
ain
guar
antee
d lo
ng-ra
nge e
mpl
oym
ent.
They
bec
ame e
ssen
tially
dep
ende
nt o
n th
e co
mpe
titiv
e job
mar
ket a
nd th
e flu
ctuati
ng u
rban
econ
omy,
whi
ch w
as p
artic
u-la
rly u
nsta
ble i
n th
e ten
yea
rs fo
llow
ing
the o
ccup
atio
n of
the c
ity b
y A
llied
fo
rces
in 1
941
as a
resu
lt of
Wor
ld W
ar II
. The
refo
re, w
hile
a m
inor
ity p
ros-
pere
d, th
e majo
rity
of T
ehra
n's p
opul
ation
fell
behi
nd. T
he re
sult
was t
he p
ro-
cess
of w
iden
ing c
ontra
dicti
ons,
a tre
nd th
at in
tensif
ied in
the n
ext f
ew de
cade
s. In
shor
t, th
e tra
nsiti
onal
capi
talist
per
iod
in Ir
an m
arke
d th
e beg
inni
ng o
f an
era
that
acc
eler
ated
intra
city
soci
oeco
nom
ic c
ontra
dict
ions
in T
ehra
n,
chan
ged
its p
hysic
al ch
arac
ter a
nd sp
atia
l dist
ribut
ion
of it
s pop
ulat
ion,
and
incr
ease
d its
pop
ulati
on si
ze. F
rom
a re
lativ
ely sm
all an
d un
diffe
rent
iated
city
, Te
hran
gre
w in
to a
met
ropo
lis w
ith cl
ear p
rimac
y ov
er o
ther
Iran
ian
urba
n ce
nter
s. Th
e city
wen
t fro
m a
com
pact,
prein
dustr
ial to
wn co
ntain
ing a
cent
rally
lo
cated
civi
c and
com
mer
cial d
istric
t to a
socio
spati
ally s
egre
gated
, sig
nific
antly
ex
pand
ed u
rban
area
with
an in
crea
sing
num
ber o
f com
mer
cial
subc
ente
rs,
gove
rnm
ent o
ffice
s, an
d ind
ustri
al fa
ctorie
s.
Tehr
an in
the D
epen
dent
Cap
italis
t Per
iod
Capi
tal ac
cum
ulati
on in
Iran
enter
ed a
new
stage
in th
e ear
ly 1
950s
. Fol
-lo
wing
the 1
953
coup
d'et
at ag
ainst
the n
ation
alist
and
dem
ocra
ticall
y ele
cted
gove
rnm
ent o
f Moh
amm
ad M
ossa
de,q,
I3 th
e mon
arch
ic re
gim
e lau
nche
d a se
ries
of at
tempt
s dire
cted a
t cap
italis
t exp
ansio
n of t
he ec
onom
y and
grow
th of
indu
s-tri
al pr
oduc
tion b
ased
on oi
l rev
enue
(whi
ch ha
d inc
reas
ed fr
om $8
17 m
illio
n in
1968
to $1
9,000
mill
ion i
n 197
3) an
d for
eign t
echn
ical a
ssist
ance
. The
objec
tive
of th
e stat
e and
its f
oreig
n alli
es w
as to
fully
integ
rate
the I
rani
an ec
onom
y int
o th
e cor
e cap
italis
t eco
nom
ies. S
uch
inco
rpor
ation
, whi
ch re
quire
d th
e abo
litio
n of
the r
emain
der o
f pre
capi
talist
relat
ions
, was
seen
as th
e mos
t viab
le ap
proa
ch
to p
ushi
ng th
e cou
ntry
out
of t
he p
ersis
ting
"bac
kwar
dnes
s." F
orm
atio
n of
a sta
ble a
nd st
rong
state
was
a pr
ereq
uisit
e. Th
us, a
sign
ifica
nt po
rtion
of in
terna
l re
sour
ces a
nd fo
reig
n ai
d in
the y
ears
imm
edia
tely
follo
win
g th
e cou
p d'e
tat
went
into
crea
ting s
uch r
epre
ssiv
e app
aratu
ses a
s SAV
AK (t
he sh
ah's
noto
rious
se
cret
polic
e) an
d arm
y and
polic
e for
ces (
Amira
hmad
i 198
0; H
allid
ay 19
79).
The s
tate i
n the
late
1950
s and
early
1960
s beg
an la
rge-
scale
inter
vent
ion i
n th
e eco
nom
y pr
imar
ily th
roug
h pl
anni
ng, e
xpan
sion
of st
ate-o
wned
indu
strial
pr
oduc
tion,
and
finan
cial s
ubsid
ies fo
r priv
ate lo
cal a
nd fo
reig
n in
dustr
ial an
d co
mm
ercia
l ven
ture
s. Th
e stat
e also
expa
nded
its d
irect
inve
stmen
ts in
pro
duc-
tion
and
tradi
ng ac
tiviti
es an
d su
bseq
uent
ly en
tered
into
a "tr
iple
allian
ce" w
ith
loca
l bou
rgeo
isie a
nd in
terna
tiona
l cap
ital i
n th
e for
m o
f num
erou
s joi
nt v
en-
ture
s. Co
nseq
uent
to th
ese p
olici
es, a
mod
ern
bour
geoi
s clas
s, wh
ich su
ppor
ted
the r
egim
e and
acce
pted
its a
utho
ritar
ian ro
le, w
as fi
rmly
estab
lishe
d. M
embe
rs of
this
class
prim
arily
inve
sted
in u
rban
hre
as an
d in
such
hig
h pr
ofit-
mak
ing
activ
ities
as as
sem
bly
indu
stries
, ban
king
and
insu
ranc
e, tra
de an
d ho
tels,
con-
struc
tion,
real
estat
e, an
d urb
an la
nd sp
ecul
ation
. Th
e 196
3 six
-poi
nt re
form
prog
ram
calle
d the
Whi
te Re
volu
tion s
igni
fied a
ne
w tu
rnin
g poi
nt. A
t its
cent
er w
as a
land r
efor
m pa
ckag
e tha
t pro
vide
d for
the
sale
of no
nmec
hani
zed a
gricu
ltura
l lan
ds to
peas
ant c
ultiv
ators.
The
land
refo
rm
deal
was l
arge
ly re
gard
ed as
a m
eans
to fr
ee th
e rur
al po
pulat
ion f
or ab
sorp
tion
in th
e urb
an in
dustr
ial se
ctor)"
Th
e acc
elera
ted an
d con
tinui
ng pr
oces
s of e
xpan
sion a
fter 1
960 r
esul
ted in
th
e esta
blish
men
t of c
apita
lism
as th
e pre
vaili
ng m
ode o
f pro
ducti
on, a
s illu
s-tra
ted
by th
e cha
nges
in th
e sha
re o
f diff
eren
t eco
nom
ic se
ctor
s in
the g
ross
na
tiona
l pro
duct.
The
indu
strial
and s
ervi
ce se
ctors
grew
rapi
dly a
t the
expe
nse
of ag
ricul
ture
, the
ir sh
ares
in to
tal em
ploy
men
t inc
reas
ing
from
16.
5 an
d 20
.8
perc
ent,
resp
ectiv
ely, i
n 195
6, to
23.3
and 2
2.7 pe
rcen
t in 1
966,
and t
o 33.1
and
31.8
perc
ent i
n 197
6, re
spec
tively
. Agr
icultu
ral p
rodu
ction
incr
ease
d by 8
3 per
-ce
nt ov
er th
e ent
ire 19
59 to
1975
perio
d whi
le th
e com
para
ble f
igur
es fo
r ind
us-
120
AM
IRA
HM
AD
I AN
D K
IAFA
R
The T
rans
form
atio
n of
Teh
ran
121
trie
s (e
xcl
udin
g o
il)
and s
ervic
es w
ere
61
3 a
nd
48
5 p
erce
nt,
res
pec
tiv
ely
(A
muz
egar
197
7). T
he u
npre
cede
nted
incr
ease
in o
il r
even
ues
afte
r 19
73 a
long
w
ith
the
orch
estr
ated
cap
ital
ist g
row
th p
olic
ies
wer
e in
stru
men
tal i
n ce
men
ting
th
e ch
ange
s.
A f
unda
men
tal c
onse
quen
ce w
as th
e co
ncen
trat
ion
of in
dust
rial
and
ser
vice
ac
tivi
ties
in m
ajor
urb
an a
reas
. Teh
ran,
lead
ing
othe
r ci
ties
by
a w
ide
mar
gin,
as
sum
ed th
e ro
le o
f th
e co
untr
y's
mai
n ce
nter
of
prod
ucti
on a
nd d
istr
ibut
ion.
F
or in
stan
ce, b
y th
e la
te 1
960s
, mor
e th
an 4
6 pe
rcen
t of
all l
arge
indu
stri
al e
s-ta
blis
hmen
ts w
ere
loca
ted
in T
ehra
n (K
azem
i 198
2). I
n ad
diti
on, m
ore
than
hal
f of
all
man
ufac
ture
d go
ods
wer
e pr
oduc
ed "
in t
he c
ity,
as
mos
t m
ajor
non
oil
indu
stri
al o
pera
tion
s of
the
coun
try,
incl
udin
g au
to a
ssem
bly
plan
ts a
nd h
ome
appl
ianc
e fa
ctor
ies,
wer
e in
side
or
on th
e ou
tski
rts
of th
e ca
pita
l. T
ehra
n al
so
func
tion
ed a
s th
e pr
ovid
er o
r di
stri
buto
r of
all
type
s of
ser
vice
s to
mos
t oth
er
loca
tions
in th
e la
nd.
