STUDY REPORT ON

THE COMMON ORAL TRADITIONS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

A Survey of Tanzanian Oral Traditions

BY:

PROF. M.M. MULOKOZI

UNESCO, DAR ES SALAAM, TANZANIA APRIL 1999

STUDY REPORT ON THE COMMON ORAL TRADITIONS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

A Survey of Tanzanian Oral Traditions

BY: PROF. M.M. MULOKOZI UNESCO CONSULTANT

RESEARCH ASSISTANTS

Ali Mwaliiiiu Rashid Viiyo W;igi

KR, UNIVEIISITY OF DAR ES SALAAM April 1999

PREFACE

This survey of the oral traditions of Tanzania was undertaken in the context of the UNESCO sponsored ongoing study on "The Common Oral Traditions of Southern Africa." Siinilai- surveys have already bccn done in inost of the Southern African countries.

This survey was undertaken at the request of UNESCO. The main objective of the survey was to research on the Taiizaniaii oral traditions that are shared by the other countries of Southern Africa in the context of preparations for the launching of the Oral Traditions Association of Southern Africa (OTASA). It is expected that the data so collected will be utilized by OTASA in its training and research program. In addition to surveying the oral traditions, the study was intended to assess the status of oral traditions and national languages i ti the Tanzanian government policies, national legislation and official institutions.

The study was carried out in archives, libraries and relevant institutions in Dar es Salaam and Zanzibar, and employed the methods of documentary research and interviews. The study was supposed to begin in September 1998, but owing to delays by UNESCO in reinitting the initial rescarch funds, it could not begin until December 1998. The survey was completed in Mid-March 1999, and the Report written between March 15 and April 15, 1999.

The Report has 5 chapters:

Chapter 1 offers the reader brief background information on Tanzania, including its history, peoples and cultures.

Chapter 2 surveys the major Tanzanian oral traditional categories; their characteristics, inodes of occurrence, current state, utilization, perpetuation and geographical spread within Tanzania and beyond.

Chapter 3 reviews research in Tanzanian oral traditions that has been done in the last 150 years. It highlights both the achievements and the shortcomings of those researches, and pinpoints the gaps that need to be filled.

Chapter 4 addresses the policy and legal issues pertaining to oral traditions in post- Independence Tanzania - how the government viewed the question of culture in national developnient, and how its dealt with languages and oral traditions in both policy and practice. The structures aiid legal framework created to cater for oral traditions and language development are also reviewed.

Chapter 5 is the Conclusion. It briefly summarizes the preceding chapters and their findings, and inakes propositions for future cooperation among Southern African countries in the study and yroinotion oî thcir coininon oral traditions.

In carrying out this work, 1 utilized the services of Mr Ali Mwalimu Rashid of Zanzibar and Ms Vuyo Wagi of Dar es Salaam; both of them helped with data collection. I wish to thank them for their assistance. I also wish to thank all the individuals and institutions that facilitated this survey, especially: The Ministry of Education and Culture, Tanzania Mainland; the Ministry of Information, Culture and Tourism, Zanzibar; the National Arts Council (BASATA); the National Library Services, Dar es Salaam; the University of Dar es Salaam Library; the Tanzanian National Archives; Radio One, ITV, DTV, Radio Tanzania Dar es Salaam and Sauti ya Tanzania Zanzibar.

Prof. M.M. Muloltozi

UNESCO CONSULTANT INSTITUTE OF KISWAHILI RESEARCH UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM

151411 999

RESEARCH ON THE COMMON ORAL TRADITIONS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This study surveys the Tanzanian oral traditions that are shared by the other countries of Southern Africa, their status in the national cultural and language policies, and how they are preserved and promoted, The study also surveys and appraises the laws and institutions that deal with oral traditions.

The results of the study are presented in five chapters:

Chapter 1 offers the reader brief background information on Tanzania, including its histoiy, peoples and cultures,

Chapter 2 surveys the major Tanzanian oral traditional forms that are shared by the other countries in the sub-region, so as to establish their types and genres, their origins, modes of occurrence, current state, utilization and perpetuation; and their geographical spread within Tanzania and in the sub- region. The major categories that are identified and discussed at length are:

- sayings - songs/poetry - tales - oral histories - theatrical arts - special institutional lore - drum lore

Chapter 3 reviews the research on Tanzanian oral traditions that was done in the pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial periods, The chapter highlights the achievements and shortcomings of the researches done to date, It demonstrates that pre-colonial and colonial research in Tanzanian oral traditions was very limited and selective; that it focused on those genres and forms that were needed by the colonial state and the missionaries, The chapter shows that after independence more extensive research was carried

I

out on most forms of oral traditions, However, that research was generally not very intensive and in-depth, and the masses of data that have been corrected are yet to be processed and analysed scientifically and utilized for scholarly and practical ends.

Chapter 4 examines the policies and legislation pertaining to the oral traditions and languages in post-colonial Tanzania, It shows that Tanzania's unwritten cultural policy until 1997 was premised on the twin poles of nationalism and Ujamaa.

The chapter argues that the policy did much to revive and promote traditional and current Tanzanian culture, including the national language, Kiswahili, though it suffered from a statist approach which tended to allenate the real owners and creators of the heritage, Moreover, the policy tended to ignore the other indigenous languages (other than Kiswahili), and did not lay enough emphasis on preservation and promotion of the oral traditions,

The chapter, further, reviews 14 Tanzanian laws dealing with cultural malters, and shows that they do not deal adequately with oral traditions, This is not surprising, since even the basic law of the land, the national Constitution, Is completely silent on the question of languages and oral traditions, Four Acts that specifically mention aspects of oral traditions are given a more detailed appraisalm They are:

1 , The National Archives Act 1965 2. The Copyright Act 1966 3, The National Swahili Council Act 1 967 4. The National Arts Council Act 1984

It is shown that these Acts appear to focus more on songs, dances and drama, and to ignore the other oral traditional categories, Likewise, the new cultural policy issued in 1997 is not forthright on oral traditions perse, though It marks a step forward compared to past policies,

The final chapter (Chapter 5), is the Conclusion. It briefly summarizes the preceding chapters and their findings, highlights the significance of the common oral traditional heritage for the Southern African countries and

II

peoples, and makes propositions for future cooperation among Southern African countries in the study and promotion of this common heritage, Specifically, it recommends revival and strengthening of OTASA and EACROTANAL as the first step in the envisaged cooperation,

lhe Report has six Appendices: Appendix A offers a course outline for the proposed OTASA research assistants' orientation course; Appendix B lists, generically, published and unpublished collections of data on oral traditions available in Tanzania; Appendix C is an index of research on oral traditions carried out by TAKILUKI in Zanzibar since 1979; Appendix D lists the institutlons dealing with oral traditions; Appendix E lists the registered performing groups in Tanzania (Mainland and Zanzibar); and Appendix F lists specialists in oral traditions and language study,

III

CONTENTS

PREFACE ................................................................................................................ 00

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ......................................................................................... i

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................. iv

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: TANZANIA: THE ECO-CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL CONTEXT ...................................................................................... 1

CHAPTER 2: A SURVEY OF THE ORAL TRADITIONAL GENRES FOUND IN TANZANIA AND OTIIER SOUTHERN AFRICAN COUNTRIES ...................... 5

2.0 introduction ........................................................................................................... 5 2.1 Literature review .................................................................................................. 5

2.2.1 Sayings .............................................................................................................. 7

2.2.3 Tales ................................................................................................................ 13 2.2.4 Oral histories ................................................................................................... 14 2.2.5 Theatrical arts ........................................................................................ ...-.. ..... 15 2.2.6 Special institutional lore ........................................................................ ........ 15 2.2.7 Drum lore ........................................................................................................ 16 2.3 Utilization .............................................................. ..................................... ....... 19 2.4 Preservation and perpetuation .......................................................................... 20 2.5 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 21

2.2 The categories ...................................................................................................... 7

2.2.2 songs/poclry .................................................................................................... 1 o

CHAPTER 3: l¿EVIEW OF RESEAKCH ON TANZANIAN ORAL TRADITIONS 1850-1 999: .......................................................................................... 22

3.1 Pïdhloi1¡d iìiìd Coloilid pcïiod ....................................................................... 22 3.2 After independence ............................................................................................. 24 3.2.1 Sayings ............................................................................................................ 24 3.2.2 Songs/poetry ............................. ....................................................................... 24 3.2.3 Tales ................................................................................................................ 25 3.2.4 Oral histories ................................................................................................... 25

i

3.2.5 Theatrical arts .................................................................................................. 26 3.2.6 Special institutional lore ................................................................................. 26 3.2.7 Druin lore ........................................................................................................ 26 2.3 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 27

CHAPTER 4: POLICY AND LEGAL ISSUES .................................................... 28

4.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 28 4.1 Policies vis-a-avis oral traditions and laiigiiages ............................................... 29 4.2 Legislations pertaining to oral traditions and languages ................................... 30 4.2.1 Criticism of soine of the laws ........................................................................ 31

4.4 Problems ........................................................................................... ...-............ 35 4.5 Concl iision ......................................................................................................... 3G

* . .

4.3 Impleinentation ................................................................................................ 33

CHAPï'ER 5: CONCLUSION AND IWCOMMENDATION .............................. 38

5.1 Summary of report ............................................................................................ 38 5.2 Significance of the common oral traditions for Southern Africa ...................... 39 5.3 Recorninendation ............................................................................................... 40

CITED REFERENCES ......................................................................................... 41

LIST OF INTERVIEWED PERSONS ................................................................... 47

ILLUSTRATIONS

Sketch map of Tanzania showing some of tlie major groups and languages .......... 04 An epic performer using a zitlier accompaniment .................................................... 37

APPENDICES

Appendix A:

Appendix 13:

Course outline for the proposed OTASA research assistants' orientation course .................................................... 49

Lists of documents and collcctions of data on Tanzanian oral traditions ............................................................................ 52

ii

Appendix C: Index of OT research done at TAKILUKI, Zanzibar .............. 61

Appendix D: 1,ist ol’itistitutions dcaliiig with oral traditions .......................... 67

Appciidix 1:;: I .¡si 01’ i.cg¡stci*cd pci*li)i-tii¡iig groups in Tanzania (Mainland and Zanzibar). ........................................................... .68

Appendix F: List o 1’ specialists in oral ti*acli tions and language study..’. ......... .72

iii

A1313RI<VIAr~IONS USED IN THIS IWPORT

I3 AKI‘I’A: BAKIZA Riisara C cf. Dept. Diss. Dsin DTV DUP E.A. EACROTANAL: EALB EAPH EAPL EASC ed. EPDL Fig. Heko IKWTUKI IMF Inst. ITV LU. KLB KWPC Lit. M.A. MEC M&K MPB MsIMss n.d. NGO OT OTASA OUP

PPC PubPC

PfPP

Llaraza la Kiswaiiiii ia ‘Taipa (National Kiswaliili Council, Tanzania) i3araza la Kiswaliili Zanzibar (Zanzibar Kiswaliili Council) Husara Publications Dar es Salaam Century compare Department Dissertation Dar CS Srilriuni Dar cs Salaani Television i h r es Salaam University Press East Africniin Eastern African Centre for Research in Oral East African Literature Bureau Easi Aírican Publishing House Ikstcrii Africa Publications Ltd. East African Swahili Cornmitee. editodedited by/edition Educational Publishers and Distributors Ltd.

I Icko I>iiblishcrs liistitutc OC Kiswaliili Rcscarcli International Monetary Fund liistitutc Independent Television Indiana University Kenya Literature Bureau Kagera Writcrs aiid l’ublislicrs Co-operative Society Literature Master of Arts Ministry of Education aiid Culture M & K Publishers and Agencies MPB Publishers Manu script/Manuscrip ts no date Non-Cioverninental Organizations Oral Traditions Oral Traditions Association of Southern Africa Oxford University Press pagelpages Press and Publicity Centre Publishing and Printing Consultancy

Fi gli re

iv

S.A. SOAS SPCK TAKILUKI

TAMWA TGNP TPH TIE TNR TUIU UDSM UNESCO UNICEI: UNO UnP UP UTL U WAVITA viz.: Vol. VVK WUP

South Africa School of Oriental and African Studies, London University Socicly for thc I’roiiiotioii of Chrisliaii Kiiowlcdge ‘I’aasisí ya Kiswaliili na Lugha za Kigcni Zanzibar (Institute of Kiswaliili and Foreign Languages Zanzibar) Tanzania Media Woinen’s Association Tanzania Gender Networking Programme Tanzania Publishing House Tanzania Institute of Education TanganyikaíTanzania Notes & Records See IKR above University of Dar es Salaam United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization United Nations Childrcn’s Fund Uni tcd Nalions Orgaiiimlioii Universal Pu bl ¡cat ions Utamaduni Publishers Usangu traders Ltd. Umoja w a Waandishi wa Vitabu Tanzania (Tanzania Writers Association) namely volume Vitabu vya Kibaha, Ki balia Invcstineiits Witwatersrand University Press

V

CHAPTER ONE

TANZANIA: THE ECO-CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL CONTEXT

This chapter offers general background information on Tanzania - her geography, history, people, and culture. This is the broad eco-cultural context in which the oral traditions to be surveyed in this study have evolved, and are practiced and perpetuated. It is the context in which they will either thrive or die.

The United Republic of Tanzania, comprising of Mainland Tanzania and the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba, has an area of 945,087 km2 and a population of about 30 million. There are about 120 ethnic groups and languages. Kiswahili is the national language. It is spoken or understood by more than 90% of the population.

Most of the 120 ethnic groups in Tanzania are Bantu speaking, but there are also sizeable groups of speakers of non-Bantu languages, e.g Nilotic languages (Maasai and Luo), Cushitic languages (Iraqw, Bukunge, Mbughu), and even Khoisan (click) languages (Sandawe). This latter group is believed to be related to the Khoisan peoples of Namibia and South Africa. There are also large Hindi and Arabic speaking communities originating in Asia.

‘lhe peopling 01 ’I’anzaiiia occiirrcd ovcr sevcial riiilleiiiiia. Arcliaeological íìiidiiigs indicate that the first hominids may well have evolved in Tanzania about 3.75 or so million years ago as evidcnccd by fossil findings at Olduvni Gorgc, Lactoli uiid 0th sites scattercd in various parts of ‘Tanzania. Rock painting dating Troni the Stone Age abounds in places such as Mbulu, Kondoa, Iramba, Mwanza and Kagcra. Iron Agc sitcs have been discovered in Usanlbara, Upare, West Kilimanjaro, Sunibawanga, Uvinza, Eiigaruka and Kagera. W e are not sure whether the hunter- gatherer communities of ancient Tanzania were assimilated by the later new comers (the Cushitic, Bantu sind Nilotic speaking peoples) or whetlicr thcy simply moved away to safer places in the face of the threat from the new comers, w h o were apparently more numerous and better mied. The present day Barabaig and Sandawe are considered by some historians to be remnants of the early communi ties.

The Cushitic-speaking people are believed to have moved into Tanzania more than 3000 years ago, bringing with them cattle and grain cultivation. The Bantu speaking peoples must have started moving into Tanzania, probably from Congo and Cameroon, from around 500 B.C. By about A.D. 1000, most were already settled in their present areas, although migrations continued until the early nineteenth century, when the Ngoni (Nguni) from southern Africa settled in southern Tanzania. Indeed, even in this century thousaiids of pcoplc Troni Congo (so-callcd Maiiyciiia), Rwanda, Burundi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, South Africa and Uganda have settled in Tanzania.

Along the coast, including the Indian Ocean Islands, interaction with the outside world, especially Asia, has existed for many centuries. Groups of Asians began settling on the coast from as early as A.D. 700, intermarried with the local people, and became part of the Swahili society. They introduced Islam and the Arabic script so that by A.D. 1000, Kiswahili was already being

1

wrilleii in that script; today, wc have cxt~iiit lilcrntiirc writtcii in Arabic script dating from about A.D. 1500.

Generally, we can say lliat tlic currciit pcoplcs of 'l'aiizuiiia are basically thc sanie as those found in neighbouring couiitrics. Iiidced, some ethnic groups are found on both sidcs of the border, since tlie deinarcators of the colonial boundaries did not bother about ethnic realities. Thus the Makonde and Makua are found in both Tanzania and Mozambique; the Yao and Nyasa live in Tanzania, Malawi and Zambia; the Ngoni occupy parts of southern Tanzania, Zambia, Mozambique, Malawi, Zimbabwe, and South Africa; the Maasai occupy a land expanse stretching from central Kenya LO central 'I'aiizania; the Lu0 are Iound in 'l'aiizania, Kenya, Uganda, and southern Sudan; the Kuria aiid the Digo livc iii both Keiiya aiid l'aiizania; the Swahili occupy tlie whole coast from southern Somalia to northern Mozanibique, plus parts of Conioro and Madagascar; and the Haya- Nyanibo people of Kagera are closely related to tlie Rutara peoples of Uganda (the Nkore, Nyoro, Toro and Kiga). Not surprisingly, the oral traditional forms of these people, as w e shall show later, are also related and even shared.

'l'lie Tanzanian coast was coloiiizcd by the Portuguese h r two centuries (c. 1500-1700) until they were ousted by a coalition of the local people and the Oman Arabs. Thereafter, the Oman Arabs occupied Zanzibar and the Tanzanian coast, and claimed parts of the hinterland (along the trade routes) until they too were in turn ousted by the Germans in 1885. Germany ruled Tanzania mainland until the end of Worldpr I, while Zanzibar became a "British protectorate." From the end of World war I until 1961, Tanzania mainland, then known as Tanganyika, was ruled by the British as a League of Nations/üN Mandate, later Trust, territory. i;

Zanzibar became independent in 1963, and in 1964 the Arab sultanate was overthrown in a bloody plebeian revolution. In the sanie year, Zanzibar and Tanganyika united to form the United Republic of Tanzania.

Most of the current oral traditional form existed prior to Arab and European colonialism. Nevertheless, they underwent some changes during the centuries of occupation due to changes in the way of life (e.g. urbanization, decline of the traditional institutions that patronized the oral arts, such as kingship, tlie clans, traditional religion, etc), and also because of the onslaught of western education and western and eastern religions (i.e. Christianity and Islam).

So iniich for the negative impact of forcign occupatioii on the oral traditions. Tlic positive impact was that the foreigners introduced writing (first in Arabic, later in Roman script), which enabled the indigenous people for the first time to write down some of their traditions for posterity. The introduction of the tape-recorder and the gramaphone by the colonialists also helped to recorded and disseminate even more faithfully some of the traditions that were in danger of getting lost.

Another important contribution of colonialism, that had both positive and negative aspects, was its promotion of research on oral traditions. Such research was primarily intended to facilitate the process of governing and "civilizing" (i.e. westernizing) the "native", but, like a two-edged sword, it also helped collect, preserve and disseminate material that would otherwise have been lost.