Hea
vy c
once
ntra
tion
als
o ex
iste
d in
oth
er a
ctiv
itie
s. B
y th
e m
id-1
970s
, for
ex
ampl
e, 8
2.7
perc
ent o
f al
l nat
iona
l com
pani
es w
ere
regi
ster
ed in
the
city
, and
th
e ca
pita
l had
52.
9 pe
rcen
t of
the
bank
ing
unit
s in
the
larg
est c
itie
s an
d 54
.5
perc
ent o
f al
l tel
epho
ne s
ervi
ces
in th
e en
tire
cou
ntry
(K
azem
i 198
2).
15 A
ddi-
tion
ally
, one
in e
very
ten
Teh
rani
s ha
d a
car
com
pare
d to
one
in e
very
nin
ety
in
othe
r ci
ties
; 70
perc
ent o
f th
ose
mak
ing
trip
s ab
road
(ex
clud
ing
thos
e go
ing
on
reli
giou
s pi
lgri
mag
es)
live
d in
Teh
ran;
mor
e th
an 4
0 pe
rcen
t of
tota
l mov
ie ti
ck-
ets
wer
e so
ld i
n th
e ca
pita
l; a
nd t
he a
vera
ge l
and
valu
es w
ere
twic
e th
ose
of
othe
r ci
ties
(G
raha
m 1
978)
. Acc
ordi
ng to
one
sur
vey
cond
ucte
d in
197
9, a
t the
en
d of
the
mon
arch
ist r
egim
e, T
ehra
n ha
d 40
.0 p
erce
nt o
f to
tal e
mpl
oym
ent i
n re
tail
sal
e, 6
0.0
perc
ent o
f em
ploy
men
t in
who
lesa
le a
ctiv
itie
s, 4
7.2
perc
ent o
f al
l inv
estm
ents
in c
onst
ruct
ion,
and
41.
0 pe
rcen
t of
insu
ranc
e co
mpa
nies
. In
the
area
s of
hea
lth
and
educ
atio
n, th
e co
ncen
trat
ion
was
equ
ally
str
ikin
g: 5
6.8
per-
cent
of
all h
ospi
tal b
eds
and
57.0
per
cent
of
phys
icia
ns w
ere
in th
e ca
pita
l, as
w
ell a
s 57
.0 p
erce
nt o
f al
l uni
vers
ity
grad
uate
s an
d 55
.0 p
erce
nt o
f el
emen
tary
an
d hi
gh s
choo
l gra
duat
es (
Pla
n an
d B
udge
t Org
aniz
atio
n 19
83b)
. In
the
wor
ds
of o
ne o
bser
ver,
Teh
ran
has
beco
me
"the
unq
uest
iona
ble
cent
er o
f po
liti
cal,
ad
min
istr
ativ
e, e
cono
mic
, soc
ial,
and
cult
ural
life
" (G
raha
m 1
978,
p. 2
4).
The
hea
vy c
once
ntra
tion
of
wea
lth,
indu
stri
al p
rodu
ctio
n, a
nd s
ervi
ces
in
Teh
ran
was
the
key
to th
e un
even
dis
trib
utio
n of
pop
ulat
ion
at th
e na
tion
al le
vel
and
to t
he r
apid
gro
wth
of
the
city
's p
opul
atio
n. T
he c
ity'
s sh
are
of t
he t
otal
po
pula
tion
of
Iran
incr
ease
d fr
om 7
.9 p
erce
nt in
195
6 to
10.
8 pe
rcen
t in
1966
an
d 13
.8 p
erce
nt i
n 19
76. S
peci
fica
lly,
Teh
ran
grew
fro
m a
pop
ulat
ion
of
1,58
4,00
0 in
195
6 to
2,9
80,0
00 in
196
6 an
d 4,
530,
000
in 1
976,
an
incr
ease
of
88 p
erce
nt a
nd 5
2 pe
rcen
t ove
r th
e 19
56 to
196
6 an
d 19
66 to
197
6 de
cade
s,
resp
ectiv
ely.
The
ove
rall
popu
latio
n gr
owth
was
186
per
cent
in th
e tw
o de
cade
s,
amon
g th
e hi
ghes
t in
the
Thi
rd W
orld
, inc
ludi
ng t
he l
arge
st M
iddl
e E
aste
rn
citie
s (E
I-Sh
alch
s an
d A
mir
ahm
adi 1
987)
. The
city
's p
opul
atio
n ha
s co
ntin
ued
to
incr
ease
, at m
ore
than
5.5
per
cent
per
yea
r, in
the
year
s fo
llow
ing
the
revo
lutio
n of
197
9 (A
mir
ahm
adi
1986
). E
stim
ates
of
Teh
ran
popu
lati
on a
t th
e pr
esen
t ra
nge
from
8 m
illio
n to
10
mill
ion.
16 A
maj
or p
orti
on o
f th
e po
pula
tion
incr
ease
in T
ehra
n in
the
peri
od a
fter
19
50 (
and,
esp
ecia
lly,
aft
er th
e 19
63 la
nd r
efor
m p
acka
ge)
was
due
to m
igra
-ti
on, a
s in
dica
ted
by th
e di
ffer
ence
bet
wee
n th
e gr
owth
rat
e of
the
city
's p
opul
a-tio
n an
d th
at o
f Ir
an. S
peci
fica
lly, T
ehra
n ha
d an
ave
rage
gro
wth
rat
e of
rou
ghly
6.
0 pe
rcen
t per
yea
r in
the
post
-195
0 pe
riod
as
com
pare
d to
abo
ut 2
.6 p
erce
nt
for
the
nati
on. I
n th
e te
n ye
ars
afte
r 19
56, T
ehra
n ab
sorb
ed 3
8 pe
rcen
t of
all
inte
rnal
mig
rati
on (
Bha
rier
197
1). B
y th
e en
d of
the
1960
s, th
e ci
ty's
mig
rant
po
pula
tion
had
rea
ched
the
50 p
erce
nt le
vel.
In th
e 19
70s,
mor
e th
an 7
3 pe
rcen
t of
the
mig
rati
on b
etw
een
prov
ince
s an
d 44
per
cent
of
the
popu
lati
on m
ovem
ent
betw
een
citi
es w
ent t
o T
ehra
n (P
lan
and
Bud
get O
rgan
izat
ion
1983
b). A
side
fr
om s
uch
pow
erfu
l "pu
ll"
fact
ors
as th
e av
aila
bili
ty o
f jo
bs, s
ocia
l ser
vice
s,
urba
n co
mm
unit
ies,
and
hig
her
inco
me
in T
ehra
n, a
var
iety
of
othe
r fo
rces
-in
clud
ing
the
decl
ine
in a
gric
ultu
re, t
he la
nd/l
abor
rat
io a
nd in
com
e in
mor
e ru
ral a
reas
, the
dir
ect e
xpul
sion
of
tena
nts
due
to m
oder
niza
tion,
the
sale
of
land
an
d ex
pans
ion
of c
apit
alis
t far
min
g, th
e la
ck c
if jo
bs a
nd e
duca
tion
al o
ppor
tuni
-ti
es in
out
lyin
g vi
llag
es, t
he in
tens
ific
atio
n of
usu
ry f
ollo
win
g th
e la
nd r
efor
m
prog
ram
, and
the
chan
ge in
cla
ss s
truc
ture
of
the
rura
l are
as-"
push
ed"
man
y of
th
e w
orki
ng-a
ge p
opul
atiO
n ou
t of
rura
l are
as (
Ali
zade
h an
d K
azer
ouni
198
4;
Hes
sam
ian
et a
l. 19
84).
N
atur
al in
crea
se a
nd m
igra
tion
fact
ors
led
not o
nly
to in
crea
ses
in T
ehra
n's
popu
latio
n bu
t als
o to
its
pred
omin
ance
with
in th
e co
untr
y's
urba
n hi
erar
chy
and
to it
s ph
ysic
al e
xpan
sion
. Thu
s, in
197
6, m
ore
than
28.
6 pe
rcen
t of
the
urba
n po
pula
tion
of
Iran
live
d in
Teh
ran
com
pare
d to
25.
3 an
d 27
.9 p
erce
nt in
195
6 an
d 19
66, r
espe
ctiv
ely.
In
the
sam
e ye
ar, t
he c
apit
al h
ad a
pop
ulat
ion
size
6.7
ti
mes
tha
t of
Esf
ahan
, the
sec
ond
larg
est
city
sin
ce t
he 1
960s
. The
phy
sica
l ex
pans
ion
was
equ
ally
con
side
rabl
e (s
ee F
igur
e 6-
2). I
n 19
66, T
ehra
n w
as
divi
ded
into
ten
dis
tric
ts, i
nclu
ding
the
old
cit
y of
Ray
and
the
new
aff
luen
t su
burb
of
Taj
rish
in th
e no
rth
She
mir
an a
rea.
In
less
than
ten
year
s, th
e ci
ty's
ra
pid
phys
ical
exp
ansi
on f
orce
d th
e m
unic
ipal
gov
ernm
ent t
o re
dist
rict
Teh
ran
agai
n. T
here
fore
, in
abou
t 197
6, th
e ci
ty w
as d
ivid
ed in
to tw
enty
mun
icip
al d
is-
tric
ts c
over
ing
a to
tal o
f fi
fty
thou
sand
hec
tare
s. I
n ad
diti
on, t
he c
ity
lim
it w
as
rede
fine
d to
incl
ude
anot
her
five
hun
dred
hec
tare
s of
non
mun
icip
al a
rea
call
ed
hare
em,
larg
ely
occu
pied
by
squa
tters
(Fi
gure
6-3
).
Alo
ng w
ith
sign
ific
ant p
hysi
cal e
xpan
sion
of
the
city
, pop
ulat
ion
dens
ity
has
been
gro
win
g ra
pidl
y, p
arti
cula
rly
sinc
e th
e 19
50s.
By
1979
, clo
se to
2.7
m
illi
on r
esid
ents
(or
rou
ghly
60
perc
ent o
f th
e po
pula
tion
) li
ved
in d
istr
icts
that
ha
d a
dens
ity
of tw
o hu
ndre
d to
fiv
e hu
ndre
d pe
rson
s pe
r he
ctar
e (o
r ei
ghty
to
122
AM
IRA
HM
AD
I AN
D K
IAPA
R
FIG
UR
E 6
-3. T
ehra
n: T
wen
ty d
istr
icts
and
the
Har
eem
. Pop
ulat
ion
dens
ity, o
n th
e ba
sis
of th
e 19
80 (A
ban
1359
) cen
sus.
Eu
PER
SON
S/H
EC
TA
RE
less
than
30
pers
ons
31-1
00 p
erso
ns
101-
200
pers
ons
201-
400
pers
ons
401
and
over
The T
rans
form
ation
of T
ehra
n
123
two
hund
red
per a
cre)
. Man
y of
thes
e dist
ricts
are l
ocat
ed in
the s
outh
ern,
ea
stern
, and
sout
hwes
tern p
arts
of th
e city
, whe
re m
ost o
f the
low-
inco
me f
ami-
lies a
nd ru
ral m
igra
nts l
ive.
With
rapi
d ca
pita
list d
evel
opm
ent c
ame t
he ex
acer
batio
n of
spat
ial a
nd
socio
econ
omic
disp
ariti
es, b
oth a
t the
natio
nal l
evel
and w
ithin
Teh
ran (
Amira
h-m
adi a
nd A
tash
198
7; Ja
bbar
i 198
1; K
azem
i 198
2; L
oone
y 19
82; P
esar
an
1982
). Na
tiona
lly, f
or ex
ampl
e, th
e hou
seho
ld ex
pend
iture
shar
e of t
he to
p 20
pe
rcen
t of t
he p
opul
ation
rose
from
50
perc
ent i
n 19
69 to
mor
e tha
n 54
per
cent
in
1973
, whe
reas
the s
hare
of th
e bot
tom
40 pe
rcen
t plu
nged
from
17 pe
rcen
t to
abou
t 11
perc
ent.
In 1
969,
the t
op 1
0.0
perc
ent o
f the
nati
onal
popu
latio
n co
n-su
med
abou
t 30.
5 pe
rcen
t of t
he to
tal,
up to
40.
0 pe
rcen
t of c
onsu
mpt
ion
in
1976
. With
in u
rban
area
s, th
e gap
s also
gre
w.'?
The h
igh
annu
al in
flatio
n ra
tes
in th
e 197
0s (i
n the
20 an
d 30 p
erce
nt ra
nges
) pro
babl
y fur
ther
wor
sene
d the
lot
of th
e poo
rer s
trata,
espe
cially
in th
e city
of T
ehra
n, w
here
the c
ost o
f hou
sing
incr
ease
d by a
t lea
st 50
perc
ent b
etwee
n 197
0 and
1978
and l
and p
rices
jum
ped
up b
y 50
0 pe
rcen
t in
certa
in lo
catio
ns o
ver t
he sa
me p
erio
d. H
ousin
g co
st an
d av
aila
bilit
y w
ere i
ndee
d m
ajor
aspe
cts o
f the
city
's pr
oble
ms.
A 1
966
surv
ey
foun
d a s
horta
ge o
f 78,
000
hous
ing
units
for 2
75,0
00 lo
w-in
com
e fam
ilies
, w
here
as a
surp
lus o
f 15,
000
dwel
ling
units
exi
sted
for j
ust 7
5,00
0 up
per-
mid
dle-
and
high
-inco
me f
amili
es (K
azem
i 198
2). T
o pu
t it a
noth
er w
ay, 1
2.0
perc
ent o
f the
city
popu
latio
n had
15.8
perc
ent o
f the
hous
ing s
tock
at it
s disp
o-sa
l whi
le 4
4.0
perc
ent o
f the
resid
ents
had
acce
ss to
onl
y 35
.1 p
erce
nt. T
his
com
paris
on do
es no
t tak
e int
o acc
ount
the s
triki
ng di
ffere
nces
betw
een t
he ty
pe,
size,
and q
ualit
y of e
ither
grou
p's sh
elter
s. Th
e situ
ation
wor
sene
d in t
he 19
70s,
when
, acc
ordi
ng to
diff
eren
t acc
ount
s, be
twee
n 42
to 5
0 pe
rcen
t of t
he p
opul
a-tio
n had
hous
ing p
robl
ems.
In 19
76, "
som
e 22,0
00 ho
useh
olds
wer
e rec
orde
d as
havi
ng se
ven
or m
ore p
erso
ns li
ving
in o
ne ro
om" (
Coste
llo 1
981,
p. 1
57),
and
arou
nd 5
0 pe
rcen
t of t
he an
nual
inco
me o
f a m
iddl
e-cla
ss fa
mily
was
spen
t on
hous
ing. Th
e gr
owth
of i
nequ
ality
bec
ame
wel
l man
ifeste
d in
the
incr
easin
g di
ffere
nces
amon
g Teh
ran's
resid
entia
l dist
ricts.
In th
e pos
t-196
0 yea
rs, th
e city
ex
pand
ed co
nsid
erab
ly in
all d
irect
ions
, par
ticul
arly
to th
e eas
t, no
rth, a
nd
north
wes
t, w
here
the
uppe
r cla
sses
and
the
grow
ing
prof
essio
nal,
sala
ried
grou
ps ca
me t
o re
side.
The e
xpan
sion
of th
e city
from
wes
t to
east
crea
ted n
ew
neig
hbor
hood
s for
the m
iddl
e cla
ss, e
spec
ially
its t
radi
tiona
l stra
ta. T
he p
oor
and
new
mig
rant
s, al
ong
with
oth
ers o
f the
wor
king
cla
ss, s
ettle
d in
the
expa
nded
sout
h, so
uthe
ast,
and
sout
hwes
t dist
ricts.
In g
ener
al, w
ithin
each
dis-
trict,
the c
enter
is o
ccup
ied b
y lo
wer s
trata
of th
e clas
ses a
nd is
mor
e den
sely
po
pulat
ed th
an th
e out
er ar
eas.
Asid
e fro
m th
e une
ven
natu
re o
f cap
italis
t dev
elop
men
t, a s
trate
gy o
f pl
anne
d sp
atial
segr
egati
on w
as in
strum
ental
in sh
arpe
ning
the c
ontra
st am
ong
124
AM
IRA
HM
AD
I AN
D K
IAFA
R
vari
ous d
istri
cts.
Unt
il 19
51, a
ny la
nd o
n th
e pe
riph
ery
of th
e ci
ty w
as c
on-
sider
ed p
rope
rty
of th
e one
who
had
dev
elop
ed it
. Leg
islat
ion
in 1
951
plac
ed
such
land
s und
er a
gov
ernm
ent-c
ontr
olle
d C
onst
ruct
ion
Bank
, whi
ch su
bse-
quen
tly d
evel
oped
four
subu
rbs,
calle
d ne
w to
wns
, des
igne
d fo
r var
ious
inco
me
grou
ps. S
ince
then
, pla
nned
segr
egat
ion
by in
com
e for
the T
ehra
n m
etro
polit
an
area
has
bee
n a
feat
ure o
f dev
elop
men
t pol
icy.
The
firs
t tow
n wa
s K
uy-e
Nar
-m
ak, w
hose
cons
truc
tion
bega
n in
195
6 on
four
hun
dred
hec
tare
s div
ided
into
eig
ht h
undr
ed p
lots
in n
orth
easte
rn T
ehra
n fo
r mid
dle-
inco
me r
esid
ence
s. Co
n-st
ruct
ion
on N
azia
bad
bega
n in
the e
arly
196
0s o
n th
ree h
undr
ed h
ecta
res i
n so
uth
Tehr
an fo
r two
-roo
m fl
ats f
or th
e wor
king
clas
s of t
he n
eighb
orin
g in
dus-
tria
l cen
ters
. Con
stru
ctio
n on
Kuy
-e N
ohom
-e A
ban
bega
n in
196
5-66
in so
uth
Tehr
an. M
ore t
han
3,45
0 lo
w-c
ost,
thre
e-be
droo
m h
ouse
s wer
e bui
lt fo
r sal
e to
slum
dw
elle
rs, w
ho w
ould
pay
for t
heir
uni
ts a
t low
mon
thly
rate
s ove
r fift
een
year
s. C
onst
ruct
ion
star
ted
in th
e ea
rly
1960
s on
Tehr
an P
ars,
desig
ned
for
mid
dle-
and
upp
er-m
iddl
e-in
com
e gro
ups,
in th
e eas
tern
par
t of t
he ci
ty.