2

Aîter independence, the nationalist government attempted to revive and promote indigenous culture, iiicludiiig languagcs and oral traditions, as wc shall show in chapter 4. Our tradiíioiial art forms were introduced into schools and even churches, artists received sponsorship and encourageinent, and pride iii our cultural heritage was revived. 'ïhat period of cultural revival lasted until the late 198Os, when economic collapse, aided by IMF directives, put a stop to that kind of I'unproductivel' benevolence.

Today, after almost a century of colonialism, and more than a century of literacy, Tanzanian societies are still primarily oral. This is in spite of the fact that the literacy levei is believed to be about 70%, having dropped from a high of about 90% at the height of Nyerere's literacy campaigns ¡ti the seventies. Heiice, for these societies, and for southern Africa generally, orality is not a marginal, semi-obsolete, optional activity, but a way life. These are oral cultures, and a study of their oral modes of creativity and communication is indeed a study of the essence of their cultural existence.

As regards culture, Tanzania, like most African societies, essentially has two parallel cultures existing side by side. The first culture is the traditional, mainly rural, culture. The second culture is the "modern", cul ture.

The traditional culture continues to exists within its o w n environment and by its o w n momentum. It embraces iiiost of the people, especially those living in the rural areas. It has its own systeiiis oï socializutioii, cclucatioii, law, scieiicc, etc. iiidcpciiclent of tlie state. For instance, in education, the traditional system employs both formal and non-formal means to socialize the child. The formal institutions include the rites of passage (e.g. initiation), the age groups, the madrasu (Koranic schools for Muslims) and the secret societies. The non-formal education involves learning while living, by observing, imitating, participating, and serving as apprentices. The whole system is cemented by word of mouth, with the oral traditions playing a decisive role. The time tested traditional cultural systems serve as a means of preserving, passing on and even transforming the cultural values, knowledge and heritage of the people.

The "modern'' culture is a product of the colonial experience. It is based on a largely urban, western value system, including a western type school and legal system, commercialized cultural practices, Christianity, and the written word. This system is headed, funded and perpetuated by the state, assisted by the so-called private sector and the NGOs.

In practice, these two systems exist side by side, though they rarely mix. S o m e individuals participate in both, and usually end up being at home in neither.

W e shall see later how this dichotomy is reflected in the policies and practices of government vis-a-vis the oral traditions, and the implication for their healthy development and promotion.

3

Sketch m a p of Tanzania, showing some of the major ethnic groups and languages

4

CHAPTER TWO

A SURVEY OF ORAL TRADITIONAL GENRES FOUND IN TANZANIA AND 0'1'11JSL< SOU'I'IIEl<N AI~KICAN COUNTKIES

2.0 IN'I'HOD U CTION

The term "oral traditions" refers to those forms of individuai and communal verbal creativity that are conceived, generated, structured, preserved and disseminated orally without the aid of writing. Such Iòrms include orature, i.e. oral literature per se (e.g. sayings, stories, and poetry), and factual lore (such as legends, histories, scientific accounts, and other types of essentially factual information). Oral traditions are living, not antiquarian, traditions. They are dynamic, not fixed; they are continually being created and recreated in performance. l'liey are mostly perpetuated through daily life and activities, social situations aiid institutions. They grow, change and die as the social situation demands. Hence cliangc of way of life, disappearance of the relevant traditional institution or context, leads to disappearance of some of the art forms, and appearance of new ones.

This chapter will survey the major Tanzanian oral traditional forms that are shared by the other.countries in the sub-region, with a view to:

- Establishing their types and genres; Establishing their characteristics, modes oí' occurrciice, current state, utilization and

Determining their geographical extent within Tanzania and in the sub-region.

- perpetuation; -

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW

A s yet, no adequate categorization of Tanzanian - nay, African - oral traditions has been done. Vansina's (1961/1965) pioneering work was more concerned with the methods of utilizing and interpreting oral traditions as history and less with categorization. Hence his categorization was mainly oricnted towards those traditions that had somc historical value (1965: 143-165). I n his more recent work (i 985), Vansina expanded his typology, but still rcmained within his main framework of studying oral traditions as historical sources.

The other pioneering work on African oral literature, Iknegan's Oral Literalure in Africa ( 1970) gciicrally uscs Liiiropcan calegorics with u lcw udditioiial "Ali.icaii" calcgoi'ics wlwrc llic European categories fail.

'l'lie intcresting controvcrsy raiscd by lier cliaractcriziiiioii of soiiic of thc types, aiid licr dismissal of others, such as epic, as being non-existent in Africa, is still raging, but is beyond the scope of this study. Nevertheless, Finnegan did at least prepare the groundwork for further study of

5

African oral literature whose fruits are beginning to be seen (Okpewho 1979 and 1992; Vai1 and White 199 1 ; Johnson I 986; Mulokozi 1987, etc).

1:iiinegaii's typology is us Iollows:

1 I'OE1'RY:

II PROSE

1. Panegyric 2. Elegiac poetry 3. Rcligioiis poclry 4. Special purpose poetry 5. Lyric 6. 'ïopical/political songs 7. Cliildrcii's songs ancl rliyiiics

8. Prose narratives: - Aniinal tales - Stories about people - "Legends" - Historical narratives - "Myths"

9. Proverbs 10. Riddles I I , Oratory, foriiial speaking and other stylized

forms, including tongue twisters, puns, names, etc.

III SPECIAL FORMS 12. Drum language and literature 13. Drama

These would appear to be more or less exliaustive, though not necessarily specifically African. One inay well qucry tlic divisions into ''prose'' and "poetry", since in oral literature the dcriiiacation betwecii the two is not all that clear. Her apparent omissions include types such as "epic", which she believes does not occur in Africa (p. 108- 1 O), ''jokes", and drum formulae (as opposed to drum poetry). This omission is made good by later scholars, such as Balisidya (1987), Mulokozi (1 987 and 1996) and Miruka (1 994). Balisidya's classification is quite comprehensive; it inclucles the following major catcgories:

PROSE: Tales, historical narratives, myths

POE'I'I¿Y: Songs, poetic reci talions

SAYINGS: I¿iddles, proverbs, slang sayings

Each of these in turn has several sub-types.

6

13al icidya however, omits soine important categories, such as drum poetry.

All in all, we can now state unequivocally that the gamut of African, and for that matter Tanzania, oral tradi lions includcs ut Icast tlic following broad typcs:

- Sayings - Spceclies

Narrati ves ‘I’iieatricai arts

Drum literature - Poetry/songs

Each of illese has a number of sub-categories, or genres, as we shall show in the review below. Clearly, on this general level, the Finnegan and Tanzanian categories almost converge. Differences arise only in reference to specific genres and sub-genres; for instance, which genres to include under which categories; which genres occur and which do not, etc. This is indeed, a tricky area, since classi fication of litcrary productions is dcterniincd by the critcria used - whether it is the criterion oí’ sii11.jcct miittcr, fiiiictioii (iiicludiiig coiitcxt), form or stylc. I Iencc, it is difficult for any two classifications to be exactly the same.

In this study, the major criteria used for the classification of the broad categories are form and style of dclivery, while for the sub-categories (genres) the criteria of content and function are also applied.

2.2 TRE CATEGOIUES

For the purpose of this study, Tanzanian oral traditions may best be discussed under the following calcgorics: - sayings

songs/poclry - talcs - oral histories - theatrical arts

- druni lore special institutional lore, e.g. uíani (joking lore), speeches, etc

2.2.1 S;iyiiigs

Sayings are slioi’t, pithy statements or phrases conveying a syiiibolic or covert meaning. This category includes proverbs, riddles, puzzles/enigmas, puns, epithets and eulogues.

Proverbs are insightful, well-structured observations or commentaries on life that appear to SLIIII up tlic accumulated knowledge and experience oï the society in question - the so called accepted wisdom - vis-a-avis the subject being referred to. Proverbs are used for illustration or support in

7

other modes of oral (and even written) discourse, such as speeches, conversations, and oral performances. They serve to emphasize and concretise the intended message. Southern African societics share iiiaiiy coniiiioii proverbs, as tlic rollowing randoin exaiiiples í'roiii Swaliili and Zulu show (thc Zulu sayings art: taken from Nyeiiibczi 1963):

I . Swdii/i: Ndovu Iiashindwi na pembc zake (No elephant fails to bear ils trunk)

Zuln: ICíi Itu n d lov u y as in d w a n g u in bo Ito w ii y o (No clcphaiit ever fhiicd to carry its trunk)

2. Swahili: Nd ug u wii kigoni bana sii ilca j cin be u kali ni e (Wlicii faiiiily iiiciiibcrs quarrci, take your hoe and go to work)

Zii111 : I in p i y om n den ' ay in genw a ow ezkw e (The family feud is not to be interfered with by a stranger)

3. Swahili: Mwerevu hajinyoiíhlganga hajigangi (A clever person does not shave himselflA doctor cannot cure himself)

Zulu: 1iiyíiiig:i kitzixclíiplii (A doctor cannot cure iiiiiisclf)

or Altultlio yili lazikhotli eiiililane (No crafty ycrsoii cver licked his own back)

4. Swnltiii: Wapishi wengi huharibu mchuzi (Too many cooks spoil the broth)

2111~: Iningi liya bon'u bu bende (Many people [cooks] spoil the blood broth)

5. Swnlrili: Hisani Iiaiozi (A good deed never rots)

Zulu: Ukubong'ukuziL>eltela (To give is to store for oneself)

6. Swalrili: Nyiini haoni Itundulc (A monkey does not notice its haurich)

Znlu: Imfene kayiziboni ubukhophoco (A baboon does not see its own forehead)

8

Riddles are metaphorical puzzlcs or questions that require an answer fioin the person being addressed. They are used as a means of educating and socializiiig children about their environment, and dcvcioping íiicir iiiciiííii nhiiitics.

Example:

QUESTION: M y house has no entrance

Puzzles and enigmas are related to riddles; they are brain teasers, intellectual games or problem questions that test the knowledge and intellectual agility of the child. A c o m m o n Swahili puzzle runs as follows:

X had a chicken. It was preceded by a chicken, and followed by a chicken. H o w many chickens did X have?

ANS WER: T w o chickens.

Puns and tongue twisters are manipulations of words and their sounds intended to promote the articulatory abilities of the children, apart from serving as entertainment. A coninion Swahili example, a tongue-twister on the y sound, runs as follows:

Wauwao wawe wao wauwa wewe wauwawr?

Let them be the killers for if you kill you will also be killed

Eveiy language iii Southern Africa, and probably in thc world, has its o w n puns that match ils sound syslciii.

Epithets in this context refers to forinulaic phrases, usually adjectivai, that rccur with character names in oral narrations, and appear to emphasize their supposed attributes. Examples:

- Sharp-tongued Sarah - Loose-mannered inan - Blue-eyed gent lenian - Mabala the Farmer

'l'lie temi "eulogue" was coined by Kunene ( 197 1 : xxii) to refer to "praise refereiices/names", including nick-names, i.e. metaphorical plirases serving as naines and intended to emphasize the particular attributes of tlic pcrsoii or tliiiig being rcfcricd to, aiici oftcii ciidiiig up beiiig niore popular and better known than the real naines of the subjects. They were a necessary aspect of the heroic milieu that produced tondozi, ibyivugo, izibongo, dithoko and other praise poetry productions of the African peoples. Examples abound throughout Southern Africa: e.g.:

9

1 .ioil ol' Jiiduli Musliweshwe Vie shearer"

M u k wav i n y i ka l'Conq u cror o i t I ie W i Ids 'I

Mti Mkavu "Dry 'ïrce '1.ruiik"

hiperor I Iailc Sclrrssic King Lepoqo Letlama oi'the Uasotho

King Mukwava of the I-Iehc people

Gcneral Mayiinga, a coiiini;indcr of Tanzanian forces during the Uganda war of 1979

Baba wc? Taifa "Fathcr of the Nation" Jiilius Nyercre/Joino Kenyattahnd many others

Ivízee Kifiinbo "Old Knobkerrie" Former President J.K. Nyerere of Tanzania

Mzee Rulm (Mzee Perinissioii) Ali Hassan Mwinyi

(C. 1786-1 870)

(C. 1850-1 998)

These are just a few examples of the sayings that abound in these languages. W e can safely assume that similar sayings occur in all Tanzanian and southern African societies. The only dif'ferences would pertain to the demands of the language used, the contexts, and the artistic traditions of the society in questioii and its philosophy or world view.

2.2.2 Songsll'oetry

In oral literature, poctry and song arc cither indistinguisliablc or tend to overlap. Hence it makes sense to discuss them under one category. Nevertheless, one must bear in mind the fact that a song is always sung, i.e. is delivered to the audience as vocal music, accompanied or unaccompanied, while a poem need not necessarily be sung, it can also be recited, intoned or declaimed. Hence the difference between the two lies really in the mode of delivery.

Oral songdpoetry may be placed in the following functional sub-categories a là Mulokozi 1996; 64-76):

- Lyrical soiigs/ditties (lumbuizo), such as love songs, wedding songs, topical dance songs,

Acclamations (tukuzo): these are laudatory songs/poetry. such as panegyrics and self-praise

Fiacilitalive songs (chupuzo): songs accompanying work, war, marches, children's games and

Narrative songs/ epics (tenzi/tendi): songs that tell a story.

lullabies, initiation songs, dirgcs, etc.

poetry, anthems, religious and mantic poetry;

similar activities.

- ..

- Soiigs/poetry are an ever present and often essential aspcct of the life of the African from the

cradle to the grave: they accompany birth ceremonies and rituals, child rearing (e.g. lullabies), children's games, puberty and initiation rituais, marriage ceremonies, religious rituals, work, war, entertainment, death, burial and mourning rituals. Most song types are shared by all the societies in Southern Africa, though the tunes, artistic techniques and content may differ, depending on the needs and outlook of each particular society. Thus among the Waswaliili of Tanzania, Kenya and Comoro,

10

many of their songs and poetry follow rules of rhyme and regular nieter, while most other Bantu- speaking societies do not emphasize those features.

For political, military, religious, esthetic and other reasons, certain specific songs tend to become very popular and transcend their society of origin. A good example is the South African hymnal anthem, "Nkosi Sikelel' Afrika". It was composed by at the end of the nineteenth century, and soon became an ANC anthem of struggle against apartheid. By the 1960s, it was already turning into an OAU anthem, several African countries, including Tanzania, having adopted and adapted it as their national anthem.

One particularly fiinious and typicul poetic forin of Southern Africa is praise poetry. This art form occurs in most of'tlie societies that were involved in constant wars of defense and offence. It became particularly widespread during the Mfecane upheavals of the nineteenth century. This art form was misunderstood and revilcd by the early European visi tors, who dubbed it "maniacal". Thus, Dieterlcn and Kohlcr (1 9 12: 120) had no good word for tlic Sotlio úiirhoko perforinaiices:

A inaii sccins suddenly scizcd by an irrcsistiblc devil. I IC leaps forward, parades in front of his friends, his head high, his eyes large and staring, his face contorted ... he declaims his praises us il-' deluded, possessed -and nicid ... the white man laughs, finding this infantile, ridiculous, and grotesque. As for the black man, he admires ... (our emphasis)

Nevertheless "praise poetry", which need not necessarily "praise" the subject, arose out of the needs of the heroic milieu, and propagated the cherished values of heroism, manliness, patriotism and sacrifice, recorded for posterity the pertinent historical events, and the exploits and credentials of the belligerents, and of course, propagated the heroic ideology that was badly needed in the given circunistaiiccs. Tliiis we hid praise poctry all thc way from Uganda in the north to Capc Town iii the far south (cf. Modza and Fortune 1979; Moyo 1978).

An exainiiiatioii of tlic content aiid style oï this poetry reveals striking resemblances in theme and style, throughout the area. For instance, there is an emphasis on lineage, and on heroism and manliness; grcat use is made of highly metaphorical epithets aiid eulogues (praise reièrenccs), and pastoral metaphors abound, with the bovine (cattle) and the beasts of the wilderness holding pride of place (cf. the following two examples from Tanzania and South Africa):

Tanzania (Baliaya)

Mutatembwa (King of Kiziba, Bultoba c. 1865-1903)

Bee sting of Mugaliga* Thiindcrbolts that strikc while othcrs arc roaring! Bees of Kaigoshora* * H e who was in danger of being exiled; he of Ntumwa* and Bilala*

11

Sand of Kyamugera** that whitens calve's horns H e of Tibakanda" who fulfills his vows!

W tcc kcr o 1' sli icltls o 1' I<yaiiiiigciu* * 1:iiigcr of Nyuita* tliat cxcccds llic livc liiigcts Darkness in which lions and leopards lurk You come of the long lions!

Crooked finger of Nyamunanage* Power-iiionger of Mpanja* Insolent one during battle Dressed in spotlessly white! When he stumbles, he does not lose toe nails

but hardens up for batlle ...

Quotcd by Rubaiiza (1 994: 3). M y translation.

NOTES: * Nnincs or tiis forbcars **'Piace names

Zimbabwe (Ndebelc)

Lobcnguh, King of the Ndcbclc (c. 1870-1894).

Black king! Caifofa black cow! Man calci'! Lion! Thou art as great as the world! Thou who appeared when men spoke confused I y! Slar that shot through the firinament in the day of Zwangeiidaba! l'hou are in the plains! Black mystery! 'ïliou who pierceth the sky that is above! Calf of the terrible! The Letter destroyer! I-Ie crossed the great desert! The black duck of Mzilikazi! The black calf of Bulawayo!

Quoted in Vai1 & White (1 99 1 : 98)

12

Another poetic art form that has unfortunately not been researched seriously in this sub- region is the oral epic. Finnegan (1970) claimed that the epic did not occur in Africa, but studies by Okpewho, Jolinsoii, Mulokozi and others have disapproved her thesis. Unfortunately most of the studies deal with Central and West Africa. Mulokozi (1987) and J. Mbele have been studying the epic in Tanzania and hope to publish the results soon. It is possible that epic traditions do exist in other southern African countries (indeed it would be suprising if they did not, given the heroic history of some of the societies). It is worth noting here that the repertoire of possible epics, among other things, recorded by Hugh Tracey (1952) throughout southern Africa has been lying in the archives in South Africa for fifty years; his catalogue (Tracey i 973) indicates that there are indeed some epics in the collection. Moreover, Moyo's (1 978) very coiiiprehensive typology of Ngoni oral literature (in Zambia) includes what lic calls imidubuko (national epics) - mother indicator that epics may exist iii that society. Thus, urgent research in this area is needed.