Plan
ned
segr
egat
ion
of in
com
e gr
oups
was
follo
wed
by
the
gove
rnm
ent
and
the p
riva
te se
ctor
thro
ugho
ut th
e 196
0s a
nd 1
970s
, with
four
maj
or ex
am-
ples
. Kuy
-e a
nd L
aviz
an w
ere b
oth
deve
lope
d by
the M
inist
ry o
f Hou
sing
and
Urba
n De
velo
pmen
t in
nort
h Te
hran
. Kuy
-e K
an h
as so
me o
ne th
ousa
nd th
ree-
bedr
oom
flat
s, bu
ilt w
ith su
bsid
ies f
or th
e 475
,000
gov
ernm
ent e
mpl
oyee
s with
m
ediu
m in
com
es. L
aviz
an is
for f
orty
-five
thou
sand
low
- to
med
ium
-inco
me
gove
rnm
ent e
mpl
oyee
s. Fa
raha
bad
was d
evelo
ped
in ea
st Te
hran
by
the P
ahla
vi
Foun
datio
n, la
rgel
y fin
ance
d by
the p
riva
te se
ctor
for m
iddl
e- to
upp
er-in
com
e gr
oups
. Abb
asab
ad w
as la
rgel
y de
velo
ped
by th
e pr
ivat
e se
ctor
as a
hig
h-in
com
e res
iden
tial-b
usin
ess d
istric
t in
nort
h Te
hran
. A
mon
g th
e m
ost g
rand
iose
pro
ject
s, to
be
loca
ted
in A
bbas
abad
(in
the
nort
h), w
as th
e Sha
hesta
n-e P
ahla
vi p
roje
ct. I
t was
to b
e bui
lt on
a 5
54-h
ecta
re
area
as "
the b
igge
st co
mpl
ex o
f ter
tiary
act
iviti
es a
nd o
ffice
s in
the w
orld
" (C
os-
tello
198
1, p
. 172
). T
his m
ultiu
se c
ente
r w
as to
dev
elop
into
the
Pahl
avi
dyna
sty'
s eq
uiva
lent
of t
he P
erse
polis
of t
he A
chae
men
ian
king
s. T
he
Shah
esta
n-e
was
pla
nned
to in
clud
e a
new
nat
iona
l cen
ter
for
gove
rnm
ent
offic
es, l
uxur
y ho
tels,
reta
il sh
ops,
rest
aura
nts,
park
ing,
and
par
ks, a
s wel
l as
bein
g a
focu
s for
the n
ew tr
ansp
ort n
etwo
rk th
at w
as to
def
lect g
rowt
h ea
stwar
d an
d we
stwar
d. It
was
also
to se
rve a
s a re
siden
tial a
rea
for a
priv
ilege
d 25
0,00
0 hi
gh-in
com
e peo
ple (
Llew
elyn
-Dav
ies I
nter
natio
nal 1
976)
. The
pro
ject
was
the
best
refle
ctio
n of
the s
hah'
s obs
essio
n w
ith la
rge-
scal
e sho
wca
se p
roje
cts a
nd
with
favo
ritis
m to
war
d do
min
ant d
omes
tic a
nd in
tern
atio
nal c
lass
es. A
lthou
gh
this
mul
tibill
ion-
dolla
r pro
ject
cont
radi
cted
the r
edist
ribu
tive p
olic
ies o
f the
Fi
fth P
lan
(197
3-78
) and
was
in co
mpe
titio
n w
ith th
e baz
aar a
nd th
e new
tow
n pr
ojec
ts d
irec
ted
to b
ette
r the
lot o
f the
low
er a
nd m
iddl
e cla
sses
in th
e city
, it
gain
ed a
ppro
val o
f the
shah
and
rece
ived
his
high
est p
ossib
le at
tent
ion.
The
pro
-
The T
rans
form
atio
n of
Teh
ran
125
ject
, tho
ugh,
was
kill
ed b
y th
e rev
olut
ion
of 1
979,
in w
hich
the l
ower
and
mid
-dl
e cla
sses
and
baz
aaris
act
ively
par
ticip
ated
. The
Isla
mic
repu
blic
has p
lans
to
turn
the p
lace
into
a re
ligio
us co
mpl
ex ca
lled
Mus
ala-
ye T
ehra
n. S
o fa
r, w
ar,
shor
tage
of f
unds
, and
inte
rnal
stru
ggle
s hav
e pre
vent
ed th
e gov
ernm
ent f
rom
m
akin
g an
y pr
ogre
ss in
this
dire
ctip
n. P
rosp
ects
for t
he im
plem
enta
tion
of th
is Is
lam
ic pr
ojec
t are
now
virt
ually
nil.
A
maj
or co
nseq
uenc
e of t
hese
pol
icies
was
shar
pene
d co
ntra
st am
ong
vari-
ous c
ity d
istric
ts, p
artic
ular
ly b
etwe
en th
e poo
r sou
th a
nd th
e rich
nor
th (T
able
6-2
and
Figu
re 6
-4).
In g
ener
al, t
he n
orth
ern
dist
rict
s enj
oy a
sign
ifica
ntly
hi
gher
per
capi
ta sh
are o
f ret
ail s
hops
, med
ical f
acili
ties (
such
as h
ospi
tals,
clin
-ics
, pha
rmac
ies, a
nd p
rofe
ssio
nalla
bora
torie
s), p
hysic
ians
, den
tists,
educ
atio
nal
and
cultu
ral s
ervi
ces,
and
othe
r bas
ic u
rban
nee
ds. F
or ex
ampl
e, in
198
0, th
e 83
0,00
0 pe
ople
in th
e fou
r upp
er-to
wn
(nor
ther
n) d
istri
cts1
8 had
one
phy
sicia
n fo
r eve
ry 1
,628
resid
ents
and
25.8
per
cent
of t
he ci
ty's
nurs
eries
and
kin
derg
ar-
tens
whi
le th
e 1,7
00,0
00 p
eopl
e in
the s
ix lo
wer
-tow
n (s
outh
ern)
dist
rict
s had
a
phys
icia
n fo
r eve
ry 7
,492
resid
ents
and
8.3
per
cent
of i
ts n
urse
ries
and
kin
der-
gart
ens.
In o
ther
wor
ds, o
ne-th
ird
of T
ehra
nis h
ad ea
sy a
cces
s to
only
6.3
per
-ce
nt o
f the
city
's ph
ysic
ians
. Wor
se y
et, t
here
was
onl
y on
e doc
tor'
s offi
ce fo
r ev
ery
236
resid
ents
of d
istri
ct 6
com
pare
d to
-one
for
ever
y 35
,547
per
sons
in
distr
ict 1
9.
Den
sity
in th
e sou
ther
n di
stri
cts (
151
pers
ons p
er h
ecta
re) w
as m
ore t
han
3.5
times
larg
er th
an d
ensit
y in
the n
orth
ern
distr
icts (
fort
y-th
ree p
erso
ns).
The
five
low
est d
ensit
ies b
elon
ged
to d
istri
cts h
ousin
g th
e ri
ch. T
he g
ap b
etw
een
aver
age
occu
panc
y ra
tes w
as a
lso w
ide:
4.3
per
sons
per
uni
t in
the
nort
h as
co
mpa
red
to 8
.6 p
erso
ns p
er u
nit i
n th
e Mut
h. T
he co
rrela
tion
betw
een
dens
ity
and
pove
rty
in T
ehra
n ha
s bee
n no
ted
by m
any
rese
arch
ers,
inclu
ding
Bah
ram
-be
ygui
(197
7) a
nd C
onne
ll (1
973)
. Th
e dist
ribu
tion
of ed
ucat
iona
l fac
ilitie
s was
no
bette
r. Fo
r exa
mpl
e, th
e af
fluen
t nor
ther
n di
strict
s had
6.3
tim
es a
s man
y nu
rser
y/ki
nder
gart
ens p
er ca
p-ita
in th
eir p
roxi
mity
com
pare
d to
the w
orki
ng cl
ass s
outh
ern
neig
hbor
hood
s. In
st
riki
ng c
ontr
ast,
near
ly th
ree
times
as m
any
mos
ques
and
oth
er Is
lam
ic
wor
ship
/mou
rnin
g pl
aces
(ta
kaya
and
Hos
einieh
) w
ere l
ocat
ed in
low
er-to
wn
distr
icts c
ompa
red
to th
e upp
er-to
wn d
istric
ts. A
s a re
sult,
the p
erce
nt o
f lite
rate
po
pula
tion
is sk
ewed
shar
ply
betw
een
vari
ous d
istri
cts.
For i
nsta
nce,
in 1
966,
di
strict
7 in
the c
entr
al a
rea
had
the l
owes
t lite
racy
rate
(45.
8 pe
rcen
t) wh
erea
s th
e tw
o hi
ghes
t rat
es (7
9.8
and
77.7
per
cent
) bel
onge
d to
dist
rict
s 2 a
nd 9
, re
spec
tivel
y, in
the n
orth
wes
t. Th
e var
iatio
n am
ong
liter
ate w
omen
was
even
m
ore p
rono
unce
d: 7
4.2
perc
ent f
or d
istri
ct 9
com
pare
d to
34.
2 pe
rcen
t for
dis-
trict
7. Th
e sha
rp n
orth
-sout
h co
ntra
st is
also
refle
cted
in th
e une
ven
distr
ibut
ion
of
hous
ehol
d in
com
e. In
197
3, th
e "c
ente
r-no
rth"
and
"no
rthe
rn c
ontig
uous
TABLE 6-2 Demographic and Social Indicators for Twenty Districts of Tehran, 1980 (per 10,000 Population)
Number of Number Number
Number Number Number Nurseries of of Number of Number of of Number and Elemen- Junior of
Pop ula- Area Den- Dwelling Doctor of Health Phar- of Kinder- tary High High District tion in km2 sity Units Offices Dentists Services Inacies Mosques gartens Schools Schools Schools
North 1 182,883 77.5 23.6 2,162 4.9 2.8 1.1 1.1 4.8 0.5 2.2 1.7 0.5 2 220,454 50.2 43.9 2,316 7.4 2.6 0.7 1.0 1.0 .0.5 1.0 0.6 3 222,007 32.0 69.4 2,231 11.8 4.8 1.5 1.2 1.4 1.4 2.1 0.8 1.0 4 (NE) 318,347 56.8 56:0 1,893 2.2 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.6 0.3 1.4 0.8 0.4 Central 6 231,683 19.9 116.4 2,544 42.4 13.0 2.2 2.6 0.6 2.2 1.9 1.4 1.2 7 325,636 14.8 220.0 1,840 13.2 6.2 13 1A 2.1 0.8 2.1 1.0 1.0 10 343,551 7.2 477.2 1,537 5.4 3.3 1.0 1.1 2.4 0.2 2.0 1.1 0.8 11 276,712 11.1 249.3 1,846 18.9 6.6 1.6 2.3 2.5 0.4 3.1 1.6 1.5 12 348,080 15.1 2305 1,333 6.5 4.9 2.2 8.6 7.7 0.4 33 1.6 1.4 West . 5 (NW) 92,741 51.9 17.9 1,740 1.1 0.5 1.2 0.4 3.6 0.2 1.0 1.9 0.4 9 209,263 18.8 1113 1,485 2.9 1.1 1.0 0.7 2.0 0.2 lA 0.3 0.4
East 8 365,516 12.4 294.8 1,653 5.0 2.7 0.6 0.9 1.6 0.3 1.6 0.8 0.6
13 214,652 14.5 148.0 1,779 3.4 2.1 1.0 0.9 2.0 0.3 2.2 1.4 0.9
14 400,023 20.7 193.2 1,677 3.0 1.6 1.0 0.9 2.1 0.1 1.3 0.9 0.4
South 15 (SE) 375,349 41.4 90.7 1,466 1.4 1.2 0.9 0.5 2.1 0.0 15 0.4 0.2
16 361,605 18.2 198.7 1,306 2.0 1.7 0.7 0.4 3A 0.2 1.7 0.9 0.4
17 353,428 7.0 504.9 1,165 13 1.2 0.6 0.4 4.0 0.0 1.2 0.3 0.1
18 (SW) 211,606 8.9 237.8 1,431 0.8 0.6 0.6 03 2.0 0.0 3.1 0.5 0.2
19 142,188 3.6 395.0 1,488 0.3 0.8 0.9 0.4 2.4 0.1 1.3 0.5 0.1
20 258,425 33.4 77.4 1,480 1.4 0.9 0.5 0.4 3.5 0.2 1.9 0.6 0.3
Total* 5,454,149 515.4 3,755.9 1,679 6.6 3.0 1.1 1A 2.7 0.4 1.9- 0.9 0.6
*Only statistics related to totals for the first four columns include those of the hareem (a nonmunicipal area). The rest are exclusive of the hareem's data. Of 567.2 km 2 of Tehran's area, 51.8 km2 belongs to its hareem. For the location of the districts on the city map, see Figure 6-3.
Sources: Plan and Budget Organization (1983a): 97-103; Tazeha-ye Amari, Plan and Budget Organization, 1362 (1983): 9.
)
FIGURE 6-4. Map of the twenty districts of Tehran by number of educational institutions, religious places, and medical treatment units, according to 1355 (1976).
•
4/ 41 AV /7 4
„ei ',icy ....... kg
t
,1 • 11---,A1
0 .. ----- 11 -
,
HV .4
4/1)
1 (IN
V IC
I VIN
HV
IIIIN
V
/ X MY
I ! If
The T ransf ormati on of T ehran
Ji
LEGEND
^CA„XMAL S OOLS LNOTONCKS AM COLLECTS \
LM
MUCKS
Source: National Census of Population and Housing, Plan and Budget Organization of Iran, Statistical Center.
LIMIT STOIC L
\--- NoIROACYCS 6 SIOALVENS UNITS
zAdromArowers e 'wows, LAIC
MOCSYSLICS
COWS
PoisSICIA MS 4 DOWNS.
130
AM
IRA
HM
AD
I AN
D K
IAFA
R
subu
rb"
dist
rict
s of
Teh
ran,
wit
h a
com
bine
d 30
per
cent
of
tota
l pop
ulat
ion,
had
av
erag
e m
onth
ly in
com
es o
f ab
out $
296
and
$403
(U
.S. d
olla
rs),
res
pect
ivel
y,
whi
le th
e av
erag
e in
the
sout
hern
and
sou
thw
este
rn a
reas
, wit
h 52
per
cent
of
the
popu
lati
on, w
as $
111.
In
the
two
nort
hern
dis
tric
ts, 4
7 an
d 32
per
cent
of
hous
e-ho
lds,
res
pect
ivel
y, o
wne
d at
leas
t one
veh
icle
. The
com
para
ble
figu
re f
or th
e th
ree
sout
hern
dis
tric
ts w
as a
bout
5 p
erce
nt (
SO
FR
ET
O 1
973)
. F
inal
ly, t
he n
orth
-sou
th c
ontr
ast,
or a
s B
onin
e (1
983)
put
it, t
he c
ontr
ast
betw
een
"the
two
wor
lds,
" w
as a
lso
evid
ent i
n th
e si
ze a
nd q
uali
ty o
f dw
elli
ng
unit
s (J
anes
197
9). S
peci
fica
lly,
in
1979
, the
nor
ther
n ci
ty c
onta
ined
lar
ger
sing
le-f
amil
y re
side
nces
, inc
ludi
ng m
oder
n ap
artm
ent b
uild
ings
wit
h br
ick
and
mar
ble
exte
rior
s an
d st
eel o
r co
ncre
te s
truc
ture
s, s
epar
ate
kitc
hen,
livi
ng r
oom
an
d be
droo
ms,
as
wel
l as
elec
tric
ity
and
pipe
d w
ater
. The
ave
rage
flo
or s
pace
in
the
nort
h (2
,000
to 2
,500
squ
are
feet
) w
as d
oubl
e th
e av
erag
e dw
elli
ng u
nit s
ize
for
the
enti
re c
ity.
For
the
enti
re s
outh
ern
end
of th
e ci
ty, t
he a
vera
ge w
as w
ell
unde
r fo
ur h
undr
ed s
quar
e fe
et. T
his
was
the
loca
tion
of
smal
l, co
mpa
ct h
ouse
s,
shac
k ho
vels
mad
e of
bui
ldin
g sc
raps
and
car
dboa
rd, a
nd te
nts
put u
p to
she
lter
hu
ndre
ds o
f fa
mil
ies,
incl
udin
g tw
o-th
irds
of
the
city
's s
quat
ter
sett
lers
. Man
y la
rge
fam
ilie
s of
an
aver
age
of s
ix p
eopl
e oc
cupi
ed o
ne-b
edro
om li
ving
qua
rter
s of
less
than
two
hund
red
squa
re f
eet.
The
se a
reas
wer
e m
ostl
y w
itho
ut r
unni
ng
wat
er a
nd e
lect
rici
ty a
nd s
uff
ered
fro
m i
nad
equ
ate—
in m
any
cas
es n
on
-ex
iste
nt—
sew
age
syst
ems.
Con
clud
ing
Rem
arks
Teh
ran'
s hi
stor
ical
dev
elop
men
t fit
s w
ith
the
theo
reti
cal e
xpec
tati
ons
that
ci
ties
exp
erie
nce
qual
itat
ivel
y di
ffer
ent s
tage
s of
dev
elop
men
t in
line
wit
h pa
t-te
rns
of a
ccum
ulat
ion
at th
e na
tion
al s
cale
, so
that
cit
ies'
gro
wth
and
con
trad
ic-
tion
s m
irro
r th
at o
f th
e la
rger
soc
iety
. Tra
nsit
ion
from
pre
capi
tali
st to
dep
ende
nt
capi
tali
sm in
Ira
n (a
s in
muc
h of
the
Thi
rd W
orld
) ha
s be
en c
hara
cter
ized
by
both
a c
hang
e fr
om a
rur
al-b
ased
to
an u
rban
-cen
tere
d pr
oduc
tion
and
by
extr
eme
ineq
uali
ties
. Teh
ran
(lik
e m
any
othe
r T
hird
Wor
ld c
itie
s) h
as b
ecom
e a
cent
er o
f ca
pita
l ac
cum
ulat
ion
and
the
aren
a of
maj
or c
ontr
adic
tion
s. W
hile
in
crea
sing
con
cent
rati
on o
f va
riou
s in
stit
utio
ns a
nd p
opul
atio
n ha
ve e
xace
rbat
ed
the
urba
n pr
oble
ms,
phy
sica
l exp
ansi
on o
f th
e ci
ty h
as h
elpe
d ve
ry li
ttle.