Finally, we havc to note that praise poetry and epic poetry are currcntly dying art forins; the contexts and institutions that nourished them have changed or disappeared, the composers and reciters are long dead or dying, and the societies generally seem to have lost their heroic zeal. Although some of this poetry survives in a mild form, and praise recitation is still practised at certain designated functions or ceremonies, w e have to admit that it is no longer a popular artform. Something needs to be done about collection and preservation, if not dissemination, of the existing repertoire, before it is too late.

2.2.3 Tales

Tales are fictioiial or semi-fictional, or factual narratives intended to regale, inform andor pass on a moral lesson. The core of the tale is usually received from tradition; the tale performer uses herhis own words to retell the story, and may add or deduct details froin the story as the context demands. The concept of "talcs" ils used Iicre iiicludes categories such as folktales (iiicluding fables mid fairy tales), myths, jokes and anecdotes.

Folktales are the most common fictional narratives in Tanzania and southern Africa. They occur in all societies. In Tanzania, folktales are usually performed in the evenings, while the children are waiting to retire after the day's activities, Often the performer is the mother or grand mother, occasionally elder sistershrothers, and even fathers and grandfathers, when available, may also perform, southern African folktales share certain motifs and characters. C o m m o n motifs include that of the evil stepmother, the ogre (zirnwi) that devours people and has to be propitiated or killed, the journey (often made by children from home to a far off country because of a problem or in quest of something); sibling relations; etc. A special category of folktales, known as fables, employ animal characters to depict desirable and undesirable human traits. Iii such tales, the hyena symbolizes gluttony, the lion is the king, thc liare is oftcii the trickster, the elephant, and sometimes the hippo, are the dumb giants, the tortoise represents wisdom, etc. There are variations in these representations in the different societies, but generally the stories tend to be shared by several groups.

Anecdotes are short humorous accounts of real or fictional incidents, usually intended to amuse in informal settings. In formal settings, anecdotes are sometimes used to illustrate important

13

points or arguments. Some aiiecdotcs are cui ture-bound, many others occur trans-culturally. They are found in all southern African societies, though specific and coniparative studies of the genre are yet to be undcrtakcn.

'I'he rollowing is an example of a culture-bouiid joke-cum-anecdote:

A Makonde man fouiid a monkey in his shunzbu (farm) stealing his maize. On seeing hiin, the monkey ran up a tree. 'The Makonde man picked up his bow, inserted an arrow, and addressed the monkey thus: "Listen you thief, I ani giving you two alternatives; you either come down voluntarily and allow m e to kill you while you are on the ground, or else you stay u p there and force m e to kill you from below, in which case you will suffer two deaths: firstly, you will die from the arrow shot, and secondly, you will die from falling down from the tree.

Similar liiiniorous aiiccdotcs abouiid in all our socich.

2.2.4 Oral Ilistorics

Oral histories are narratives recounting the popular histories of given groups or states. They include historical narrations, personal or communal recollections, chronicles, genealogies, and legends (semi-historical tales). Historical narrations are usually non-specialized, may be made by any knowledgeable person or nzzee, and tend to be narrow in focus (clan, village, or kingdom). Chronicles and genealogies are specialized historical narratives that purport to recount the histories of given clans or lineages. Sometimes they occur in a poetic form. Legends are seini-historical narratives that purport to recount the real or imaginary experience (e.g. migrations sind wars) and exploits of a people and or its leaders in the remote past. On the whole, oral histories are never analytical, and are usually one sided, but do offer valuable information and hints on historical processes, though usually without dates. They can and do serve as useful sources during historical research. As regards their geographical provenance, oral histories occur, with variations, in almost all societies.

Myths are fictional narratives purporting to explain iiiatters of origins and existence of societies, persons and phenomena, and believed to be true. Myths tend to embody the way the group views itself vis-a-vis other groups, and its collective philosophy of life or world view. Hence more than any other, these tales have an abiding influence on the way the people think, live and act; and on how they organized their societies. They need to be seriously studied.

ïïiere arc: severul iypes oïiiiyilis, such as iiiyilis o1 origins, iiiyllis associated wiili, uiid heiice enacted in, religion and ritual, and myths depicting gods, spirits and similar beings inhabiting an ethereal world.

All societies have their sacred and non-sacred myths. A comparative study of Tanzanian, let alone southern African, myths is yet to be done (purportcd Pan-African studies of African philosophy/religion by Tempels 1954, Jahn 1961 ; Mbiti 1969, and others can serve only as a starting

14

point). Such a study would reveal the common thread that runs through the beliefs, thought patterns, and world views of the societies involved, and hence the general traditional African conceptualization of being.

2.2.5 T1icíitric;il Arts

Theatrical arts are perforined arts, such as dances, dramas and rituals. Solo performances of tales, epics, and praise poetry, often accompanied by the mbira, the nangu (trough zither), the zeze (one- stringed musical bow) or the ngoma (drum) also partially belong here. Ritual enactments, and improvised drama are also îorins of traditional theater arts. This then, is a rich area, of which Africa is justly proud. i IS iiiipact on contemporary world iiiiisic aiid dance (jazz, rliimiba, saniba, soul, calypso, rap, etc.) is n o w widely acknowledged.

Some of these African theater arts are still alive and throbbing. Certain specific dances, such as sindimba of the Makonde, are found in several countries, while others are confined to particular states only. The deliberate nationalization of aspects of ethnic cultures aAer independence has turned certain ethnic dances and music types into national art forms - known, performed and appreciated all ovcr Taiizaiiia. Obvious cxaiiiplcs arc sindittzbu (origiiially Makoiidc), lubugubogu (origiiially Sukuma), msewe (originally from the southern regions), and taarab (originally Arab-Swahili). Martial dances introduced during colonialism, such as beni, have also spread to various parts of Tanzania and even beyond.

Apart froin being popular and entertaining, these dances serve as coiidui ts for traditional dance steps, tunes, inusical instruments, thought forms, oral traditions, costuinery, aiid otlier forms of cultural heritage. They thus directly and dynamically serve to preserve and disseminate our oral traditions.

Similar or related theatrical arts exist in all the countries of southern Africa. In a number of cases, given specific dances occur in more than one country. Examples are sindimhn and isinyogo (Makonde) in Tanzania and Mozambique and vimbuza dance in Malawi and Zambia (Tumbuka). Moreover, these countries share some of the musical instruments used in these arts, for instance, the drum, the xylophone, the niusical bows, the zither, various types of wind instruments, and of course, the lamellaphone or “thuinb-piano” (m birdmarim ba).

Theatrical arts tend to cross borders and continents easily, and in the process get adopted and adapted by others. So far this process has been more or less unorganized and ad hoc; what is needed n o w is to create a sub-regional framework through which the theatrical arts of the various ethnic groups can be more systematically and scientifically disseminated and adopted, with the necessary changes, throughout the sub-region.

2.2.6 Spccial iiistitutional Lorc

Certain oral and performed art forms are associated with or confined to given traditional institutions, which serve as both their contexts of occurrence as weil as their means of propagation and

15

perpetuation. ïïiesc include tlieatrical-cum-ritiial fornls associatcd with iiistitutions such as initiation, kingship, courtship, religion, war, iron smelting, and family aiid ethnic relations. In this study our discussion will focus on two types only: namely the ufuni (joking relationship) lore, and traditional context-defined speeches.

Utani occurs only in the context of culturally defined joking-relationships. This may be belweeii niciiibcrs or two I'oriiially antagonistic ethnic groups, such as the I-Iehe and the Ngoni in Tanzania; or between family members enjoying a defined relationship, such as in-laws, grandparents versus grandchildren, etc. Such lore includes dramatic verbal exchanges, sometimes including "pretended insults" between joking partners; enactment or performance of "playlets" dludiiig to or criticizing joking partners on specific occasions, e.g. during fuiicrals. Sometimes the joking is done to extract moiiey fion7 the joltiiig partners for a spccific useful piirposc, c.g. burial costs, wcddings, etc.

'I'his apparently very Arricali art forin has rarely been noticed by oral literalure scholars, though it plays such u iiecessary aiid practical role iii tight situaiioiis, in addition to being iiiiinensely enterlaiiiing. I suspect 1hal uicini lore occurs in all soullierii Aïricaii societies, albeit with a variation in rules and joking partners. For instance, in Madagascar, the Merina and the Sakalava ethnic groups have a joking relationship (zivcr) dating from their warring days. It is diîficult to cite other examples because tlicre no publislicd iiialcriuls on the matter.

Speeches are another institutional lore that plays a central role in certain ritual and other sensitive social situations, such as betrothal negotiations, political negotiations, addresses to spirits and deities, etc. Such speeches are usually very artistically wrought, employing elevated language with plenty of proverbs, symbolisms and allusions. This is a common art form in all oral cultures, so much so that people who are adept at this oratorical art are very much sought and highly respected.

' l ï ~ survival of îlicsc art I'oriiis will iilhalcly dcpciid C)II tlic survivnl of the iiislilutioiis they are associated with.

2.2.7 Drum Lorc

The "Talking Drum" is one of the greatest and most amazing iiiventions of the African. In terms of its versatility and efficacy, this invention matches that of Alexander Bell's invention of the telegraph. Through drumming, the pre-colonial African could, in a matter of minutes, transmit messages over hundreds of kilometers. No wonder, one of the cultural practices to be banned or restricted by the colonial regimes and the chiirches, al beit unsuccessfully, was drumming; for in drumming there was a secret that European technology could not penetrate.

Al llic core of druiiiiiiiiig lhcrc is tlic drum - un iiislrumciit that in Africa is as coninion as the black skin. There are many types, shapes, and uses, but they all produce sound through percussion, usually on a skin membrane stretched over an opening or'a hollow object. Among the Bantu speakers of southern Africa, the popularity of the drum is underlined by the spread of the term for "drum",

l b

which in most cases is a variation of the root "ngoinii'l.Thus wc have:

Ngoma: Waswahili (Tanzania and Kenya) Engoma: Bahaya (Tanzania) Ongoma: Herero (Namibia) Ongoma: Kwanyama (Namibia) Ngoiiidn li iiriiiigonia: Ngonia: Mbukushu (Botswana) Ngonia: Shona (Zimbabwe)

Kwangali and Sambiu (Namibia)

According to Nkctia (lO63: 17), there arc thrcc kinds of African druiiiiniiig: signal drumming, speech drumming, and dance drumming. In this study, we are concerned only with signai and speech drumming.

Nketia (1 963) tells us that, camong the Akan of Ghana

... signal drumming is characterized by short, repetitive, unilineal rhythms, or a broken series of drum beats playcd at one Icvel of pitch ... These pieccs (i.e. drums) are usually identified by reíerence to the iianies of the drums (e.g. &wie, rnmidie) or to a word or phrase which the sound of the drum suggests (e.g. susu biribi "ponder over something") .... (pp. 27-28).

As regards the "inessage" carried in signal drumming, Nketia adds that use is made of "nonsense syllables", "burclcn texts", ancl ''short mottos or conimeniorati ve texts.":

The use of nonsense syllables ... is in essence an extension of the common phonoesthetic habit of imitating non-spccch sounds such as mechanical noises, animal cries, the songs of birds, etc. by means of speech sounds ... A common method of reproducing drum sounds is by using burden texts mude up of wholly or to a large extent of recognizable words and phrases ... In signal drumming one does not come across texts made up of several such units. Often the sanie plirasc is used, though greater congruciice will be found in the drumming and texts of the tribunals and commemorative drums ... The greatest use of texts in connection with signal drumming is to perform a secondary lingiiistic function. If a short motto, or a short commemorative text, a brief message, or a short instruction were required, it would usually be assigned to a signal drum .... @p. 33-36).

Nketia then proceeds to give a number of interesting examples drawn from Akan signal drumming.

W e suspect that signai drumming, more or less as deliiied by Nketia, exists in almost all Tanzanian ethnic groups. It is normally used to alert people about any matter of common concern. It could be a lurking danger, such as an enemy invasion, a lion or leopard attack on the village flocks, or a robbery. Signai clriiniiiiiiig is also used to call pcopie to nicetiiigs, hiiiiting, or eveii prayers and church scrviccs. Siiictly spccikiiig, signal driiiiiiiiiiig docs noi rcpresciií spcccli; ncvcrtliclcss, tlic different styles of drumming serve to convey different traditionally recognizable messages or burden texts. Thus, among the Bahaya people, for instance, signal drumming at a rapid tempo denotes an

17

emergency; a lower tempo, bui in the same style, denotes a tion-eiiiergcncy, such as a call to a meeting. Drumming to mark tlic N e w Moon, an iinportaiit occasion iii the traditional religion, has a coinpletcly tlií'íicrciit siylc. I ,iiicwisc, Clirisiiíin driiiiiiiiiiig calliiig pcoplc io prayers is rccognizably diffcrciit iii stylc.

Becaiisc sigiial druiiiiiiing is cul ture bound and lias recognizable codes which all the people in the given cultural setting rccogiiizc, such druiiiiiiing has teiidcd to be iiitcrpreted verbally, so that in time a certain style of drumiiiiiig gets associated with a given verbal utterance or formula (Nketia's "burden text" and 'liiiotto"). For instaiice, the Catholic church drumining among the Bahaya in Tanzania calling the faithful to daily afternoon prayers carries the following tag:

Waitu hnlyeleíu Waitu balyelela, halyeleta, bcrlyeleta Abashonii hcr1)~eleicr.. .

Sir, they will coine voluntarily Sir, they will come voluntarily, voluntarily, voluntarily The believers will come voluntarily

'The interprctaîioii is ;i cynical o1,scrv:iiioii on tlic liici that the cliiirclics no longer iiecd to bcg pcople to become convci'ts as they uscd lo do iii the past, îor now it is the people who arc begging to be accepted by the cliiirch! lndeccl tiines have changed!

Another example from the Bahaya. In the past, every king had his official drum, and every royal appointce to ai adniiiiistrative post was given a drum by tlie king as an emblem ofoffice. Each such drum liad its recognized "beat" or theme, different from that of the other drums. Hence, before sending any message, their drummers would start by beating out the particular beat of the given official, so that cvcrybody would know that the message is coining from such and such a chief or headman. As usual, tliesc special themes were given formulaic verbal tags. For instaiice, the drum of King Kitekere of Kyainutwara (around Bukoba town, c. 1820-1 860) had the following tag:

A kaln fa- Kcis honùa- A kir lei kciita - The-Li tile-Oiic-tliat- Would-Die-Pecks-At-Its-Would-be-Killer 'l'lie "Little Oiies" arc, oi'course, the various kings that darecl to raid Kitekere's realm. Thus, by "pecking" at him, thcy prcparcd tlic ground for their own destiwtion.

Similarly, I'rincc: I¿arutasigwu (later King Mutahangarwu 1903- 19 16) of Kiziba had a drum with the following beat:

Mwunn-alile-nai she-Ageijageija - 'The-Child-'ïhut -Eats- With-His-Father-Prospers

18

This alludes to the history of Kiziba. Karutasigwa was then (1 890's) a Cliicf (Mwaini) of Kanyigo. His elder brother, Rweshabula, revolted against his father, Mutatcnibwa, in a bid to usurp the throne, but Karutasigwa, as the iiaiiic of his Drum suggcsts, sided with his father against Rwcshabiila. As a result, lie iiilieri tcd tlic tlironc after his fdier's dcatli--hc ate with his íiitlier and prospered.

Such formulas expressed in a concrete way the perceivcd aspirations or vision of the owners of those drums, apart from serving as identification tags.

We suspcct that signal drumming exists iii most southern African cultures; unfortunately serious research, as far as w e are aware, is yet to be iindertakeii in any of the societies.

With regard to spcccli druniining, Nketia (ibid) explains that it corresponds to and represents the spoken word. lhnegan (1 970: 483-4) adds that speech-druiiiiiiing is a form of "writing", and that it suits well the African tone languages. This view is also held by Chernoff (1 979). These scholars demonshate that spcecli druiiimiiig soinetiiiics conveys poctic or litcrnry picccs and messages. It is such picccs tlial ~irc kiiowii us druiii litcruturc.

Such drum literature has been reported among several West African societies, such as the Akan of Gliana, and the Yoruba of Nigeria; and also among sonie groups in the Congo (Zaire). So far there is no information regarding the existence of speech drumming in Tanzania, or in southern Afiica generally, though this may be due to lack of adequate research rather than non-existence of the art form. This is, thus, a virgin field that scholars, especially inusicologists, need to investigate.

2.3 UTILIZATION

Utilization of oral traditions depends veiy much on the type aiid context. Tlius a song may be used for entertainment, acclamation or facilitation of a given activity, depending on the context. A story can be both entertaining and educative, und so on. On the whole, w e can say in general terms that oral traditions arc usually iitiiiï.cd for tlic followiiig íiiiictioiis:

- Education and information: they record and preserve the collective knowledge and

Apprehension of recrfity: they make the audience awnre of its socio-cultural and natural

Molding ofcharacter: this is done through teaching on right and wrong, and affirmation of

Criticizing society: this is done in order to correct evils and wrong doing; Protest: Wronged or oppressed parties use oral literaturc to protest about their station in life; Sunctioning: Ccrtaiii oral forms, e.g. myths aiid official histories, serve to sanction or legalize

Acclunzution: This instils the values of bravery, patriotism, etc. Fucifituíion: Sonie songs serve to facilitate a given activity, such as work, play, a march, a

information of the given society, and impart the sanie to the audience;

environment and needs, and how to survive in it;

moral values and ethics;

- - - - -

the status quo, and pass on the accepted or ruling ideology; - - gaine, a battle, etc.

19

- Lnlerlniiirncnf: ‘Hiis is a common function of almost al I oral traditions, especially orature. Szr.s(encrnce: Some artists, particularly these days, use oral traditions to earn their living; oral - perforniuncc is tlicir sole or main occupation. In csliuic cíiscs, this lias led to rabid coni iiicrciíil i zíil ioii o I’ oríil pcrlorniniiccs.

In suni, w e can say that utilization of oral traditions revolves around the twin poles of ideology and practical needs.

2.4 Pl¿ESEl¿VATlON ANI) YEIWETUATION

Preservation aiid perpetuation of oral traditions usually go togeilier. Oral traditions are preserved in and by Iiuniaiis aiid iiisti tutioiis, using the vcliiclcs oï languagc, pcrîornmice, customs and rituals. In the past, cliildiui iisctl to Icíirn most of thc oral tradi tions froiii k i r parents, relativcs and peers. in this way, the truditions wcrc passed on Ikoiii one gciieration to anotlicr. For the more specialized type, soinetinics prospcctivc perfornicrs liad to go throiigli a loiig pcriod of apprenticeship with a recognized niaster. ln sonie societies, especially in West Africa, there were castes of professional artists, such as the casted griots of Mali.

The young generation/apprentice learncd the contcnt aiid style of a given tradition, and they in turn prcsci-vcd aiid pcrpctiiatcd it tlirougli pcrforiii;iiicc, ancl by icacliiiig others to îollow in their steps.