T
he I
rani
an e
xper
ienc
e su
gges
ts t
hat
such
con
trad
icti
ons
may
pro
duce
re
volu
tion
s in
the
Thi
rd W
orld
. The
par
tici
pant
s in
the
1979
rev
olut
ion
wer
e la
rgel
y th
e m
argi
nali
zed
Teh
rani
s, in
clud
ing
the
squa
tter
s an
d th
ose
from
the
sout
hern
dis
tric
ts. I
t was
pri
mar
ily
Teh
ran,
not
Ira
n, th
at to
pple
d th
e m
onar
chy:
th
e ci
ty b
ecam
e a
hist
oric
al s
cene
for
mas
sive
mil
lion
-per
son
dem
onst
rati
ons
The
Tran
sfor
mat
ion
of T
ehra
n
131
agai
nst
the
shah
. The
poo
r an
d th
e m
iddl
e cl
asse
s po
ured
int
o th
e st
reet
s de
man
ding
dem
ocra
cy, i
ndep
ende
nce,
and
soc
ial j
ustic
e, a
mon
g ot
her
thin
gs.
The
sha
h's
regi
me
is g
one,
but
dep
ende
ncy,
cap
ital
ism
, and
ineq
uali
ties
re
mai
n la
rgel
y in
tact
. Mos
t of
the
tren
ds th
at b
esie
ged
Teh
ran
in th
e pr
e-19
79
peri
od a
lso
rem
aine
d un
chan
ged.
The
cit
y co
ntin
ues
to b
e th
e ce
nter
of
poli
tics
an
d po
liti
cal
pow
er i
n th
e co
untr
y; t
he p
opul
atio
n ha
s co
ntin
ued
to i
ncre
ase
mor
e th
an 5
.5 p
erce
nt p
er y
ear,
if
not
high
er i
n th
e po
stre
volu
tion
ary
year
s;
phys
ical
exp
ansi
on, t
houg
h no
w m
ore
irre
gula
r, c
onti
nues
; con
cent
rati
ons
of
inst
itut
ions
in
the
city
hav
e re
ache
d ne
w p
ropo
rtio
ns;
and
ineq
uali
ties
of
all
type
s se
em to
hav
e ch
ange
d ve
ry li
ttle.
T
he a
larm
ing
tren
ds a
nd th
eir
impl
icat
ions
for
the
man
agem
ent o
f th
e ci
ty
and
for
the
prov
isio
n of
bas
ic n
eeds
for
its
ever
-gro
win
g po
pula
tion
wer
e ou
t-li
ned
in a
rep
ort b
y th
e P
lan
and
Bud
get O
rgan
izat
ion
in 1
982.
It c
oncl
uded
that
th
e pr
oble
ms
that
ove
rtoo
k th
e ci
ty in
the
prer
evol
utio
nary
yea
rs c
onti
nue
to
expa
nd u
naba
ted
and
that
the
futu
re o
f th
e ci
ty, g
iven
the
tren
ds a
nd it
s na
tura
l/
phys
ical
lim
itat
ions
, as
wel
l as
its
budg
etar
y co
nstr
aint
s, is
larg
ely
blea
k. M
uch
befo
re t
he y
ear
2000
, at
whi
ch t
ime
the
city
pop
ulat
ion
is e
xpec
ted
to r
each
se
ven
teen
mil
lion,
pro
ble
ms
wit
h w
ater
pro
vis
ion,
sew
age,
housi
ng,
tran
spor
tati
on, l
and
use,
and
the
city
's f
isca
l sit
uati
on, a
mon
g ot
hers
, wil
l rea
ch
cris
is p
ropo
rtio
ns. I
f ex
peri
ence
is a
ny in
dica
tion,
thes
e pr
oble
ms
will
be
disp
ro-
port
iona
tely
sha
red
by th
e po
or in
the
sout
h an
d th
e ri
ch in
the
nort
h. T
he r
epor
t th
en o
utli
nes
a st
rate
gy f
or r
esol
utio
n of
the
prob
lem
, the
mai
n co
mpo
nent
s of
w
hich
are
a d
ecen
tral
ized
adm
inis
trat
ion,
pla
nnin
g an
d bu
dget
ing
syst
ems,
the
crea
tion
of
med
ium
-siz
e sa
tell
ite
tow
ns a
roun
d th
e ca
pita
l, an
d th
e fo
rmul
atio
n of
a m
aste
r pl
an f
or th
e ra
tion
al g
row
th d
nd e
xpan
sion
of
the
city
. The
Isl
amic
re
publ
ic m
ay n
ot s
olve
the
prob
lem
s of
Teh
ran
as lo
ng a
s it
refu
ses
to u
proo
t the
ca
uses
of
the
city
's g
row
th a
nd c
ontr
adic
tions
.
Ackn
owle
dgm
ent
An
ear
lier
ver
sio
n o
f th
is a
rtic
le w
as p
ub
lish
ed i
n 1
98
7 a
s "T
ehra
n:
Gro
wth
and
Con
trad
icti
ons,
" Jo
urna
l of P
lann
ing
Edu
catio
n an
d R
esea
rch
6,
no. 3
(S
prin
g): 1
67-1
77. ©
1987
Ass
ocia
tion
of
Col
legi
ate
Sch
ools
of
Pla
nnin
g.
The
aut
hors
are
gra
tefu
l to
the
Jour
nal f
or it
s pe
rmis
sion
to r
epri
nt th
e m
ater
ial
in th
is b
ook.
Not
es
1. T
he c
ontr
over
sy o
ver
whe
ther
the
prem
oder
n hi
stor
y of
Ira
n w
as c
hara
cter
ized
by
feu
dalis
m, s
emif
euda
lism
, the
Asi
atic
mod
e of
pro
duct
ion,
or
sim
ply
by tr
aditi
onal
ism
132
AM
IRA
HM
AD
I AN
D K
IAPA
R
is no
t yet
well
settl
ed. T
o av
oid
the c
ontro
versy
, the
term
"pre
capi
talist
" will
be u
sed
in
this
chap
ter t
o sta
nd fo
r the
per
iod
up to
192
5. F
or a
revi
ew o
f the
cont
rove
rsy,
see
Amira
hmad
i (19
82) a
nd K
iafar
(198
6).
2.Fo
r a de
tailed
histo
ry of
the e
xpan
sion o
f Teh
ran b
efor
e the
nine
teent
h cen
tury
„ se
e Jav
aher
-Kala
m (1
946)
, Kar
iman
(197
6), a
nd N
ajmi (
1985
). 3.
Betw
een
1881
and
1932
, fou
r cen
suse
s of T
ehra
n's p
opul
ation
wer
e con
ducte
d,
in 1
881,
189
1, 1
922,
and
1932
). On
ly th
e las
t two
wer
e con
ducte
d by
the c
ity's
mun
ici
palit
y. T
he re
sults
of a
ll fo
ur ar
e giv
en in
Sar
shem
ari-
ye N
ofus
-e S
hahr
-e T
ehra
n (1
933)
. Ho
weve
r, un
til 1
956,
whe
n th
e firs
t nati
onal
cens
us w
as ca
rried
out
in Ir
an, t
here
wer
e no
hig
hly
relia
ble p
opul
ation
data
for T
ehra
n. F
oreig
n tra
veler
s or l
ocal
obse
rver
s pro
-vi
ded d
iffer
ent e
stim
ates f
or th
e num
ber o
f city
inha
bitan
ts fro
m th
e eig
htee
nth c
entu
ry to
19
22. S
ee, f
or ex
ampl
e, Am
irahm
adi (
1982
), Ra
hram
beyg
ui (1
977)
, Najm
i (19
85),
and
Tabr
izi (1
981)
. 4.
Ther
e is a
per
iod
in th
e hist
ory
of T
ehra
n un
der t
he Q
ajar t
hat i
s ref
erre
d to
as
th
e "p
alace
build
ing"
perio
d. Se
e Bah
ram
beyg
ui (1
977)
. 5.
For f
urth
er in
form
atio
n on
clas
s stru
ctur
e in
prec
apita
list I
ran,
par
ticul
arly
Te
hran
, see
Abr
aham
ian (1
982)
. 6.
For a
deta
iled
disc
ussio
n on
stru
cture
s and
the p
opul
ation
of e
ach
distr
ict, s
ee
Benj
amin
(188
7) an
d Ette
hadi
eh (1
983)
. 7.
Tehr
an h
ad a
grow
th ra
te of
onl
y 1
perc
ent b
etwee
n 18
50 an
d 19
00. T
his w
as a
very
slow
grow
th ra
te co
mpa
red t
o tha
t of t
he po
st-19
20 pe
riod.
8.Fo
r fur
ther
info
rmati
on o
n th
e stat
e's co
ntro
l ove
r eco
nom
ic ac
tiviti
es d
urin
g th
e Re
za S
hah
perio
d, se
e A
khav
i (19
86),
Ash
raf (
1971
), Ba
shiri
yeh
(198
4), a
nd
Kato
uzian
(198
1).
9.A
ccor
ding
to B
harie
r (19
71),
Tehr
an's
shar
e of t
he to
tal l
arge
-sca
le fa
ctor
ies
and a
ll m
anuf
actu
ring i
ndus
tries
in 19
47 w
as 26
and 1
7 per
cent
, res
pecti
vely
. 10
. In
the a
bsen
ce o
f rel
iabl
e dat
a, th
e sha
re o
f mig
ratio
n in
Teh
ran's
pop
ulat
ion
boom
may
be u
nder
stood
from
a co
mpa
rison
of u
rban
pop
ulat
ion
grow
th in
a th
ree-
deca
de sp
an. T
he to
tal p
opul
ation
of I
ran
incr
ease
d 56
.4 p
erce
nt, f
rom
11.
37 m
illio
n in
19
20 to
17.