Ili SOIlIc sociclics, ll1ciu wcrc spccinl iiisLillitioils WIlOSC rliiiclioii il was Lo pi’cscrvc iiiid perpetuate certain traditions through both ritual and the word of mouth. Such was the case among the centralized kingships of the Great Lakes Region (Buganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Bunyoro, Buhaya, etc). Thus in Buganda, every Kabaka (king) who died had a special shrine-cum-museum built for him, with permanent caretakers who were also specialists in the lore and history of his reign. Such specialists passed on their knowledge to their successors. This WS an institutional way of preserving and perpetuating royal traditions.

Traditions that arc associated with certain institutions uiicl rituals, such as initiation, marriage, kingship, religion, etc. are normally preserved and perpetuated through enactment of the related rites and rituals. That is why the destruction of traditional institutions by colonialism and Christianity, which is still goiiiy on, lias led to disappearance of such tradiiioiis.

These days some of the oral traditions in some of the societies are still preserved in the old ways. Nevertheless, the societies are changing so fast that new íind modern ways of preserving them need to be sought. ïliese include: Teaching some of thein in schools and art colleges, utilizing them us a basis of niodcrii indigenous theater and dance, re-living tliciii on special ethic occasions, as is currently being done by the Village Museum in Dar es Salaam, and of course, recording them on sound tapes, videos and CD-Rom for broadcasting to the popiilace and also for preservation.

20

2.5 CONCLUSION ( 1 I his cli~ipicï Ii;is siii.vcyctl I>ii!lly Ilic IllajOI~ oi.:il ii~;icli~ioil;il li)i~iliS li,1iiicl ill ‘ l ’ í \ i l ~ ~ i i l i ~ i , íincl cxlcndiiig to tìic other soiitlicrii Aí’riciiii coiiiitrics. ‘lïic clinptcr lias alteniplcd to describe their evolutioii, mode and context of occiirrence, current state, and geographical distribution within and outside Tanzania, and niode oî preservation and perpetuation. Where possible, pertinent examples drawn from Tanzania and otlicr couiitrics in the sub-region liave been citecl.

The following categories, some with several sub-categories, have been identified and discussed:

- sayings - songs/poctry - talcs

oral Iiistorics - tlicatrical arts

- drum lore - special institutional lore, e.g. utani and speeches, and

The survcy lias, iiitcr alia, revealed three things: - That Tanzania lias a rich variety of oral traditions; That most of these traditions are also shared by the other countries in southern Africa; That in-depth studies of many of these art forms, let alone comparative studies covering the

- -

sub-regioii, have not yet been done.

From [his we csin conclude that ample scope exists for sub-regional cooperation in research, documeníation, tlisscmiiia~ioii and proniotioii of this coiiiiiioii Iiciitagc.

21

C HA 1’T E K ?‘II REE

3.1 I’I\E-COLONIAL ANI) COLONIAL I’ERIOl>

Systematic research 011 ‘l‘aii~.aiiian oral fraditioiis hegnn in niid- 19th ccntiiry. Por instniicc, in 1870, Bishop Edward Steere published his Swahili Tules. The missionaries and explorers who visited Tanzania between 1850 and 1900 sometimes attempted to collect or comment on oral traditions, though iii ail aiii:itcurisli minner (Spcke 1863; Grant 1864).

Between i 890 and 1920, rescarcli on Tanzanian oral traditions was largely carried out by German scholars and adniinistrators (Rtittner 1894; Seidel 1896: Kollinann 1899; Velteii 1898; I901 ; I903 aiid 1907; Nigniann i 908; Rchsc I9 1 O). Thcse scholars, assiduous as tliey niay liave becn, were limitcd by tlicir i m i t i objcciivc, iiuiiicly to liirtlicr tlic broad aims of the colonial stak; inadequate knowledge of the local languages, lack of recording equipment (tape-recorders had not yet come into general use), and their usiially derogatory attitude towards things African. Furthermore, analysis of tlie lore collected by thesc scholars was usually minimal or non-existent. In a number of cases, even the translations aiid analyscs wcrc crroncoiis (cf: Mbcle 19%). Ncverthclcss, the collcctioiis of oral traditions, talcs aiid poetry IdAisld by tlicsc scliol~rs arc still usclid sources oîdatli.

Proin the 1 I(YOs, the lirst generation o1 local scholars began to make their contri bution. Many of these were either catecliists, servants of colonial ofíicers, or civil servants (including teachers and administrators) in lhe colonial service (ci. Mtoro bin Mwenyi Bakari 1903; Lwamugiru 19 1 O). Rare were the scholars, such as Abdallah bin Heinedi ‘IAjemniy (1 895/1962) and Hemed Abdallah el- Buhry (I 895) who were independent of the church and the colonial state.

Recording of traditional music was also iindcrtakcii by. among oilicrs:

- F r Bachmaiin: various etlinic groups, 1890s; - Buttner, C: Zaranio aid Swahili 1903?? - Otto Deinpwolflk: Sanduwc and Zaramo, 191 O - Mattner: various groups, 1909 - Carl Meinhoc Bondci 1902-3 - Paasche: Kiziba, 191 O - Rehse, H: Kiziba, 1 9 1 O - Schwartz: Zinza, 1906 - Captain Scyfricd: various groiips, 1906-09 - Uhlig: Nyamwezi, 1910 - Velten, C: Swahili 1890s

22

B~ tile elid or liic (;ci~iiiíiii c o i o i i i ~ i i I ~ c r i o c i , rescarcii 011 iOcai ol.il~ traciitio1is ilnti iiiiiiiilg~d to

Aspects of Kiswnliili oral Iiícrnliire, iisiially from an iiiiiliroliological pcrspcctivc (cï, Mtoro cover the following areas: -

biii Mwiiiyi 13iili;ii.i 1003; íiiicl Vclícii 1808, I003 iiiid 1007; 13iittiicr 1894). A iiuinbcr oí' local liistories, niytlis and legciicls, usually I~scd on oral traditions (cl: Abdallah bin Hemedi 1895; Seidel 1896; Niginann 1908; Rehse and Lwamugira 19 1 O). - Sonie collections of oral tales and sayings (Steere 1870; Velten 1898; Velten i 907). Coliectioiis oc songs from various iaiiguages, sonictinics with musical aiiiiotatioiis (cf. Relise - 1910).

'riic CoiicctcCi iiiiitci.iiii iiuti l i t t i c c)r iiliiiiysis; til c t i ~ o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ i l ~ t i o ~ ~ ~ wcI'c r~illity; sometimes the original text (in the local language) was not included in the published version; and it is possible that some of the material was doctored. Nevertheless, these early efforts to collect Tanzanian oral lraditioiis arc still valuablc as soiirccs of cluta for comparison rind analysis. Unlòrtuiiately, most of tlie material collected at tiiat tiinc eiidcci up iii European Iioiiics aiid archives, and are not easily accessibic to iiiodcrii 'I'aiizanian researchers.

Alter the defeat of Gerniany in World War 1, thc Gerniaii researchers were replaced by British or British- sponsored researchers, in addition to an increasing niiiiiber of resident missionary scholars (usually French, Gcrnian, English and Swedish). Many of thcse were interested in language and anthropology, and had little or no interest in oral literature. A í'cw showed some interest in Kiswahili written literature (cf. Werner 1926; Hiclieils 194 1 ; Harries 1962).

European scholnrs who dealt with oral traditions (apart ïroin mere collectors of folktales) were not that many. Missionaries such as Césard (1930s) and Dannholz (1989) dealt with oral literatures as poiiitcrs to the world views oftlie "pagan" whom tlicy wanted to convert. A iiuiiibcr of scholars referred to oral literature data by way of illustrating language or anthropological aspects (Sacleaux 1939; Cory (various papers 1930-1 960); Whiteley 1958). Musicologists also became very activc at his timc. For iiistaiicc, tiic South Aîricaii iiiiisicologisí. 1 lugli 'ïracey uiidcrtook a recording tour of Tanzanian music in i 949-50. His records naturally included much oral traditional data, especially songs, sung legends and epics ('l'racey i 952; i 973). Ihifòrtunately, this wealth of material, ciirrciitiy said to be deposi tcd iii tiic Intcriiritioiial Library or Arricali Music, mi in tlic Rodcpoort Library, both in Transvaal, South Africa, has never been seriously studied froin a literary standpoint.

Also in this period niore local scholars in oral literature haditions emerged (cf. Abdulrahman 1939; Farsy S.S i958 and 1984; Kitereza 1945í1980; Lwamugira 1949). These usually self- sponsored researchers achieved much, given the limited resources at their disposai. 'ïliey collected songs, tales, histories, legends, sayings and riddles, published soine, but left the rest in manuscript form. Such collections also need to be studied by scholars.

N e w music recordings, both audial and cinematographic, were made during the British period. Examples:

23

- Cory, 1-1 : - Tracey, 1-1: - Farcy, M.S: Swahili 1958

Shambara, Sukiiina, Zigula 1930-1 940 Mniiy ctliiiic groups 1950

,. - I cllrilil. E.W, 1:: - Wciii:iii, l'.I I: lllll~llllgc, s~lll~l~lwc, Swuliili 1058-O6 I Iiiyíi, Siikuiiiii, Swí1liili 1 O57 - Others: e.g. I<ecordings ol'popular niusic by I3i.K and Suuli yu Dur es Sulaum radio stations (I 930-1960)

Clearly, the colonial period did not witness spectacular research in the oral traditions of Tanzania. The little research that was undertaken was ad hoc and subsidiary to other disciplines, such as anthropology and linguistics. More serious and systematic research in oral traditions had to await the post-colonial "back-to-the roots" initiatives.

3.2 AFTER 1NI)El'ENI)ENCE

Current, i.e. post-colonial, rcscarcli in Tanzaiiian oral tradilioiis may best be discussed under the following categories:

- sayings so1 lgs/l>o"L ''y - tales - oral histories theatrical arts - special institutional lore

- drum literature

3.2.1 Sayings

The category "sayings" includes proverbs, riddles, puzzles/eniginas, puns and cryptonyins. Research in this area has focused on collection of proverbs and riddles (cf. Parker 1970; Seite1 1972; Omari 1971,1976; Farsi 1984; Portmann 1977; Nestor 1978; Msuya 1079; Kalugila and Lodhi 1980; TUKI 1976; 1977; 1982; 'I'AKI1,UKI 1983; Mridiiinulla 1995).

Very liti IC ;iiinlysis of tlie collccted sayings iiiid riddlcs lins so far been attcmptcd (I'arkcr 1970; Seitei 1972; Msuya i 979; Madumulla 1995). Thus, while collection of more sayings needs to be undertaken, especially from the ethnic groups that have not yet been covered, greater focus should be placed on documentation and analysis of the abundant collections currently available in

art aiid ~Iiurcii librUries/archivcs. vnriolis 'ríii1za1li:in iIi.ciiivcs aiici ilisti ttItio1is, slici1 ;Is tiic IKR, i.~io st:1tiol1s, I ~ ~ l ~ s c l ~ ~ ~ ~ s , SCIIOOIS Or

3.2.2 Songsll'octiy

Research on oral songs and poetry has largely concentrated on lyrics and ditties (Jahadhmy et al. 1966; Ndiiliite 1077; Kokwijuka 1983; Mwakasaka 1978; Khatib 1992). Political songs have also

24

received attention (Songoyi 1988). Laudatory poetry, especially self-praise poetry (mqjigambo) has been widely studied (cf. Kaiiena 1975a; Kazooba 1977; Kitemanio 1977; Ishenioi 1978; Gabakaina 1980; Riibnnzi 1994). l3iit I;iciliíaiivc soiigs. siicli ;IS war songs :iiitl work soligs, niid iiiaicliiiig SOII~S,

treatnient ('ïAKII,UI~I 1983). 1i:ivc IioilJly bccii Loliclictl; llic cXcc(~lioi1 al'c llic cI1iItlrcii's plíly soilgs, wliicli havc rcccivcd SOIllC

Another glaring lacuna in our study of Tanzanian oral poetry pertains to the study of narrative poetry, including epics. Ever sincc Finnegail (1 970: 108-1 1 O) declared that the epic does not seem to occur in sub-Saharan oral literature, scholars from all over flic world have attempted to refute her asscrtion by ~indcrtakiiig ficld rcscarcli on tlic African epic (ßird 1974; Okpewho 1979 and 1992; Johnson 1986). 011 tlic local scene, only Kai-jage (1 977), Elofíinann (1 986); Mulokozi (1 987), and Seite1 (forthcoiniiig) have attempted to study the oral epic. Exccpting Mbele, all these scholars have studied lhe epics 01' tlic 13nlinya of Kogciu region. Mbclc lias sliidiccl tlic Liyongo epic tradition of the Swahili, and the Sukuma "epics" of Mwanza region. Epics believed to occur in other parts of Tanzania (Ruziiiza. I Jkerewc. lriiiga. ctc) have not yet been collected or studied. Obviously, the epic is an area that should be urgciiíly and scriously addressed, sincc we know iiext to nothing about its occurrence in most parts ol"I'anzaiiia. Moreover, tlie cvidciicc lioiii Kagera region indicates that the epic tradition is list dying out.

Tales, especially folktales, have been widely collected and studied since independence (Knappert I 970; Oniari 1971 ; Rwechuiigura 1972; Kitambi 1973; Mallya 1975; Mvungi 1975; Mbele 1977; TUKI I 977; Kamera 1978; Kamera and Mwakasaka 198 1 ; Seite1 1980; TAKILUKI 1983; Sengo 1985; TUKI 1993; Seiikoro 1996; etc.)

One special category of tales, however, has not been adcquately covered by researchers - the category of inyths and legends (cl', Chard 1930s; Ikoinbc 1943; Fosbrooke 1958; Sclunidt 1977). ïïicsc iiiytliologicul aiid sciiii-liistoricul iiarrativcs Iiuvc citlici. bccii igiiored or shallowcd trcated, though they probably occur in all the l'anzanian ethnic groups, atid tend to embody the way the group views itself vis-a-vis other groups, and the traditional perspective regarding life and existence. Hence more than any othcr, tlicsc tales have an abiding influence OJI the way the people think, live and act. They nccd to be seriously studied.

3.2.4 Oral Histories

Oral histories have been widely collected and studied by historians as sources of historical information. Vansina's (1 96 1 and 1985) theories of interpretation of oral testimonies have been made use oï sonie oï tlic scliolars. Iiidccd almost a11 writleii history of prc-colonial aid cven curreiit Tanzanian societies was largely based on oral testimonies, given the dearth or absence of written or published materials. Material on oral histories may be categorized into two types:

(a) Works that record oral testiinonies more or less as given by tlie sources with little or no additions or interpretation by the researcher. Major works in this category include the

25

following: Abdallali bin J-Icnicd ‘IAjjcriiy 1895/1962; Lwaiiigira 19 1 O and 1949; Cory, n.d.; Mwaruka 1965; Malaiigalila 1987; and Musso 1968.

Theatrical arts, in ihc form 01’ dances, drainas and rituals. havc bceii studied by a number of theater arts scholars (Kaduiiia 1972; Mlania 1973; 1983 and 199 1 ; Hussein 1975; Muhando na Balisidya 1976; Mbogo 1984; Lilianiba 1985). Most of the theater arts scholars are also theater practitioners, and have put their tlieoretical knowledge to practical use in their dramatic creations. Yet, in spite of thcsc coiiiiiicndablc cfforls, 11ic study of Tanzaniaii theairical foriiis is sii11 inadequate. Iiidccd most of the studies Iiavc tended to focus on written or improvised niodcrn drama and to ignore the more abundant traditional clrainatic forms that accoinpaiiics local ritiids, ccrcnionies, funerals, etc. This agaiii, is tin area tliut nccds to bc addressed.

3.2.6 Spccial Iiistilutioiial Lorc

‘llicsc arc oral aiid pxhriiicd art I’oriiis ticcl to traditional iiistiliitioiis. As staled in cliaptcr two, hey include Iòrnis such LIS z//utii (joking relationship) lore, aiid llic~ilrical-ciiiii-ritiia1 ïoriiis associated with iiistitutions siicli 11s iiii tialioii, kingship, courtship, religion. war, iron snicltiiig, ctc. Tlic survival of such forms ultiinutely depends on the survival of the institutions they are associated with. Naturally, studies of such lore have usually been part of anthropological studies, and are often hidden away somewhere in anthropological and ethnographical works. Examples of such works are: Nigmann 1908; Rclisc 19 1 O; Cory 195 1 ; Yongolo 1953; Read 1 956; Wilson 1958; Sengo and Lucas 1075; Schmidt 1977. Such works are, thus, relevant for oral iradition studies and should not be ignored, ror tlic art IOriiis they describe can best be iiiiderstootl in tlic context of such institutions.

3.2.7 Druin Litcriiliirc

According to Nltctiu ( 1963: 17), tlicrc arc ilucc Itiiids oTAfiicaii druiiiiiiiiig: signal druniiiiing, speech drumming, and dance druiniiiiiig. In this section w e are coiiccriicd only with signal drumming and speech drumming.

The drum literature of West Africa and parts of Congo-Zaire have been somewhat studied by spcci:ilists. Riit :IS fir as wc arc awxc no siich siiidics Iiavc bccn iiiiclcrinltcii in Taiizíiiiia, and possibly iii other Soutlicrii African couiitrics. 1 Iciicc wc do iiol kiiow for sure wliethcr soilie of the Tanzanian ethnic groups do have speech drumming, although we do know that most of them have signal driimmiiig. ‘This, thcn, is a virgin field that scholars arc yct to iiivestipted.

26

3.3 CONCIJUSION

we Cil11 conCllidc 1lliS discussioli by s¿iyiiig tIiíi1 COlOiiiíil l~cscai~cli ill 'I'rillzuiiiíili Oi¿iI l1ï1tlilions was very Iiiiiitcd aiid sclcctivc; tlic ciiipliasis was oli tliosc gciii'cs ml íoriiis that liad a bcaiiiig on the needs of the colonial statc, including the missionary enterprise. After independence, more extensive, but as yet hardly intensive, research on almost all forms of oral traditions has been done. What remains to be done now is to carry out more field research on those genres and societies that are yet to be r~scarclicd, monitor thc proccss of changc in thc docuniciitcd arcas and gcnrcs, proccss and analyze and preserve the masses of data collected to date, and disseminate the results.

27

CHAPTER FOUR

POLICY AND LEGAL ISSUES

4.0 I N'I'RO I) U C'ïl ON

ïanzania had no written cultural policy before 1997. However, she did have a fairly consistent cultural policy bnscd on spccclics, statcinciits aiid clcclarations iiiiiclc Troni tinic io tiiiic by 1lic ruling party aiid its leaders, aiid the practice einaiiating from such j~ronounceiiieiits. Judging from such statements, we can surmise that Tanzania's cultural policy after independence in 1 96 1 was premised on two poles, viz.: nationalism and Ujcrmaa (socialism).

Nationalism had two aspccts: tlic cultural ancl the j~oliiical-ccoiioiiiic. Cultural iialionalisiii was undcrstood in terms of returning to thc roots, rcjcctiiig tlie colonial notions that denied the African's Iiiiinaiiity, claiming that tlic African was a savage who had notliing woi-thwhile to show and no coiitributioii to inakc to tlie world bclore the wliitc nian came. 'I'anzanians were urged to take pride in their tradi tional culture, and io reject unbridled westernization. In practice, this translated into efforts to revive and promote the positive elements OC the traditional cultures, such as the arts (songs, dances, stories, sculpture, etc), thc dresses, thc cuisine, vnrious ciisíonis and rituals, etc. llic polilical aspcct of this iiutioiialisiii cmpliasizctl tlic íixging of ;i unitary natioii Troni tlic 120 c h i c groups that constituted thc l'anzanian socicty. It was fclt that initially unity could be built on diversity, and that gradually tlic difíkrciit peoples would incrge into a single society with one language and essentially one culture. This iclca was put into practice through policy actions, especially: Making Kiswahili the national language in 1962, aiid its promotion as the language of most aspects of the national life, including primary education, politics, administration, commerce, and religion; "natioiializatioii" of selected positive eleiiientc in the ethnic cultures, e.g. certain dances, customs, types of dress, and arts (e.g. Makoiide sculpture); creating a legal framework for these activities, and finally establishing parastatal bodies to oversee and promote cultural activities.

As rcgards Ujaniau, [lie idca wus to crcatc an cgalituriaii society in wliicli people would work together and share tiiorc or Icss cqually tlic fruits of tlicir labor, and in wliicli tlic state would own or control the "commanding heights" of tlie economy, such as infrastructures and heavy industries. On tlie cultural level, the Ujamaa idea translated into literacy Lor all, universal primary education, and a certain reorientation of cultural content aiid practiccs to emphasize Ujaniaa values, and attempts to reorganize production and dissemination of the arís in a 'kocialistic" way.

'l'lie abuiidoiinient of Ujaniaa aller 19ü5 necessitated ii reorientation of' cul tura1 policy and practice, culminating in the issue of a well-elaborated cultural policy document, Sera yu Ilfamuduni, in 1997. This, then, is the background against which w e shall review the policy and legal developments pertaining to promotion of the oral traditions in Tanzania in the recent past.

28

4.1 POLICIES VIS-A-VIS OliAL THA1)IIIONS ANI) LANGUAGES

As stated above, the starling point \vas, firsily, ;I rcliirii lo die i.oots, a rcasscrlioii of Ilic value and worih of' things Af'rican. Sccondly, íiic ornl tratlitioiis aiid langiiagcs, likc otlier cultural elements, were expected to serve as building blocks tor the new nation and national identity. Thirdly, they had to serve the ideal of Ujamaa.

In a way, the government was unconsciously trying to bridge the gap between the two parallel cultiires existing in Tanzania - the rural, traditional but changing culture, and the urban, western- oricntcd aiid coniiiicrcializcd cul turc.

However, beíòre tlie oral traditions could be so utilized, they needed to be revived, known and documented. Hence from tlic 1960s research and documentation of the oral traditions in various ethnic groups was encouraged. A rcsearch unit was in fact created within the Ministry responsible lor culture to ovcrsee this activity. 'lïic unit survivcd until tlic late 1980s.

Oral traditions becaine an iinportant clcincnt in the school curricula. Knowledgeable elders wcre invited into primary schools to teach oral arts siicli as poetic recitations, songs, and dances. A subject known as "fasihi siniulizi" (oral literature) was introduced from the primary level through secondary schools to the University. At the University of Dar es Salaam, oral literature became a major subject from 1970, and the instruction was accompanied by individual research by students during their holidays. As a resiilts, much oral data was ~011c~tcd and documented, and is now available at the University. ln subjccts such us history aiid sociology, oral historiography becaine accepted as a valid science, and from the sixties, niaiiy University of Dar es Salaani scholars based tlicir Iiistorical researches on oral traditions (cî. Gwassa, Kiniumbo, Katoke, etc.).

ïhe radio stations iiitrodiiccd folklorc progranis 1Or both childrcii aiid adults. Foi. iiistancc, Radio 'Tanzania Dar es salaam' liad "Asilia Salaam'' (Greetings with traditional music), 'Watoto Wctu" (our cliildren, included storytelling aiid riddling for cliildrcii); "Mama na Mwana" (focused on storytelling for cliildrcii), ctc.

In the villages and townships, tlie people wcrc encouraged to appreciate and perform the traditional lore. Daiicc groups sproulctl cvcrywlicrc. Artists' coinpetitioiis aiid îestivals wcre held, and the winners were soinetimes rewarded. Even the churches finally accepted traditional drumming and singing during service, conietliiiig wliicli was unheard oî before independence.

With regard to languages, the policy recognized Kiswahili as the national and official language, and the other local languages as community Ianguagcs and possible sources of vocabulary, oriiturc, etc. for eiirichincnt of Kiswahili. I3iglish was rccogiiized as an iiiiportant foreign aiid educational language. I-Icncc, K iswalii l i bccamc tlic innin langiiagc oî parliament and govcriiniciit from 1962, and the sole medium of primary education from 1968.

The new cultural policy esscntially continues the policy described above; the only difference is hat the policy is now formally articulated in writing. I<egarcling oral traditions, the policy, after

29

dumping them rill together undcr theatrical arts (sLinm zn rrzaonyesho), and acknowledging their iiiiportaiice in a non-literate ciivironiiieiit, procecds to state measures to be taken by various bodies to proinotc tlicni, including:

(;clliiig iii~Ii~liClS íì)r iii'l ~"'"'llicls;

Including tlie said arts in tlic school curricula; I? nco LI ragi Il g cs La b I i SI1 i iig or ar1 i sl i c ;lssoc i ;1 L i 0 11s;

Iiiicoiiraging artists to participate in cultural I'csiivals; - Instituting a system of rewarding outstanding national artists; Promotion of cultural industries; Encouraging the establishment of theaters and exhibitions halls, etc.

Unfortunately, the policy does not say iniicli about researching, documenting, utilizing and perpetuating the oral traditions per se in various splicres or lile.

O n the question of language, the new policy gocs íiirtlicr than tlie old one by:

(a) Calling for research in, and documentation of, the ethnic languages;

(13) Proposing adoption of Kiswahili as tlic nicdiuiii oîcducntion in secondary schools and higher cducation. I Iowcvcr, it docs not say whcii iiiiplciiiciiiaiioii of the decision should start.

'l'o conclude, 'ïaiiziiiiiri's policy on oral traditions aiicl languagcs was and still is geared towards revival, promotion and dissemination of the positive aspects of the heritage, and indirectly removing the rural-urban, African-western, dichotomy. It also aims at making the arts contribute to the economy of the country. Finally, it gives the pcople the right to practice and promote their arts without necessarily relying on the state. In effect, it privates and, to some extent, commercializes, artistic endeavors. W e shall now review briefly how that policy is being practiced.

4.2 LEGISLATION PERTAINING TO ORAL TRADITIONS ANI) LANGUAGES

There are several legislations pertaining to oral traditions and languages. The principal legislation is, oí'~ourse, thc Coiistitutiuii of tlic Uiiitcd I<cpublic of Tanzania.

Quite intcrestingly, 'I'aiizaiiia's Coiistitutioii of 1977, rc-issiicd with u number ol'mieiidiiiciits in i 998, makes no mention of languages, traditions and culture. The only ''cultural'' matters mentioned are tlic citizciis' right to "education1' and "Treedoin of worship." This is contrary to the normal pructicc iii a iiuiiibcr of otlicr couiitrics, which Iiavc clnuscs regarding Ilnatioiial iaiiguagc", "national culture", "language rights" included in their constitutions. It is by no means clear whether this omission was an "oversight" or a deliberate act. On the other hand, that Constitution made history in that it was originally written in Kiswahili, thereby promoting, practically and symbolically, tlic usc of the national language in tlie legal sphere.

30

In additioii to thc Constitiition, which clocs not say iiiiythiiig about oral traditioiis and languages, the following legislations sccni to bc rclcvant:

I . 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

'l'lie Nntioniil Musciiin Ac1 of 1962, 21s aiiicntlccl in 1980; The Library Serviccs Board Act 1963/ Tanzania Library Services Board Act 1975 'l'lie Antiquities Act of 1964, as amended in 1979 and 1991. ïïie National Archives Ac1 of 1965, as uiiiended iii 1979; The Copyright Act of 1966 (now being reviscd); ?'he National Swahili Council Act of 1967, as amended in 1983; 'lïic University of i h r es Salaam Act of 1970; 'l'lie various UDSM instiíiilcs and dcpattiiiciiís dcnliiig with oral traditions, incliicliiig the IKR aiid tlic Kiswaliili Dcpartment, wci'c also cstablished Linder the Act; The Filiiis and Stagc Plays Cciisorship Board Act of i '176; 'l'lie Zanzibar Kiswaliili Couiicil Act of 1983; 'l'lic Nalioiinl Arts Couiicil Act of 1984;

8. 9. 1 O.

Otlicr tclcvaiit legislalion iiot directly dculiiig with tiic arts aiicl laiiguagcs are:

1 1 . 13. -

13.

14. 15. - -

The Education Act of 1978; The Appellate Jurisdiction Act of 1979; Rules made under this act provide for the language of the Appeal Court to be either Kiswaliili or English, though the Court's decision lias to be written in Englisli. ïlie Magistrates Court Act of 1984; Provides fòr tlie proceedings and the records of tlie Magistrates Court to be in either English or Kiswaliili; and those of the I'riinary Courts to bc in Kiswahili. An Act to Regulate the Video Dusiness aiid to Providc for Connccted Matters of 1988; Acts establishing: The Tanzania Fihi Coiiipaiiy 'l'lie Audio-Visuíil Insti t iitc I<aclio 'I'uilzai~iU Ilar cs Sillllillll, ctc.

4.2.1 Criticism of so~iic of tlic 1;iws

Most oí'the abovc laws deal with languages and oral traditions only iiicidentally, if at all, as that is not their iiiain focus. Four acts are, however, more directly relevant to languages and oral traditions. These are:

1 . 'l'lie National Archives Act I965 2. 'Thc Copyrighi Act 1966 3. Nie National Swahili Council Act 1967 4. The National Arts Couiicil Act 1984

These will be discussed in more detail below.

31

ïïie Nriiiorrtrl Archives Act of 1965

AccorclIiig to tliis Act, tlic nationnl Archives is s~ipposc"c, inter alia, to preserve "...written records,

iiilcrprcicd to iiiciiii tlint imsci.vuiioii of'ord tixlitioiis MIS witliiii iis arca o1'~oiiipetcnce. So íàr tlic Niitioiiril Archives has not prcscrvcd many soiincl records; howcver, they do have hundreds of files dating l i m i Gcriiiaiiy tiiiics which rccord aiid clociimcnt the oiul traditions and culliira1 practices o[ various Tanzanian ethnic groups. To that extent the National Archives is involved in preservation o 1' oral tradi tions.

i~ccorcls coiivcyillg iilli~rnl~ilioil /y w y IIIeL/Il.F i l ~ / ~ ~ / / ~ ~ l ~ ~ ~ / , . , . l ' (illy cnipliasis). 'l-llis niay Coiicciviibly bc

lhe Copyriglit Act 1966

This Act offers protection, for between 20 aiid 25 years, to a wide range of materials, including:

- I,¡ terary works - Musical works - Cincmatograpliic filins and photographs - Souiid iccordiiigs - 13roadcasts

- Aïlistic WO~I<S

~~Ioviclccl that "the work hris bccn wri tien clown, rccordcci or otherwise reduced to inaterial form."

1ii priiiciple, tlierelbre, recorded oral traditions, in the l'orni of sound or cinematographic recordings, are protected. Since most oral traditions arc: never recorded in that form, it seems obvious .that the bulk of the oral traditions are not protected. In other words, anyone can imitate, copy, ineinorize, improvise and perform them without any hindrance, so longer as he/she is not copyiiig a recorded cassette.

Lvcii wlicii recorded, it is not certain whether the copyriglit will belong to the artist or to the rccording studio or person. W e know from practice that very often copyright in such recordings bcloiigs to the recording person or institution, which iisually has no formal agreement with the artist, and does not pay liim/hcr any royalties.

This act is, ~or~uiilitcly, now being revised. One hopes that the new act will take care of these sliortcoiiiings, in addi lion lo catering for new developments in iiiformatics, iiicluding ï'.V and vidco, CI>-Roiii, Inierncí, clc.

The Nutioiial Swrhili Couricìl Act I967

This :ici spclls oiii flic ftiiiclioiis or RAKITA, wliicli iiiiiy bc siiniiii;irixccl ils proiiiotioii ;iiicl

coordination of Kiswaliili and its usage throughout Tanzania. The Act makes no specific mention oí'oral traditions, and is actually oriented towards written Kiswahili. BAKITA'S practice so far has also not exhibited any serious concern for oral traditions.

32

The N(itioria1 Arts Corincil Act 1984

'l'liis is tlic iiiost iiclvaiicccl Act lion1 tlic poiiit ol'vicw oí'~~roiiiolioii ol'oral triiclitioiis. In Claiisc 2, tlic Act dclincs clcurly wliat is nicant by "Arts". 1)cliiiitioiic (b) aiid (c) secm to include oral traditions, among other things:

(b) iiiusic which niay be vocal, instrumental, recordcd or written composition and which includes juzz bands, taarab music, choir, orclicstral brass iiiusic,fuIk music, nzusicd ropr/oire, t/trncin,q. opera or play writing (my emphasis).

(c) tlicatcr and drama, which consists of stage crali aiid design, costuiiie design, make up ornamentations and accessories, dance and choreography, audio-visual effects, circus iiiiiiie, aiid acrobatic perforiiiaiiccs.

I I is clcar froin tlic above quotes that certain types of oral traclitions, especially music, dance and cIi*mii, could bc subsumed iii thcsc definitions. I Iciice, BASATA is tlicorctically duty bound to ~ii~oiiiotc tlic oral truclihms of tliut typc. I Iowcvcr, onc iiotcs tliiit otlicr types of oral trnditioiis, sucli as narratives, oral histories, folktales and sayings, might arguably be beyond BASATA'S competence as stipulated in these sections. Furthermore, these "definitions" appear to emphasize performance aiid foIin aid to igiioic contciit.

As far as fiinclions are concerned, tlie Act stipulates, in Clause 4 (a), that BASATA will be expected to:

assuine rcspoiisibili ty for tlic revival aiid to proiiiotc devclopinciit aiid production of artistic works including tlie productioii and lise of indigenous and traditional inusical iiistruiiients , songs, poetry, and traditional daiiciiig with a view of (sic) reviving and promoting 'I'anzuiiian culture.

Again, the emphasis here is on poetry, song and daiicc; otlier arcas of oral tradition do not appear to í'caturc. 'I'lius evcn our most advanccd Act is also waiitiiig as a tool of promotion of oral traditioiis.

4.3 I M 1'L E M ENT Aï' 1 ON

Policies are made to be implemented, and laws are enacted to be executed. This section reviews briefly the approach and actions of tlie Tanzanian government in implemeiitiiig the policies and laws CI i scussccl ;ibovc.

Broadly stated, the implementation strategy of the Tanzanian governinent was, until quite rcccntly, largely statist. It was envisioned that tlic stale and its organs would spearliead the iinpleinentation ofthe policies and laws pertaining to promotion of oral traditions. Accordingly, from tlic lC)6Os, niaiiy parastatal organizations were created to carry oiit the task. The major ones are the Iollowing:

33

O RüANIZA1'1 ON DATE ESTAB LISI-IED

Ministry of Ciiltiire I I istitutc 01. Kiswulii I i I<cscurcli N ii t i o niil I< is wrih i I i Co unci I (13 A Ki TA) National Dance Troupe Ilcprirtiiiciit of I<iswaliiIi, 1 JIXM The National Village Museuin University of Dar es Salaam Inst. of Kiswahili aiid Foreign Languages (TAKILUKI) 13:iganioyo Collcgc of Arts Niitioiinl Arts Coiiiicil Zanzibar Kiswaliili Council (BAKIZA)

1962 1964 1967 1960s 1968 1960s 1970 1978 1980 1985 1986

'I'his was in addition to institutions that existcd before independence, such as the National Miisciiin aiid thc Zanzibar MIISCLII~~.

Some of these institutions did inuch to create, promote and disseminate cultural creations. For iiistaiice, the IKR carried out research on language and litcrature, wrote dictionarics, published journals, and prcpiircd languagc and l i tcraturc teaching iiiatcrinls. BAKITA ovcrsuw tlic systciiiulic dcvclopiiiciit 01' Kiswaliili as IL iiiodcrn luiigiiagc, aiid coordiiiatcd aiicl slandardizcd tlic ncw tcriiiiiiology. 'I'AKII ,UKI hiis il good progrim oí' rcscarcli iii %iiiiy,ibar oral traditions donc by hoth iiistruciors and studciiis (sec Appciidix C). Soiiic of tlic rcsults oí' tlic icscurcli Iiavc bccii publishcd iii book forin (cf. TAKILUKI 1983). The National Dance Troupe learned and then disseminated traditional dances from various ethnic groups; when it was disbanded in the i 970s, some of its artists bccanic tcacliers at the Bagaiiioyo College of Arts, and others set up dance troupes of their own, Llicrcby clisseiiiiiiatiiig tlic daiiccs uiid artistic skills to iiiore yociiig people tlirougliout 'l'anzaiiia. 'ïhe Baganioyo College of Arts has been the leading school for traditional and experiiiicntal art foriiis, cspccially the pcrforniing arts, and in the process has produced more than 150 graduates, who iiicliide soiiic of tlic Icudiiig 'l'aiizaniaii artists pcrlbriiiiiig at prcsciil. Many 01' the graduates became cultui'nl aniiiiators in tlic clistricts aiid rcgioiis on Maiiilaiicl 'I'iiiiz~inia.

I'rcservaiion of intiingible ciiltiiral artifacts likc oral traditions, which thrive on perforniancc and the word of moutli, needs special facili ties. Among such facilities are theaters, coniiiiunity halls, exlii bition and dance halls, recording apparatus and studios. and sponsorship. In Tanzania, the govcriiiiieiit did not have u policy of building thcatcrs aiid similar facilities throughout the country. Most existing theaters and cinemas were build by private entrepreneurs during colonial times. Thus tlic number of ciiieina halls declined from 41 in 1966 to 36 in 1976. Today (1 999), there are even Icss, as cvidenccd by the fornier halls that are now either periiiaiieiitly closed or have been converted to cliurcl~cs and supcriuarkcts. W itliiii Dar cs Salaaiii doiic, four Tornier cinemas (Empress, Odeon, Starlight and Ilala Doniani I-Iall} are now uscd for other purposcs.