58 m
illio
n in
195
0, w
hile
the u
rban
pop
ulati
on ju
mpe
d 10
4.6
perc
ent,
from
2.3
9 mill
ion t
o 4.89
mill
ion,
in th
e sam
e per
iod.
Thus
, a si
zabl
e por
tion o
f the
incr
ease
in
urba
n po
pula
tion,
mor
e th
an 5
0 pe
rcen
t, ha
s to
be a
ttrib
uted
to n
atur
al p
opul
atio
n in
crea
se an
d to
the g
row
th o
f som
e vill
ages
into
area
s def
ined
as u
rban
(pla
ces w
ith a
popu
latio
n of f
ive t
hous
and a
nd ov
er) w
hile
mig
ratio
n fro
m ru
ral a
reas
acco
unted
for t
he
rem
aini
ng p
ortio
n. T
ehra
n un
doub
tedl
y at
tract
ed th
e big
gest
shar
e of t
he ru
ral-u
rban
po
pulat
ion
mov
emen
t. Th
e city
also
abso
rbed
par
t of t
he m
igra
nts f
rom
small
er to
wns
and
othe
r majo
r citi
es. T
ehra
n's sh
are o
f tot
al in
terna
l mov
emen
t in
Iran
in th
e firs
t half
of
this
cent
ury a
mou
nted
to 60
perc
ent (
Bhar
ier 19
71; G
raha
m 19
78),
and,
acco
rdin
g to a
Pl
an O
rgan
izatio
n so
urce
(196
6), o
nly
50 p
erce
nt o
f the
city
's po
pulat
ion
had
been
bor
n th
ere. 1
I. Th
e new
nor
th T
ehra
n, o
rigin
ally
a per
iphe
ral a
rea o
f the
city
, was
first
settl
ed
by th
e mid
dle c
lass
es, w
hose
inco
me w
as g
radu
ally
gro
win
g. T
he ri
ch b
azaa
ris
(mer-
chan
ts), t
he ab
sent
ee la
ndlo
rds,
and
the h
igh-
rank
ing
state
bur
eauc
rats
show
ed li
ttle
inter
est i
n the
new
subu
rb an
d rem
ained
in th
eir re
siden
ces i
n the
cent
er of
the c
ity. A
fter
The
Tran
sfor
mat
ion
of T
ehra
n 13
3
1950
, how
ever
, the
se la
tter g
roup
s also
beg
an to
mov
e to
the n
orth
ern
subu
rb, l
eavi
ng
their
old,
large
hous
es be
hind
to be
occu
pied
later
by m
any p
oor a
nd w
orki
ng-c
lass f
ami-
lies;
see B
ahra
mbe
ygui
(197
7).
12.F
or a
mor
e deta
iled a
naly
sis of
a tra
ditio
nal M
iddl
e Eas
tern u
rban
stru
cture
, see
Ki
afar
(198
7).
13.M
ossa
deq w
as th
e lea
der o
f the
oil n
ation
aliza
tion m
ovem
ent i
n Ira
n dur
ing t
he
year
s of 1
948
to 1
952.
He w
as th
e firs
t dem
ocra
ticall
y ele
cted
prim
e min
ister
in Ir
anian
hi
story
. For
info
rmati
on re
lated
to h
is pr
emier
ship
and
even
ts lea
ding
to h
is do
wnfa
ll in
19
53, i
nclu
ding
the
Cent
ral I
ntel
ligen
ce A
genc
y's i
nvol
vem
ent i
n th
e co
up, s
ee
Abra
ham
ian (1
982)
, Roo
seve
lt (1
979)
, and
Zab
ih (1
982)
. 14
.For
a co
mpr
ehen
sive s
tudy
of la
nd re
form
and i
ts ef
fects
, see
Gue
rrilla
Org
ani-
zatio
n of t
he P
eopl
e's F
edaii
(197
6), H
oogl
und (
1982
), an
d Lam
bton
(196
9).
15.F
or fu
rther
info
rmati
on o
n th
e stat
istics
relat
ed to
the c
once
ntra
tion
of ed
uca-
tion,
hea
lth, c
omm
unic
atio
n, an
d ec
onom
y in
Teh
ran,
see Z
onis
(197
1) fo
r the
early
19
60s a
nd K
azem
i (19
82) f
or th
e late
1960
s to t
he m
id-1
970s
. 16
.The
third
nat
iona
l pop
ulat
ion
and
hous
ing
cens
us o
f Ira
n w
as co
mpl
eted
in
Nove
mbe
r 198
6.
17.F
or in
stanc
e, th
e exp
endi
ture
shar
e of t
he to
p 20
per
cent
of u
rban
hou
seho
lds
incr
ease
d fro
m 5
2 pe
rcen
t in
1959
-60
to ab
ove 5
6 pe
rcen
t in
1973
-75
while
expe
nditu
re
shar
e of t
he b
otto
m 4
0 pe
rcen
t of h
ouse
hold
s dec
lined
from
14
to 1
1 pe
rcen
t ove
r the
sa
me p
erio
d.
18.T
hese
inclu
de al
l of d
istric
t 1 an
d ha
lf of
dist
ricts
2, 3
, and
4. D
ue to
the l
arge
siz
e of d
istric
t 2 an
d its
expa
nsio
n fro
m n
orth
Teh
ran
to ce
ntra
l are
as, o
nly
half
of th
e po
pulat
ion
and
othe
r inf
orm
ation
relat
ed to
this
distr
ict h
ave b
een
used
for c
ompa
rison
s he
re.
Refe
renc
es
Abr
aham
ian,
E. 1
974.
Orie
ntal
dep
ositi
sm: t
he ca
se o
f Qaj
ar Ir
an.
Inte
rnat
iona
l Jo
urna
l of M
iddl
e E
ast S
tudi
es 5
, 3-3
1.
Adib
i, H.
1979
. Tab
aqah
-e M
outa
vase
t-e
Jadi
d da
r Ir
an (N
ew m
iddl
e clas
s in I
ran)
. Te
hran
: Jam
e`ah
Ent
esha
rat.
Akha
vi, S
. 198
6. S
tate f
orm
ation
and
cons
olid
ation
in tw
entie
th-c
entu
ry Ir
an: t
he
Reza
Sha
h pe
riod
and
the I
slam
ic re
publ
ic. I
n Ba
nazi
zi, A
. and
Wei
ner,
M.,
eds.
The
stat
e, r
elig
ion,
and
eth
nic
polit
ics.
Syr
acus
e, NY
: Syr
acus
e Uni
versi
ty P
ress
. Al
izade
h, M
. and
Kaz
erou
ni, K
. 198
4. M
ehaj
erat
va
Shah
rnes
hini
dar
Iran
(Mig
ra-
tion a
nd ur
bani
zatio
n in I
ran)
. Teh
ran:
Min
istry
of P
lan an
d Bud
get,
Offic
e of P
opul
ation
an
d M
anpo
wer.
Amira
hmad
i, H.
198
0. P
lanni
ng an
d ca
pital
ist d
evelo
pmen
t in
Iran:
the r
ole o
f the
sta
te an
d im
peria
lism
(193
0s-1
976)
. Wor
king
pap
er, D
epar
tmen
t of C
ity an
d Re
gion
al Pl
anni
ng, C
orne
ll Un
iver
sity,
Ithac
a, Ne
w Yo
rk.
134
AM
IRA
HM
AD
I AN
D K
IAFA
R
The
Tran
sfor
mat
ion
of T
ehra
n
135
1982
. Tra
nsiti
on fr
om fe
udal
ism to
capi
talis
t man
ufac
turi
ng a
nd th
e ori
gins
of
dep
ende
ncy
rela
tions
in Ir
an: 1
796-
1921
. Unp
ublis
hed
doct
oral
diss
erta
tion,
Dep
art-
men
t of C
ity a
nd R
egio
nal P
lann
ing,
Cor
nell
Uni
vers
ity, I
thac
a, N
ew Y
ork.
198
6. R
egio
nal p
lann
ing
in Ir
an: a
surv
ey o
f pro
blem
s and
pol
icie
s. Th
e Jo
urna
l of D
evel
opin
g Ar
eas
20, n
o. 4
(Jul
y): 5
01-5
30.
1
989.
Pop
ular
mov
emen
ts, i
ncid
enta
l fac
tors
, and
the
stat
e's m
easu
res f
or
regi
onal
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l in
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l Iss
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ar Ir
an: p
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ul-
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l cha
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nive
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Yo
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ess.
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rgan
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e Pe
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6. L
and
refo
rm a
nd it
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ct
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cts in
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ndon
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n Co
mm
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nsla
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ublis
her)
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allid
ay, F
. 197
9. I
ran:
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ator
ship
and
dev
elopm
ent.
New
Yor
k: P
engu
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ooks
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essa
mia
n, F
., Et
emad
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Hae
ri, M
. R. 1
984.
Sha
hrne
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bani
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tion
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an).
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. J.
198
2. L
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refo
rm a
nd re
volu
tion
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an, 1
960-
1980
. Au
stin:
U
nive
rsity
of T
exas
Pre
ss.
Jabb
ari,
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Eco
nom
ic fa
ctor
s in
Iran
's re
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tion:
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erty
, ine
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ity, a
nd
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tion.
In J
abba
ri, A
. and
Olso
n, R
., ed
s. Ir
an: e
ssay
s on
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volu
tion
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e mak
ing.
Le
ton,
KY
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da P
ublis
hers
.
Jane
s, G
. 197
9. In
Teh
ran,
ver
y ri
ch a
nd v
ery
poor
aw
ait t
he fu
ture
. Ne
w Yo
rk
Tim
es (
Mar
ch 4
): A
4.