Moreover, theaters per se hardly cxist in Tanzania, apart from tlic two "Little Theaters" in Ariisha and Dar cs Salaam catering for the expatriate community. Hence performances of African

34

draina aiid dance have always used niulti-purpose community halls, institutional halls (e.g. in schools, colleges, factories) and bars. Non-commercialized performances in the villages usually take place in the open.

Undcr Ujaiiiaa, purastutalc uscd to sponsor tlicir own "c~iltural troupes", usually iigoina dance groups. In this way, niaiiy groups canic iiilo king bclweeii 1967 aiid 1985. Such groups ollkred inucli needed recreation to Tanzanians, apart from helping to spread and perpetuate and even traiisforiii soinc of the traditional performing arts. With thc libcralizatioii and privatization of the economy, the parastatals were either put on receivership or sold to individuals, usually foreigners. Nccdlcss to say, the new buyers arc either not intcrcstcd or arc unwilling to support Tanzanian arts, aiicl Iiuvc tlius discontinued sponsorship of culturnl groups. 'I'hat appcars to bc part of tlic cost of p r i vat iza t ion.

4.4 I'ROI3LEMS

'l'lie problem of this policy were three-(old: conceptual, strategic, aiid practical. Conceptually, the idca oî rcluriiiiig to the sourcc was soiiictimcs takcii too îiir to nican iiioviiig backwards aiid remaining there, idier than utilizing tlie past for thc needs of'tlie present and the fiiturc. In other words, the traditional heritage was sometimes viewed as a fossil to be preserved as and where is, rather thaii as a living activity to be transformed.

Stratcgicslly, tlie iiiiplcinentation approach that rclicd on state organs was bound to fail as it iiliciiíitcú ílic owncrs of' the culturcs, tlic pcoplc, í'roiii tlic iiiiplciiiciitutioti of thc policics. 'ïhc people lost the initiative in creating, innovating and promoting their oral traditions, and became at best ineclianical executors of government directives, and at worst mere spectators, in tlie unfolding draina. 'Iïie situation was furtlicr exacerbated by the abolition of "chiefdoms" in 1963. These institutioiis, whatever their faults, were in fact thc inajor píitrons of traditional cultures. Their abolition icît a vacuiini that lias ncvcr bcen filled. 'flic result 01' all this was perpctiiation of two parallel "traditioiial" ciilturcs - a stilled, government spoiisored one, aiid an authentic, pcoplc based CU I Lure.

Another problems was financial. In spite of the rhetoric regarding the value of oral traditions and local languages, in practice the money allotted for promotion of this heritage in the government budget continued to decrease as the arts were accorded very low priority by the planners and most of the politiciaiis, aiid by the World Bank and the IMF. I-Ieiicc, the good intentions were not fiilly realized.

The current cultural policy attcmpts to address this prohlcm by giving the initiative back to 11ic pcople, so that the government and its organs will largcly iciiiaiii as coordinators and patrons. It is too early to assess how this is working in practice, as iniplcinentatioii oî tlie new policy is only just slnrtiiig.

Vuyo Wagi tells us that "Discussions with various artists revealed a concern for the lack of recogiiitioii of intellectiial property rights related to works produced and performed by them. Piracy

and 'pcrforiiiaiicc plagiarism' by both Africans and Wcstcriierc are coninion. Even in cases where artists are remunerated, the amounts of money given are simply not coininensurate to the skill, iiivcstiiiciit aiid cxpcrtisc of the artist" (pcrsoiinl coiiiiiiiiiiicatit,n). 'I'his is a problciii that hopcliilly ilic iicw Copyriglit Act will ;itldi.css.

One foretaste of what may come is the festival known as "ethnic day/week". This festival is organized annually by the Village Museum in Dar es Salaam since 1994. For each event, one ethnic group is approached and asked to organize its festival and if necessary build or rebuild its house in the Village Museuiii. 'The idea is to give an opportunity to thc people themselves to show and celebrale thcir own culture, and share thcir heritage with othcr Tanzanians. So far the following groups have alrcady held tlicir festival:

- Wagogo 1994 Wazaranio 1995 - Waiigoni 1995 - W achagga: I996

- Wahayd W anyani bo: 1998 - Wamasai: 1998

l'rcparations tire currently under way to hold the festivals of tlic Wamwera and the Wanyakyusa in 1909/2000.

'I'his program sccms to bc in liiic wiih thc iicw policy of giving the initiative back to the people. So Par, tlicrc has bcen soiiic success, but also iiiaiiy problcnis, not Icast sliortagc of funds for hosting tlic cvciit. 1 lopclully, tlic newly iiiaugurutcd 'l'aiizaniu Cultural Fund will SCI: the need to support this important initiative. Also, it is hoped that private companies and individuals will in time realize the importance of funding genuine cultural activities, as opposed to "pseudo-cultures" such us soccer aiid bcauty pageants.

CONCLUSION

Tanzania's cultural policy initially contributed to revival, proiiiotioii and disseniiiiation of the iiatioiial cultural heritage. I-Iowever, it suifercd fioin i1 statist approach which tended to alienate the pcoplc who are tlic real owners and practitioners of that heritage. The policy laid due emphasis on promotion of the iiational language, but ignored the oilier iiidigcnous languages. Moreover, the oral tradi tioiis werc not emphasized in any of the government pronouncements and policy papers, though they were recognized and promoted in practice. Likewise, none of the laws pertaining to culture deal coniprclicnsivcly with the oral traditions. The new cultural policy of 1997 rectifies some of the sliortcoiiiiiigs iiiciiíioiicd above, aiid xkiiowlcdgcs tlic inipoitmx oïoriil traditions iii our cultural Iiciilagc (p. 25). IIowcvcr, wlieii it conies to proposds i01 government action, it appears to einphasizc only thc written records and the physical Iicritagc. In short, Taiizania's officialdom is yet to articulate a clear policy on oral traditions, though it apparently recognizes their central place in the liîe and culture of the people.

An epic pcrfornicr using the c./ztnigti zither accornpaiiiment. The large calabash serves as i1 resonator. Buitoba, Tanzania, 1994 (Photo by M.M. Mulokozi)

37

CI-IAPTER FIVE

CONC I,USION

5.0 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

In this study we survcycd thc 'I'anzaiiian oral traditions that arc shared by tiic otlicr coiiiitrics of Southern Africa, their sintiis iii the national ciiltiiral and iaiigiiage policies. aiid how they arc preserved and promoted. The study also surveyed and appraiscd the laws and institutions that deal with oral traditions.

The results of the study were presented in four chapters:

Chapter 1 offered tlic rcadcr bricf background inforniation on Tanzania, including its history, pcoples and cultures.

Chapter 2 surveyed the major Tanzanian oral traditional forms that are shared by the other countries in the sub-region, so as to establish their types aiid genres, their origins, modes of occurrence, current statc, utilization and pcrpctiintion; and thcir gcographical sprcad within Tanzania r i n d iii tlic sub-rcgioii. ' l ï ~ iwjor wkgorics (hat WCL'C idciiti lid r u i discusscd ut lciig\li arc:

- sayings - son gs/poet ry - tales - oral histories - theatrical arts

- drum lore - special institutional lore

Chapter 3 reviewed the research on Tanzanian oral traditions that has been done in the pre- colonial, colonial and post-colonial periods. The chapter highlighted the achievements and shortcomings of the rescarchcs donc to date. It dcmonsirated that pre-colonial and colonial rcsearcli in Tanzanian oral traditions was very limited and selective; that it fòcused on those genres aiid forms that were needed by the colonial state and the missionaries. The chapter showed that after independence more extensive research was carried out on most forms of oral traditions. However, that research was generally not very intensive and in-depth, and the masses of data that liave been corrected are yet to bc proccsscd and analyzcd scienti íically anti iitilizcd for scholarly aiid practical ends.

Chapter 4 examined the policies and legislation pertaining to the oral traditions and languages in post-colonial Tanzania. It showed that Tanzania's unwritten cultural policy until 1997 was premised on the twin poles of nationalism and Ujamaa.

38

The chapter argued that the policy did much to revive and promote traditional and current Tanzanian culture, including tlie national language, Kiswaliili, though it suffered from a statist approach which tcnded to aliciiate tlie real owncrs and crcatois of ihc heritage. Moreovcr. thc policy tended to ignore the other indigenous languages (other than Kiswahiii), and did not lay enough emphasis on preservation aiid promotion of the oral traditions.

The chapter, further, appraised 14 Tanzanian laws pertaining to culture, and discovered that they do not dcal adcquatcly with oral traditions. It is pointcd oiií that tlic basic law 01'111~ land, tlic national Constitution, is coiiiplctcly silcnt oii the question of laiigiiages aiid oral traditions. Evcn the îour acts that spccilically iiiciition LIS~CC~S oîorul trditioiis, viz.:

I . ' i h ~ Nt\tioiiiìl Arcliivcs Act IOOS 2. The Copyright Act 1966 3. The National Swahili Council Act I967 4. The National Arts Council Act 1984

tend to focus more on songs, dances and drama, and to ignore the other oral traditional categories. Likewise, the new cultural policy issued in 1997 is not forthright on oral traditions par se, though it marks a step forward compared to past policies.

5.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF 'TIIE COMMON ORAL 'I'I¿ADI'I'IONS FOI¿ SOU1'1-lEHN APKICA

Southern African societics, as statcd carlier, are still primarily oral. Hence in order to uiiderstand and enter into meaningful dialogue with these societies, one has to learn their forms of expression, i.e. their oral traditions.

In addition to being oral, most of these nations are stili in a process of formation. Ethnic groups and culturcs arc being gradually îorgcd into onc nation aiid cul turc. At tlic sanie tiiiic, tlicsc nations are, on the sub-regional level, aspiring to a greater sub-regional unity or supra-state. Oral traditions can facilitate this historically inevitable and necessary process; it can help forge a common identity and offer common sub-regional symbols deriving from the largely related oral traditions. For instance, the mythology and epics do point to the common origins and common dcstiny of most inhabitants of these countries. As happened among the Finns in the i 9th century, where folklore was utilized by the epic poet, Elias Löimot to create a national epic, the Kalevala, which iii turn served to unite and identiS, the Finnish nation, the mythology and epics of the various southern African nationalities can be creatively utilized to similar ends. For instance, the collected oral narratives and songs can, as in the case of the Kalevala (Lönnrot 1895; 1992), Fumo Liyongo (Kijumwa I91 3), Emperor Chah the Greal (Kunene 1979), and even Utenzi wíi Nyakiiru Kibi (Mulokozi 1997), be compiled into monumental cpics that can serve as national and supra-national symbols. Hence, this cominoli oraturc can scrvc as a springboard Tor crcation of a gciiuiiie sub-regional (call it îederai) literature aiid culturc.

39

In order to achieve these high aiid lautiable aims, cooperation ainong the present states and scholars iii rcscxcliiiig liiitl piwci~iiig 0111' co~iiiiioii oi~d Iiciiiiigc is iicccssury ~iiicl callccl l'or. Such coopcraiioii riircly cxisls ;it prcsciií. in spilc oí'cxislcncc of virliidly still-born orgriiiiziitioiis siicli as OTASA and EACIIO'I'ANAL. The sad history of such organizations is a cynical coiiimentary on the absence - rather than abundance - of meaiiingful cooperation in the promotion of oral traditions among our various coiintrics ancl scholars.

The following oral traditionnl categories could iiii tidly be addrcssed iii tlic envisaged cooperation:

- sayings - songs/poetry - tales - oral historics - tlieiitrical arts

- drum literature - special institutional lorc

To begin with the approach should be that of a salvage operation that aims at collecting and saving for posterity tlie rich oral traditional repertoire that is now in danger of getting lost. This is particularly the case with I'orins such as myths, icgends and' epics. Siniultaneously, cooperation in more systematic research, analysis, teaching, promotion and dissemiiiatioii could be iindcrtakcii.

Such cooperation would enhance our knowledge oí' Taiizaniaii and Soutlicrii African traditional literatiires - how they are produced, how they arc: utilized, aiid the techiiiqiies and conventions that guide tlie artists. Such knowledge would be of' use in analyzing and assessing our common oral literary heritage, in conceiving relevant policies aiid programs for their promotion, in undertaking comparative analyses, and in formulating more correct and up-to-date theories of oral poetics.

Finally, this kind of cooperatioii would enable tlie scholars in the relevant institutions in Southern Africa to update and expand tlicir knowledge of natioiial and sub-regional oral li tcratures, and to prepare more up to date papers, books aiid reference materials for teaching and disseminating the literatures.

W e would, therefore, suggest that UNESCO and the Southern African states and institutions should give priority to tlic rcvival of EACROTANAL and OTASA, so that the two institutions may serve as orgaiis of and coiiduits for the cnvisagcd coopcraiioii. The specific forms of such cooperation could be worked out in detail by the two organizations, in cooperatioiis with the member states, institutions, and individual researchers.

40

CITED l¿EFERGNCk<S

Abdallah bin I-lcmcdi I062 (I 895) fluliuri ni Wukilitidi. lL4l,ll, Nairobi.

Abdiilr~liman, M 1939 Sonic Aiilhiopological Notcs lioiii Zaiizibar. INA 8: 59-84.

13alisidya, M.L 1987 Tniizu iiit I:iiiii ZII Fnsilii Siiiiiilizi. (Oid I.iki.aíiirc Gciircs aiid 1:oriiis). h/ulikcr 19: 2-10.

Büttner. C.G 1894 Anlhologie der Sircrheli J,i/crnfrrrc. I3erliii.

Césard, E 1927-37: published a series of papers on the Bahaya in Anthropos, Vols 22-30.

Cory, H 1920s-1960: Cory Files. Hans Cory Collection, East Alricana. ('They contain material fiom and on a niini ber ol"1'aiizaiiiaii ethnic groiips, i ncl lidi ng (lie Wasiiku iiia, Wahayn, Wazaraiiio, Wanyamwezi, Wa.j i ta, ctc.)

Dannholz, J.J I989 (ms. written in 191 2-1 8) Lute Luvivi-Lwedi: The Curse und lhe Bkssing (Tr. by P. Davies). Self-piiblislied by Erika Dahnholz, Germaiiy).

Dietcilcn, 1-1 & Kohlcr, i' 19 I2 Les Uussouío.s d'uuiof0i.Y. Livrc d'Or de la Mission du Lcsotho. Paris.

Farsi, 1958 S.S Swuhili Suyings I. EALB, Nairobi.

Farsi, S.S 1984 Swuhili Sayings 2. EAPL, Aruslia.

Fosbrooke, H.A I958 Hambageu, God of the Wasonjo. TNR 50: 2 1-29.

Gabakama, Z.N 1980 Majigambo ya Wazanaki. Idara ya Kiswahili, Chuo Kikuu, DSM.

Grant, J.A 1864 A Walk Across Afiicu. William Blackwood & Sons, London.

Gwassa, G.C.K 1967 Kumbukumbu ya Vifu vyu Muji Muji. EAPH, Nairobi. (Booklet based on cxlciisivc rcscarcli 011 ílic Maji Mciji wiir of 1905- 1907).

Harries, L 1962 Swahili I'oefry. OUI', London

Hemedi bin Abdallah el-Duliry I960 (1 895) íJ/cnzi ii~n Vilti I;IW W(~tkrchi Krritiititrlcrlti kfrimr (cd. J.W.T. Allen). EALB, Dar es Salaam.

4 1

Hichens, W 1941 Swahili Prosody. Swcihili 33/1 (1962/3): 107-1 37

Hodza. A and Fortune. G 1979 ( e h ) Shonn Prniw Poe/rv. Clareildon Press. Oxford

Hussein, E 1975 O n the Development of Drama in East Africa. Ph.D.Thesis, University of Humboldt.

Ilomo, C.S n.d. The Tanzania Copyright Act 1966: An Interpretative Essay in Relation to Authorship, Publishing and the Use of Copyrighted Works. TLS Occasional Papers No. 16 (Mimeo).

Ishemoi, .I 1978 The I-lcroic I<cciíalioiis of thc 13ahaya of Riikohri. 3rd Ycar Research paper, Dept. of Literature, UDSM.

Ikombe, N 1943 The Legcnd of Nkandii. TNR 15: 72-75.

Jahadhmy, A, Matola, Mw. S, Whiteley, W 1966 Wuinzhuji M J < I ,Juzi. 1'UKI, Dar es Salaani.

Jahn, J 196 1 Munfu (ï'r. Grene, M) Faber and Faber, London.

Johnson, J.W 1986 The &ic qf,Son-,/ara. I.U. Press. Bloomington.

Kabeya, 1966 Mkmi Mirurnzbo. EALB, Nairobi.

Kziijage, 1' 1977 Women iii Oral Liicralurc: 'I'hc Case of tlic Epic of Kileiizi Mimeo, Dept of Literature, University of Dar es Salaam (henceforth: U üSM).

Kalugila, L. na Lodhi, A.Y. 1980 More Swahili Proverbsfiom East Afvica. Scandinavian Inst. of African Studies, Uppsala.

Kamera, W.D 1978 Hadithi zu Wuiraqw wa Turizuniu. EALB. Aruslia.

Kamera,W.D. na Mwakasaka, CS 198 1 The Compliment ELI.Y~ African Folktales. Eastern Africa Publications, Arusha.

Kanena, G 1975 Story-Telling Among the Waliaya. 3rd Year paper, Lit. Dept., UDSM:

Kanena, G 1975a Heroic Recitations OC the Daliaya: A Forni of' Theater'! Undergraduate Diss., U D S M .

42

Kazooba, D 1977 ’l’lie Art oí‘ilcroic Rccikilioii rit Llic Bnliaya Kiiig’s Coiirt. Uiidcigiacliiak Diss., Dept. of Theater Arts, UDSM.

Khatib, M.S 1992 Tuarubu Zunzibur. TPH, Dar es Salaam.

Kiniaiiibo, I 196- A PoliíicLil Hisiory of /he l’cire, c. 1.500-1900. EAI’H, Nairobi.

Kijumwa, M 1973 (I st ed. 19 I i) Uknzi wu Fumo Liyongo. IKK, Dar es Salaam.

Kitambi, B 1973 Hcrtlifhi Zeíu. WIH, Dsiii.

Kiteniaiiio, A 1977 Mabadiliko ya Majigambo ya Kabila la Wakiirya Zamaiii na Wakati wa Ukoloni. Kaz¡ Manliiiiiii. ldnrn ya Kiswnliili, Chiio Kiliiiii cliii DSM.

Kitereza, A 1980 (written 1945) Bwuna Myombekere na Bibi Bugonoku nu Ntulanalwo na Buhliwali. TPI-I, Dar es Salaam.

Knappert, J 1970 Myihs und Legend.\. of ihe Swahili. i-leinenioiiii, Loiidon.

Kokwijuka, M 1983 ïraditional Wedding Songs in Buhaya: A Case Study of the Baziba. Undergraduate Paper, Dept. of Lit., [JDSM.

Kollman, P 1899 ïhe Vicioriu Nyanza (Tr.H.A.Nesbitt). London.

Kunene, D 197 1 Heroic Poeiry ojihe Uamiho. Clarendon, Ox ford.

Kunene, M 1979 Emperor Chaka the Creai: Zulu Epic. Heiiieinann, London.

Lihaniba, A 1985 I>olilics uiid ‘I‘liealer in ‘I‘aiizania Aíier the Ariislia Declaration, 1967-1984. Ph.D Thesis, Univ. of Leeds, School of English.

Lönnrot, E 1992 Uienzi wa Kulevala (Kiswahili translation of the Kalevala by Tr. J. Knappert). IKR, Dar es Salaam.

Lwamgira, F.X 191 O History of Kiziba (in Rehse 19 1 O, which see).

Lwamgira, F.X I949 Amakulli gli Kiziiiu ti ’ h i k u i i i c i Buniu (A llisíory oj’ Kiziba crnd Iís Kings). Rumuli Press, Bukoba.

Madumulla, J.S 1995 Proverbs and Suyings: l’huory und I’ructice. IKR, Dar es Salaam.

Malangalila, F 1987 Mwamuyinga. NdandaíPeramiho Mission Press, Ndanda.

Mallya, S 1975 Babu Simulia. TPH, Dsin.

43

Mbele, J 1977 The Social Content and Function of Mateiigo Oral Literature. M.A. Diss., UDSM.

Mbit¡, J 1969 Ajiic-un i(e1igion.v und i'hilo.wp/iy. Doiiblcday J'rcss, N e w York,

Mbogo, E 1984 Pre-Capitalist, Pre-Colonial Theater in East A rrica: Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. Ph.D Thesis, Uiiiv. of I-Iuniboldt, Berlin.

Miruka, O 1994 Encounter with Ornl Liferaíure. EAEPL, Nairobi.

Mlama, P 1973 Music in Tanzanian Traditional Tlicritcr. M.A. 'I'liesis, UDSM.

Mlama, P 1983 Tanzania Traditional Theater as a Pcdagogical iiistitution. P1i.D Thesis, UDSM.

Moyo, S.P.C 1978 A Liiiguo-Esthetic Siudy oîIYgoiii Poctry Dissertaiion, Univcrsity of Wisconsin, M a d' ison.

Msuya, S.K 1979 ì'utokanuyo no Fasihi Siniirlizi. TPI-I, DSM.

Mtoro bin Mwinybakari 1903 (in Velten, below).

Muhando, P na Balisidya, M 1976 Fasihi na Sanaa za Maonyesho. TPH, DSM.

Mulokozi, M.M 1987 The Naiiga i+os of tlic Ualiaya: A Cusc Siiidy iii ATriciiii Epic Cliafiicleristics. P1i.D 'I'liesis, UDSM.

Mulokozi, M.M 1996 Lltunguíizi wu Fusihi yu Kiswahili (Introduction to Kiswahili Literature). Open University of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam, pp. 94-1 37.

Mulokozi, M 1997 Ufenzi w a Nyakiiru Kibi (The Epic of Nyakiiru Kihi). ECOL Publications, Morogoro.

Musso, M 1968 Mukwava na Kabila Lake. EALB, Nairobi.

Mvungi, M 1975 Three Solid Stones. Heinemann, London.

Mwakasaka, C.S 1978 The Oral Lilerafure of the Uunyas/usci. KLB, Nairobi.

Mwaruka, R 1965 Masimulizi Juu yu Uzaranio. EALB, Dar cs Salaam.

44

Ndii1ute.C 1977 -l’lie Place of Songs iii ilic Ilclic 0i;iI 1,iici’niiii.c M.A ’l‘licsis9 1 IIXM

Nestor, I-1.B i 978 500 Ii.ycr 1’i.overh.s. EAlJ3, Aiuslia.

Nigmann, E I 908 Die Wtihetie ihre Geschichic, Kdi-Rechis, Kriegs und Gebrüuche. Berlin.

Omari, C 1976 Miserno nu Melhtili ï‘oka ïiinzutiia. IXLB, Dsiii.

Oinari, C.K. na Mvungi, M I98 I Uri/h¡ wi Uf(iiii(idiitii Welu. ’l’l’i I,I)SM

Parker, C 1970 Iwnpo Nin Kiiiia Njia: A Siiitly ol‘ilic Coiilciil ml Coiiicsî of I)rovcrI~s iii Swnliili. M.A. ‘I’hesis, Uiiiv. of Washington.

Read, M 1937 Songs of the Ngoni People. 13uniu Sluùies, (Jolianiiesburg), Vol. 1 1, 1937

Rehse, H 1910 Kisiba Land und Leuìe. Stuttgart.

Sacleaux, C h 1 939 Diclionnaire Swahili-Français. Paris.

Schmidt, P i 977 Hisíoricul Archueology. Greenwood Press, Westport.

Seite], I’ 1972 Proverbs and thc Structiirc of Metaphors aiiiong tlic Haya of Tanzania. i’1i.D Diss., Univ. of Pennsylvania.

Seitel, P 1980 See So Thut We Muy See: Perforrnances una’Inieiprelírlions of Trudiìiontrl ïulesponz Tanzania. I.U. Press, Bloomington.

45

Sengo, ‘l’.S.Y I985 ‘llic Iiidinii Occan Loiiiplcx aiicl thc I<isw:ihili l:olkl«rc: ’I’hc Casc oí’ Zaiizibar Tale-Performance. I’1i.D ‘I’hcsis, Khartoum University.

Sengo, T.S.Y na Lucas, S.A I975 Ufuni na .Jamii Ukwere. Foundation Books Ltd., Nairobi.

Senkoro. F.E.M.K 1996 Tlic Sigiiificniicc of tlic .ioiiriicy in 1701ktalcs Ii-oiii Zmzilxir. P1i.D This, UDSM.

Songoyi, E.M I O88 ï’lic Artist aiid thc Stak in ‘I’aiizaiiia: A Study o1”i‘wo Siiigers: Kalikali and Mwinaniila. MA. Dissertation, UDSM.

Spckc, J.11 1963 .loirt*tictl of‘íiic Discovety oJ‘liie Soiirce of‘liic Nile. Williaiii Blackwood & Sons, London.

Stahl, K.M 1964 History uf the Chaggu People of Kilimunjuro. The Hague.

Steere, E 1870 Swahili ‘í’ales as ’l‘old by the Natives of Zanzibar. Bell aiid Daldy, London.

TAKILUKI 1983 Fusihi Simulizi Zanzibar. TPI I, Dar es Salaam.

Tanzania, Min. of Education aiid Culturc Sera yu Ufuttiuduni. MEC, Dar es Salaaiii.

Tempels, P 1954 La Philosophie banlou. Paris.

Tracey, I-I i 952 Recording Tour or Tanganyika by ;i ‘l’caiii ol’llic Aïricaii Music Socicty. Tung~tnyiku Notes nnd Recordy 32: 43-48.

’ïracey, H 1973 Calulogue: ï‘he Sounds oj‘Ajiicu Series Vol. I&II. International Library of Afican Music, Transvaal (S.A.).

TUKI 1976 Fasihi Simulizi ya Mtnnzania: Vitendawili I. Chiio Kikuu, Dar es Salaam.

TUKI 1977 Fasihi Simulizi ya Mtanzania: Hadithi I. Chu0 Kiltuu Dar es Salaam.

TUKI 1982 Fasihi Simulizi ycr Miunzuniu: Mclhuli I. C h o Kiiíuii Dar cs Salaam.

TUKI i 993 Fusihi Siniulizi ya Miunzuniu: fkiúiihi 2. Chu0 Ki kuu Dar es Salaam.

Vail, L and White, L 199 1 Power and lhe Prciise Poem: Sourhern African Voices in History. University of Virginia Press/James Currey, London.

Vansiiia, J 1985 Orul ïi.trt/i/ion (IS I/Wfory. 1 icincinaiiii, Nairobi.

Velten, C 190 1 Sufirri ZLI Wmr/tr/?eli. I3crlin.

Velten, C I 898 Mirchen iintl l+z¿ililirngen c h Siidieli. Berl iii.

Velten, C 1903 Desturi za Wasuaheli. Berlin.

Velten, C. 1907 l’rom und P~esie der Sunhel. Ucrlin.

Werner, A. 1926 ïïle Swahili Saga of Liyongo Fumo. Bulletin of SOAS 4 / 28: 247 - 55. Whiteley, W.H 1958 The Dialects and Verse ofPemba East Afiican Swahili Committee (now IKR),

Kampala.

Wilson, M 1958 ïhe Peopleor of’ the Nytr.vu-ï¿in~cinyìk~r lhw’er. Scliool of African Studies, University of Cape l‘own.

L A W DOC UM EN’WA C‘IS (ï AN ZAN IA)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 1 o. 1 1 . 12. 13.

The National Museum Act of 1962, as amended in 1980. The Library Services Board Act 1963/ Tanzania Libraiy Services Board Act i 975. The Antiquities Act of 1964, as amended in I979 and 1991. The National Arcliivcs Act of 1 965, us aiiicndcd in 1979. The Copyright Act of 1966 (iiow being revised). The National Swnliili Coiincil Act of 1967, as mcndctl in 1983. ‘The Univcrsity of Dar cs Salaam Act of 1970. lhe Films and Stage Plays Ccnsorship Board Act of 1976. The Education Act of 1978. The Appellate Jurisdiction Act of i 979. l‘he National Arts Council Act of 1984. l‘he Magistrates Court Act of 1984. A n Act to Rcgulatc thc Vidco 13iisincss iiiicl to Piuvidc for Coiiiiccted Multcrs ol‘ 1988.

LIST 0 1 7 I’EHSONS IN‘I’EI¿VIEWEL)

Fujo, H: Idrissu, Anne: DTV Kalulu: Dancer, singer Makonde, A: Actor, dancer, playwright

Drummer & Playwright Kisama Bantu Group

47

Mnsiinbi, R Mashaka, Saluni: Masoud, M: Materu, E: Mayanga, O. S.S. : Mbogo, Sam: Mbuiijii, Jaiiics: Mvungi, M (Dr): Mwaibula, D: Naliene Oinari: Rich, Bob: Rweyemamu, Mr: Sayore, Ms: Sliija, Mija:

Min. Of lrlucation & Ciiltiirc Dancer, Fresh L3aitiboo Group ITV Director of Arts and Languages. MEC BASATA Singer, dancer Sii11ba 'I'hcrilcr Ciro1ip 'l'uiiznnia Cul turc 'Lrusi Fuiid Tanzania Culture Trust Fund Driiinincr, Tatu Nane Chorcographcr, Thc Chocolatcs Nyiiiiiba ya Saiina BASATA Siiigcr, ~l;lllcci~, ;IcIrcss, I';ir~lp;lllllo 'Iï1c;ilcr (;roup

48

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

PROPOSEI> OIJTLINE OF ORIEN'ïATION COURSE FOR OTASA RESEAIICII ASSISTANTS

INTRODUCTION

The proposed course will aim at equipping the participants with the basics of the theory of oral traditions (OTs) and the principles and approaches of research in oral traditions. Iience, it is proposed that the workshop should cover five major topics:

- Research in OTs Theory of oral traditions

- Coinpilation and analysis of OT data

Preservation, perpetuation and transformation of O'ïs - Preservation and dissemination of Ol' research results - It is proposed that the course sliould take about two weeks. Participants should be drawn from OTASA iiieiiibcr stales, aiid lraiiicrs sliould be souglil fioiii uiiivcrsitics aiid research iiislitulioiis in the sub-region.

COURSE OUTLINE

5.1 THEORY OF ORAL TIUDITIONS

5.1.1 Definition of OTs

5.1.2 Classification of o'ïs

5. I .3 Origins of OTs

(a) OTs and Language (b) OTs and Labour (c) OTs and Culturc (d) OTs and Patronage

5.1.4 Functions of OTs

5.1.5 01's and I'erí'ormaiice

5.1.6 ïhe dynamics of OTs/ oral traditions and cliangc

49

5.2 IWSEAKCH IN ORAL '1'1tA1~1'1'1~NS

5.2.1 Defining an OTs rescarcli problem

5.2.2 Writing a rcsearcli proposal

5.2.3 OTs research tools

5.2.4 Types of OT rescarch

5.2.4.1 Library/documenlary research

(a) Priinary documents

- Pub I i c/o ffi c i a I - Privale

(b) Sccoiidary Docuiiiciits

Public/official - l'ri vule

5.2.4.2 Field research

Field research methods in OTs

(a) Observation (structured and unstructured) (b) Participation (limitations) (c) Interviewing (structured and unstructured, pilot study, sampling, etc)

(d) Surveys and questionnaires

Advantages and disadvaiitagcs of each

5.3 COMPILATION AND ANALYSIS OF OT RESEARCH DATA

(a) Transcribing and translating data from tapes (b) Processing the data (c) Interpreting and analysing the data (d) Writing research reports

50

5.4 PRESERVATION AND DISSEMINATION OF OT RESEARCH RESULTS

(a) (b)

Methods of preservation (tapes, archives, computers, etc) Methods of dissemination (print media, electronic media, broadcasts, audio-visual meaiis, lectures, performances, etc)

5.5 PRESERVATION, I’EHI’E‘ïUATION ANI> ‘I’HANYFOHMA‘I’I O N OF ORAL TRADITIONS

’I*rdi tioiial iiietliods 01’ pcrpclitation aiid dissciiiiiiatioii Role of patronagc (social, institutional, ctc) I<olc of pcrli~iillailcc ‘I’raiiiiiig of O‘f artists Motivating OT artists Role of governineiit OTs and the print media OTs and the new technologies (film, video, TV, internet, etc) OTs and modern art forms - theater, dance, etc. The future of OTs

SUGGESTED REFERENCE

Finnegan, R 1970 Oral Literalure in Afiica. Clarendon, Oxford.

Okombo, O na Nandwa, J 1992 Reflections on ïheories and Methods in Oral Literalure. Kenya Oral Literature Association, Uiiiv. of Nairobi.

Okpewho, I (ed) 1992 The Oral Performance in Afi*icu. Spcciriiiii, Ibadan.

Ong, W 1982 Orality und Literacy. Methuen, London.

Pons, Valdo (ed) 1992 Introduction to Social Reseurch. DUP. Dar es Salaam.

Vansina, J 1965 Oral Tradition: A Study in Historicctl Methoclology. (Tr. H.M. Wright). Penguin Books, Harmondsworth.

51

APPENDIX J3

13.1 BIBLIOGRAPHIES & INDEXES

Hussein, E 1969 An Aiinolalcd Bibliography or Swahili Tlicalic. Miiiico, {IDSM.

Owino, J.J aiid I-loiiero, L.N I078 i:iiharasa ya Utaliti wu Aiiiali za i:asilii Siiiiulizi Uiiol’Uiiywa I’aiizaiiia (Iiidex 01’ research on oral literature done in Tanzania)- a very useful reference booklet. Miineo, IKR, UDSM.

Tracey, 1-1 i 973 Caldogue: The Sorinds of Africa Serie*.r Vol. 1‘9-11. iiiicriiiitioiial Library of Aficaii Music, l’raiisvaal (S.A.).

$*+

U.2 GENERAL

Abdulrahnian, M I939 Some Aiitliropological Notes from Zaiizibar. TNR S: 59-84.

Balisidya, M.L.Y 1977 Mabadiliko katika Fasihi Siniulizi y” Wagogo. M A . Thesis, UDSM (PL 8208.B8)

Bujora Research Committee I988 /mani zu Jadi zu Kisukuma. Bujora Museum, Mwanza.

Büttner. C.G I894 Anthologie der Suuheli Literature. Berlin.

Césard, E 1927-37: Collections ofstories, legends, songs and myths from the Bahaya in Anfhropos, Vols 22-30.

Ch u m , Haji 1994 Mila na Utaniaduni w a Makunduchi (Ms).

Cory, H 1930s-1960: Cory Files. Hans Cory Collection, East Africana. (They contain material from aiid on a number of Tanzanian ethnic groups, including the Wasukuiiia, Waliaya, Wazaramo, Waiiyamwezi, Wajita, Wasambaa, etc.)

Cory, H I95 I The Níenii. London.

Culwick, A.T and G.M 1935 Ilbena of /he Rivers. London.

Farsy, M.S 1958 Kurwa na Doto. EALB, Nairobi.

Gutman, B Chagga Folklore. TNIt II 65, March 1965, pp. 50 - 55.

Jeiigo, E A Survey of Audio-Visual Equipment in Tanzanian Schools aiid Colleges. Ii1stitule of Education, Dar CS Sa hain.

Liyong, Taban lo 1972 Popular Culfure in East Africa. Longman, Nairobi

52

Mtoro bin Mwinybakari 1903 (in Velten, below).

Nigrnann, E I908 Die Wuhehe Ihre Gcschichle, Kulr-Rc.chl.r, Kriegs und í;ehräuche. Berlin.

Read, M 1956 ïhe Ngoni oJNyassuland. Loiidoii.

Ikhsc, 1-1 1910 Kisiba Land und Leirte. Siutlgart.

Seidel, A I896 Geschichten unú Lieder des Ajrikaner. Berlin.

Swantz, M-L and Helciia 1979 . / i p / ~ ~ y ~ : ßU,gU/??Ojw Prqjccf. I Iclsiiiki.

TAKILUKI I983 Fusihi Siiiiulizi Zanzibar. TPH, Dar es Salaaiii.

Taylor I924 ( I 89 i) African Apliorisiiis (Unpublished Papers, SOAS). S.P.C.K. London, I 89 I .

Velten, C 1903 Desturi zu Wusuaheli. Berlin.

Veltcn, C. I907 Prosa und Poesie der Suuhel. Berlin.

Welch, L A 1974 Lile aiid Liícrattii'e ol'ílic Sukuina iii Taiimiiíi, Ihst Aliicíi. I'1i.D 'I'licsis, I loward IJiiiv.

Wliiteley, W.1-l 1958 ïhe Diulec~s und Verse of /'eiiibu. East Arricai1 Swahili Loiniiiitíee (iiow IKR), I<aiiipalu.

Wilson, M 1958 The Peoples of the Nyasa-Tanganyika ßorder. School of African Studies, University of Cape T o w n .

Yongolo, D 1953 Maisha na Desturiza Wanyamwezi. London.