Java
her-
Kal
am, A
. 194
6.
Tarik
h-e T
ehra
n (H
istor
y of
Teh
ran)
. Par
t 1. T
ehra
n:
Am
ir K
abir
, 132
5.
Kar
iman
, H. 1
976.
Teh
ran
dar g
ouza
shte
h va
hal
(T
ehra
n in
the p
ast a
nd p
rese
nt).
Tehr
an: N
atio
nal U
nive
rsity
Pub
licat
ion'
s, no
. 78,
135
5.
Kat
ouzi
an, H
. 198
1. T
he p
oliti
cal e
cono
my o
f mod
ern
Iran
. N
ew Y
ork:
New
Yor
k U
nive
rsity
Pre
ss.
Kaz
emi,
F. 1
982.
The
cons
eque
nces
of r
apid
urb
aniz
atio
n: th
e ca
se o
f Teh
ran,
Iran
. In
Lut
z, J
. G. a
nd E
I-Sh
akhs
, S.,
eds.
Trad
ition
alism
in th
e mod
erni
zatio
n pr
oces
s. W
ashi
ngto
n, D
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Uni
vers
ity P
ress
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mer
ica.
K
iafa
r, A
. 198
6. T
he b
azaa
r and
revo
lutio
nary
chan
ge in
Iran
: a sp
atia
l and
soci
al
inqu
iry.
Unp
ublis
hed
doct
oral
dis
sert
atio
n, U
nive
rsity
of S
outh
ern
Cal
iforn
ia, L
os
Ang
eles
, Cal
iforn
ia.
Lam
bton
, A. K
. S. 1
969.
The
Per
sian
land
refo
rm, 1
962-
1966
. O
xfor
d: C
lare
ndon
Pr
ess. Ll
ewel
yn-D
avie
s Int
erna
tiona
l. 19
76.
Shah
esta
n Pa
hlav
i: a
new
city
cen
ter f
or
Tehr
an, b
ook
1: th
e mas
ter p
lan.
Lo
ndon
: Lle
wel
yn-D
avie
s Int
erna
tiona
l, Pl
anni
ng C
on-
sulta
nts. Lock
hart
, L. 1
939.
Fam
ous c
ities
of I
ran.
Bra
ntfo
rd: M
iddl
esex
. L
oone
y, R
. E. 1
982.
Eco
nom
ic o
rigin
s of t
he Ir
ania
n re
volu
tion.
N
ew Y
ork:
Per
-ga
mon
Pre
ss.
Naj
mi,
N. 1
985.
Teh
ran-
e Ah
d-e
Nas
eri
(Teh
ran
of th
e Nas
irra
din
Shah
per
iod)
. Te
hran
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r Pub
licat
ions
, 136
4.
Oliv
er, G
. A. 1
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age d
an L
'Em
pire
Oth
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L'E
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et la
Per
se.
Vol
. 5.
Paris
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ran,
M. H
. 198
2. T
he sy
stem
of d
epen
dent
cap
italis
m in
pre
- and
pos
t-re
volu
tiona
ry Ir
an. I
nter
natio
nal J
ourn
al o
f Mid
dle E
ast S
tudi
es
14, 5
01-5
02.
Plan
and
Bud
get O
rgan
izat
ion.
198
3a. N
atay
ej-e
Am
argi
ri-ye
Teh
ran
59
(Res
ults
of
cens
us o
f Teh
ran
59).
Tehr
an: S
tatis
tical
Cen
ter.
. 1
983b
. N
egar
eshi
bar
Tou
seca
h-e
Bira
viye
h-e
Tehr
an
(A lo
ok a
t the
un
plan
ned
grow
th o
f Teh
ran)
. Teh
ran:
Pla
n an
d Bu
dget
Org
aniza
tion.
Pl
an O
rgan
izat
ion.
196
6. T
ehra
n Sh
ahre
stan,
vol.
10.
Tehr
an: S
tatis
tical
Cen
ter.
Plan
ning
Org
aniz
atio
n of
the C
ity o
f Teh
ran.
198
3. B
arna
meh
-e O
umra
ni-y
e Pan
j Sa
leh-e
Bou
zour
g Ra
ha-y
e Sha
hr-e
Teh
ran
(The
five
yea
r pla
n of
the h
ighw
ays o
f the
city
of
Teh
ran)
. Rep
ort n
o. 1
45. T
ehra
n: M
unic
ipal
ity, P
lann
ing
Sect
ion.
R
oose
velt,
K. 1
979.
Cou
nter
coup
: the
stru
ggle
for t
he co
ntro
l of I
ran.
N
ew Y
ork:
M
cGra
w-H
ill.
Sars
hem
ari-y
e N
ofus
-e S
hahr
-e T
ehra
n da
r San
avat
-e 1
262,
127
0, 1
301,
va
1311
(C
ensu
s of t
he p
opul
atio
n of
the
city
of T
ehra
n in
188
1, 1
891,
192
2, a
nd 1
932)
. 193
3.
Tehr
an: D
ayre
h-e E
hsa'
iyeh
-e B
alad
iyeh
. Sh
ahri
, J. 1
978.
Gou
sheh
-ii A
z Tar
ikh-
e Ejte
ma
cai-
ye T
ehra
n-e Q
adim
(A
par
t of
the s
ocia
l hist
ory
of th
e Old
Teh
ran)
. Teh
ran:
Am
ir K
abir
, 135
7.
136
AM
IRA
HM
AD
I AN
D K
IAFA
R
SOFR
ET
O. 1
973.
Tr
ansp
orta
tion
plan
: fin
al r
epor
t, su
mm
ary
and
conc
lusi
ons.
Te
hran
: Mun
icip
ality
of T
ehra
n.
Tab
rizi
, A. 1
981.
Teh
ran:
Dow
Yad
dash
t Dar
Bar
eh-e
Jam
`iya
t Va
Tak
arou
k-e
Ejte
mei
(Teh
ran:
two
note
s on
the
evol
utio
n of
pop
ulat
ion
and
soci
al m
obili
ty).
Ket
ab-e
Ag
ah 1
, 37
-54.
Teh
ran:
Aga
h Pu
blic
atio
ns.
Zabi
h, S
. 198
2. T
he M
ossa
degh
era
. C
hica
go: L
akev
iew
Pre
ss.
Zoni
s, M
. 197
1. P
oliti
cal e
lite
of Ir
an. P
rince
ton,
NJ:
Prin
ceto
n U
nive
rsity
Pre
ss.
VIN
CEN
T F.
CO
STEL
LO
7 Pl
anni
ng P
robl
ems a
nd
Polic
ies i
n Te
hran
Tehr
an ha
s bec
ome a
sym
bol,
like•
Mos
cow
or W
ashi
ngto
n, D.
C., i
mm
edi-
ately
asso
ciated
with
a pa
rticu
lar po
litica
l, id
eolo
gica
l, an
d mor
al sta
nce.
It ch
al-le
nges
pre
vaili
ng in
tern
atio
nal o
rthod
oxie
s, an
d its
chal
leng
e is r
oote
d in
an
inter
preta
tion o
f Shi
a Isla
m. Y
et th
e city
isno
t jus
t a sy
mbo
l; it
is als
o a pl
ace.
It is
a plac
e with
phys
ical,
dem
ogra
phic,
and e
cono
mic
prob
lems i
n com
mon
with
m
any
othe
r lar
ge ci
ties i
n de
velo
ping
coun
tries
. Sin
ce th
e rev
olut
ion
of 1
979,
th
e Isla
mic
regi
me o
f Ira
n has
tried
to im
pose
an ex
plici
tly Is
lamic
ideo
logy
on
the m
anag
emen
t of u
rban
prob
lems i
n thi
s city
whe
re, a
lthou
gh Is
lam ha
d bee
n a
majo
r elem
ent i
n man
y peo
ple's
way
of li
fe, t
he do
min
ant i
deol
ogy w
as W
ester
n ca
pital
ism. A
t the
outse
t, ho
weve
r, we
shou
ld no
te th
at th
e natu
re of
the p
rese
nt
regi
me a
nd th
e nee
d fo
r sec
urity
dur
ing
the w
ar w
ith Ir
aq h
ave m
ade i
ndep
en-
dent
socia
l scie
nce i
nves
tigati
on di
fficu
lt in
Iran
. M
any
of T
ehra
n's p
robl
ems s
tem fr
om it
s rap
id g
rowt
h (A
mira
hmad
i and
Ka
ifar 1
987)
. The
city
has g
rown
from
a po
pulat
ion o
f jus
t mor
e tha
n half
a m
il-lio
n in 1
940 t
o 1.7
mill
ion i
n 195
6, 2.7
mill
ion i
n 196
6, an
d 4.7
mill
ion i
n 197
6. Th
e tot
al in
198
0 wa
s put
at 5
.4 m
illio
n, in
crea
sing
at a g
rowt
h ra
te of
5.4
per
-ce
nt pe
r ann
um. I
ran's
capi
tal al
one c
ontai
ns m
ore p
eopl
e tha
n Isra
el, L
eban
on,
or Jo
rdan
. The
popu
latio
n is l
ikely
to be
betw
een e
ight
mill
ion a
nd ni
ne m
illio
n in
199
1 on
ce th
e cen
sus r
esul
ts ar
e tab
ulate
d. T
ehra
n is
thus
one
of t
he la
rges
t an
d fas
test g
rowi
ng ci
ties i
n the
Mus
lim w
orld
.
137