***

8.3 SAYINGS

Farsi, 1958 S.S Swnhili SqvinKs I. EA1.ß. Nairobi.

Farsi, S.S I984 Swuhili Sayings 2. EAI'L, Aruslia.

Hollis, A.C. (Call # E.A. 496.5 HAL). National Library, Dsni.

Hollis, A.C (dale?). Papers in Naiioiial Library Dar cs Salaaiii (13 496.5 I IAL) - Maasai Provcrbs aiid Sayings, pp. 239 - 25 I , - Maasai Enigmas, pp. 253 - 259. Kalugila, L I992 Einiguni n'Ebikoikyo (Haya Proverbs and Riddles). North-Western Publishers, Bukoba.

53

Kalugila, I, na Lodlii, A.Y. 1980 More Swuhi/i Prover/~.s,fiorir Eusi Afiic(/. Scaiidiiiaviaii Inst. of Afiicaii Siiidics, Uppsala.

Madumulla, J.S I995 Proverbs cindSuyings: Theory and Piuclice. IKR, Dar cs Salaaiii.

Mayoka. J.M 1982 Nnhair zn Kiswnhili. EAPL,. Dar es Salaam.

McVicar, ‘ï 1939 S o m e Waiiguru Proverbs and Sayings, ßanfu Siudies. Voi. 12, pp. 18-20.

Mkabarah, J 1992 Vilendawili kwa Hadifhi 1. UP Dar es Salaain.

Mkabatali, J I992 Viiriiduwrli krvu //i/dif/i/ 1. UI’ Dai cs Siilaeiii.

Mkabarali, J 1994 Vifendawili kwa Hadifhi 3. UP Dar CS Salaaiii.

Msuya, S.K I979 Yutukanuyu nu F‘usihi Sbrirlizi. TPI I, DSM.

Ndalu, A.E na Ikambili, H.M I99 I Katnusi ya Vifendawili na MajÏumbo. I leinernanii Kenya, Nairobi.

Nestor, H.B 1978 SOO Haya Proverbs. EALB, Arusha.

Oinari, C.K 1976 Misemo na Methali ktrtoka Tanzania i & 2. EAPL, Dai es Salaain.

Parker, C 1970 Iwapo Nia Kuna Njia: A Study of the Coiilciit aiid Coiitcii of I>rovcrbs iii Swaliili. M.A. l’licsis, Ilniv. of Washington.

I’~i~iii;iiiii. l’i I077 //(~ki/t/í/,l~(/ A/í*///i///. Ndiiiidii Missioii I’I.CSS. Tii~i~iiiiiii.

Rashid, Ali Mwalim 1998 Vitenduwili h a Mashairi. OUP, Dar es Salaaiii.

Senkoro, F.E.M.K 1995 Vifenúawili kwu I’icha 3. EDPL, Dar cs Saiaaiii.

TUKI I976 I‘usihi Sitnulizi yu Mlurizorriu: Vitendtrwili I Cho Kikuu, Dai cs Salaaiii.

TUKI I982 Fasihi Simulizi yu Mfanzania: Merhali i. Chu0 Kikuii Dar es Salaam.

TUKI 1982 Fasihi Simirlisi ya Mianzania: Meihali 2. Chuo Kikuu Dar es Salaam.

TUKI I985 Fasihi Simulizi y a Mfanzania: Viiendawili 2 C h u 0 Kikuu, Dai es Salaam,

***

B.4 SONCS/POETRY

BAKITA i1.d. Wananiuziki Wefir. Kiiabu clia Kwaiiza. BAKITA, Dar cs Síilaaiii.

Ciabakaiiia, Z.N 1YüO Majigaiiibo ya Wazanaki. Idara ya Kiswaliili, C h u o Kikuu, üSM.

Gibbe, A (i1.d.) Notebook of Sukuina Songs and Sayings. Unpublished Ms., (copy with author).

s4

Harries, L I962 Swahili Poefry. OUP, London

Hichens, W 1941 Swahili Prosody. Swahili 33/1 (1962/3): 107-137.

i loffinan, M . A I9116 Mugangola: 'l'lie Striiclure of an Enun~a l>crforiiiaiicc. M . A . Thesis, Drown Uiiivcrsiiy.

Jaliadhmy, A. Matola, Mw. S, Wliilclcy, W I966 Wuinrbuji IVLI Juii. ï'UK i, Dor es Salíimii.

Kaijage, T 1977 W o m e n iii Oral Liicrniure: l'lie Case of Ilic Epic of Kilciidi Miiiico. Ikpt of i,ilerstiirc, Iliiivei~siiy of llar es Síiliiíiiii (liciiccl'oilli: 1JI)SM).

Kaiiena, G 1975 i-icroic Recitaiions of the Bahaya: A Form of lheatre? Undergraduate Diss., UDSM

Kazooba, ß 1977 T h e Art of Heroic Recitation at the Bahaya King's Court. Undergraduate Diss., Dept. of Tlieatre Arts, UDSM.

Kliatib, M.S I992 Taarabu Zanzibar. TPH, Dar es Salaaiii.

Kijumwa, M 1973 (Ist ed. 191 I) Uenzi wu Fumo Liyongo. IKR, Dar es Salaam.

Kitemanio, A 1977 Mabadiliko ya Majigambo ya Kabila la Wakurya Zaiiiiiiii na Wakaii w a Ukoloni. Kazi Manluniu, Idara ya Kiswaliili, Cliuo Kikuii clia DSM.

Knappert, J 1979 Four Ceníuric.v ofSwahili Verse, I-leineniaiin, London.

Kokwijuka, M 1983 Traditional Wedding Songs in ßuhaya: A Case Study of the Baziba. Undergraduaie Paper, Dept. of Lit., UDSM.

Makwara, V 1980 Utafiti w a Majiganibo ya Wakurya. Idara ya Kiswahili, Chu0 Kikuu cha DSM.

Mciiiliof, K I9 1 i Die Dichfwi~ der Afiikurrer. Berlin.

Msiiig'a, D I996 Njooni ïirchcze nu ïiriiirhe. UiiI', Díir CS Síilíiiiiii.

Mulokozi, M.M 1987 T h e Nanga Epos oftlie ßahaya: A Case Study in Afiicaii Epic Characteristics. 1'h.D Thesis, UDSM.

Mulokozi, M.M. (ed. forthcoming) Four Tanzanian Oral Epics. Mkuki na Nyoía, Dar es Sulaam.

Mulokozi, M.M. (forthcoming) The African Epic Con1rovo:vy: Wifli lix~xtntiip1c.s leiun fho Lnongu Lpic ïi.uúiíioti oj' ïùnzuniu. Mkuki na Nyoia, üar es Salaaiii.

Nduluic, C I977 'l'hc I'Iacc of Songs iii llic I Iclic Oral Lilcr;iturc. M A 'I'licsis, UDSM.

Ndumbaro, T.P 1993 Nyimbo za Watoto W a d o g o I. Unp, Dar es Salaam

55

Ndumbaro, ‘ï.P 1995 Nyiiiibo za Watoto W a d o g o 2. Unp, Dar es Salaairi.

Read, M I937 Songs of the Ngoiii People. ßrrilfrr S/i/úies3 (Jo1i;iiiiiesbuig). Vol. I I , 1937

Sanka, S.M 1994 Semantic Deviation iii Iraqw Oral Poetry. M.A. Diss., Kiswaliili Dept., University of Dar cs Salaam.

Seitel, P (forthcoming) Discoiirse Genres in Verbal Art: Power, Logic, anti Style in Haya Folklore.

Sliariff. 1.N 1988 Tirrigo Zetii. T h e IW Sca Press Inc. l‘reiitoti. N.Jcrscy

Soiigoyi, I1.M IO88 *lhe Artist iiiid tlic Stak ¡ti ’I’niizaiiio: A Siiiily of’l’wo Siiigcrs: Kiilikali aiid Mwiiiiiiiiilii. M.A Dissertation. UDSM.

***

U S TALES

Abdallah, K Mfalme Ndevu na Maskini Mkata Kuni. Readit Books, Dar es Salaam.

Abeid, M 1993 Debe la Dhahabu. Heko, Dar es Salaam.

Abcid, M I993 Kisu chu Sii/7gura /ILI Siiiihu. I leko, D a r es Salíiain.

Abeid, M 1993 Mji wu Muwe 1. M & K, Dar es Saloaiii.

Abeid, M i994 Kisa cha Mpiga Zeze na ßinti Mfalnze. M & K, Dar es Salaam.

Abeid, M I996 Mji wo Muwe 2. M & K, Dar es Salaam.

Aihumani, A & Maiig’anda, i3.S I996 Kuku, Njiwa nu Kicheche nu Hadiilti Nyingine. Itcadit, Dai es Salaaiil.

Bell, D.H.A Three Fipa Tales. TNR # 20, Dec. 1945, pp. 61 - 64. Bwana, J.H 1993 Mganga Pazi. Heko, Dar es Salaam.

Beidelmann, T.0 I963 Four Kaguru ‘Tales. TNR 6 I : I 35-1 46.

Carnell, W.J 1955 Four Gogo Folktales. TNR # 40, Sept. 1955, pp. 30 - 47. Dannholz, J.J i 989 (ms. written in i 9 12- 18) Lule Liivivi-Lwedi: The Ciirsr und the Blessing (Tr. by P. Davies). Self-

publislied by Erika Daliiiliolz, Gciiiiaiiy).

Fosbrooke, H A I958 Hainbageu, God of the Wasonjo. TNR H 50, pp. 2 1-29.

Habib, M.S Korongo na Kobe. MPB, Dar e5 Salaam

Hollis, A.C (date?) Masai Stories. Papers in Naíional Library (EA II 496.S HAL), pp. 103-237 - Maasai Mytlis aiid Trnditioiis. Ibid., pp. 264 28 1. 56

Huggins. P.M I936 Sukuina Fables. T N R I, I936 pp. 90-93.

Ikombe, N 1943 The Legend of Nkaiida. 7NR # 15, pp. 72-75.

Issa, N.M.1 I l97,.. h'isu cho h'ilivunu nu Uuliriti Yuke nu Iladilhi N)~iii~itii>. 'iï'l-I, üiir es Síilaaiii.

Kaijage, D.C & Itala. W.L 1988 Tujifuze kwu Hadithi. Mshaslia, Dar es Salaain.

Kalindiiiiya, J i 995 Mfiilrric .Jogoo. UTI,, Dar cs Sriliiaiii

Kaniera, W.D I978 Iladithi zu Wuiruyw wu Tanzania. EALD, Aruslia.

Kamera,W.D. na Mwakasaka, C.S 198 I The Cornpliment Easl Afiicun Folktales. Eastern Africa Publications, Arusha.

Kanena, G 1975? Story-Telling Among the Wahaya. 3rd Year paper, Lit. Ikpt., UüSM

Karago, Alhaji T.A 1979 Hadithi Zenye ilckiina tiri Muudili. TPI-1, Dar cs Salaaiii.

Katiya, F.A 1996 A.ki/rrri Chili no Wri~ritilishi Wukc. Rcndií, I h r cs Salaaiii.

Kiliiido, J 1975 I-ladilhi za Waiiiatuiiibi. 3rd Year I'apcr, Idara ya Kiswaliili, U D S M .

Kitambi, B 1973 Hadilhi Zetu. TPH, Dsm .

Kilemaiiio, A 1977 Mabadiliko ya Majigaiiibo ya Kabila la Wakiirya Zaiiiiiiii tia Wakati wa Ukoloiii. I<azi Maaluniti, Idara ya Kiswaliili, Cho Kikuu cha DSM.

Knappcrl, J I970 Myths rind Legends of the Swuhili. I Iciiicinaiiii, Loiidoii.

Lihaniba, A I992 Mkufano wu Pili wu Ndege. DUP, Dar es Salaam.

Mallya, S I975 Bahu Simulia. ?'PH, Dsm.

Mang'anda, B.S I992 Shukrani zu Simba. EAPL, Dar es Salaam.

Mayega, P.B Mkonko. MPB, Dar es Salaam.

Mbcle, J 1977 'ïlic Social Coiitciil aiid Fuiictioii of Maleiigo Oral Litcratiiic M.A. üiss., U ü S M .

Mganga. D.P 1993 C'hiri Wadogo. TPH. Dar es Salaain.

Mgoina, S.K 1992 Kisu chu Mhwcr nu /'unyu. 1'l1I-I, Dar cs Salriaiii.

Miiija, I & L. Gcrsoii 1993 Kuku nu Murujìki Zuke. 'l'l'I I, I h r cs Saliiaiii.

Mocliiwa, Z I995 Mwanu Sinilxi Iltili Mlmra. EPüL,. i h r cs Siilaaiii.

Mollet, T.L 1983 Mufenbezi Msituni. Press &i Publicity Ceiilre, Dsiii.

57

Mtobwa, U I99 I Kisa chu Paka Kiipenda .Jikoni. Heko, Dar es Salaain.

Miiiigia, .l. D l96.., Iladitlii ZR Mrnliiie Sitisiti. ‘fl’l I, Dai, cs Salxiiii.

Mvuiigi, M I975 ï’liree SolidSíorte.s. I Iciiiciiiíiiiii, 1,oiidoii.

Mwakasaka, C.S I978 The O r d Lileraliire offhe ßanyctkyu.ru. KLU, Nairobi

Mwanga, A.K 1982 Maregesi. 1hn.w Pulishers, Dar es Salaam.

Mwanga, A.K 1985 Yiliiselekwilan~n & Ofher Sfories. I<iivu Pulisliers, Diir cs Salanin.

Mwaiiga, A.K I985 I’wkipuiiy aiid ille /(/ririo. I<iivu I>iilislicis, I h r cs Síiliioiii.

Mwanga. M.A 1996 Mfi Ulioziingiimza. Ruvu Pulishers, Dar es Salaam.

Mwanga, A 1998 M/mw tio ßiii/i A4f¿/tiie. Riivii Piiblislicrs, Dar es Salnaiii.

Mwaipyana, A.M 1994 Mbuzi Watatu na Mbwa Mwitu. TPH, Dar es Salaam.

Mwaituka, D 1994 Zimwi La). PubPC, Dar es Salaam.

Mweiida, I) I995 Balruri mi Mwrrewe. LüI’L, llar cs Salaaiii.

Ndimbo, D.M 197 ... Parrkwcr IJakciwci. 1‘1’1 I, Dar es Salxiin.

Oinari, C 1971 Iiadirhi za Bibi 1 & II. ‘ìlW, Dsm.

Oinari, C.K. na Mvungi, M 198 I Urifhi wu Ufamaduni Weh. TPH,DSM

Paul, F I995 Kibuyu chu Ajabu. Heko, Dar es Salaain.

Rajab, H 1983 Miujiza ya Mlima Kolelo. Busara, Dar es Salaaiii.

Rajab, I I 199 1 Kiboko ~/i l ! ~ ¡ ~ / l i ~ ’ h / i k i l i C h w. MI’B, DX CS Saliiaiii.

Robert, S 1952 Adili rio Nduguze. Macinillan, London.

Kwechungura, G I972 Masimulizi ya Wahenga. TPH, Dsm.

Rwechungura, G I975 Hadiihi zu Mapokeo. TPH, Dar es Salaam.

Seite], P I980 See So Thar We May See: Performances and Interprefafions of Trndifionol Tale.vfiorit Tniizonin. I.U. Press, Bloomington.

Semkiwn, D 197 I , I973 & I974 M~iziiiipriiz(i J W Bcihir Zdri 1-3. OUI’, I h i & Nairobi.

Seng’eng’e, J 1995 Mtoto katika Nyumba ya Chutu. VVK, Dar es Salaam.

Seng0,T.S.Y 1980 Tanzanian Tale-Telling and Its Educational Objectives: The Waraiigi Case Study. M.A. Thesis, Khartouin Uiiiv.

58

Sengo, T.S.Y I985 T h e Indian Ocean Complex and [lie Kiswahili Folklorc: l’lic Case of Zanzibar Talc-Pcrforinaiice. Ph.D Thesis, Khartoum Univ.

Senkoro, P.E.M.K I996 T h e Sign¡ ticance of h e Jouriicy in Folktales íioiii Zanzibar. 1’Ii.D Thesis, UDSM.

Serapion, K i992 Mfaltne 7wiga. KWI’C, Biikoba.

Scrapion. K I992 M,qeni wu Diridi. K WI’C. Ihikoba.

Serapion, K 1993 Panya Miihakonioni. KWPC, Bukoba.

Sliija, 1’ 1994 Njiwa no Kinúa Mkaiùi. 1‘1)i-i, Dar es Salaaiii

Shija, P n.d. The Hyenas and the Bell. TPH, Dar es Salaain.

Steere, E 1870 Swahili Tales as Told by the Nafives of Zanzibw. Bell aiid Ihldy, London.

TUKI I977 Fasihi Sitnulizi yo Mtonzcrnia: Hodilhi I. Chu0 Kikuii Dar es Salaain.

TUKI I993 Fasihi Sinrirlizi ya M/cinzciiiia: Ifdiihi 2. Cliiio Kikuu Dar es Salaaiii.

Veiten, C 1898 Märchen und Erzählungen der Suaheli. Berlin.

Waziri, T.1 1994 Wasia wa Maskini. Readit Books, Dar es Salaam.

U.6 ORAL I IISTOl~IES/BIO~I~Al’l-l IES

Abdallah bin I-ieiiiedi 1962 ( I 895) Ilahrrri zii Wukilitidi. i N , I 3 , Nairobi

Cory, li n.d. Historia ya Wilaya ßukoha. Mwanza, Taiizania.

Cory, H & Masalu, M . M 1955 Place N a m e s in the Lake Province. TNR 4 I : 55-72.

Gulliver, P.H 1955 A History of the Songea Ngoni. TNR 41: 16-30.

Gwassa, 6.C.K 1967 Kunibukuntbu ya Vita vya Muji Muji. EAPI-I, Nairobi. (Booklet based on extensive research o11 the Maji Maji war of 1905-1907. I was unable to tracc the lalc Gwassa’s papers on the war, iiicluding his doctoral thesis. If they are lost, it would be a big loss to historical scholarship on tlic Maji Mnji).

I lisiory Ikpl.. UDSM I968 Miiji Mai¡ I~csc~ircli I’rojccl. Miiiico, UDSM I hïiry.

I lusscin, U Kinjekeiifc. OUI’, Nairobi, I970??

Kabeya, 1966 Mlemi Miratnho. EALB, Nairobi.

Katoke, I 1975 The Karugwe Kingdom. EAPI-I, Nairobi.

Kiinanibo, I I969 A I’olitical Ilistory ({the I’ure, c. /SUO-IYUO. L<AI)I I, Niiirobi.

Lwamgira, F.X 1910 History of Kiziba (in Rehse 1910, which see).

Lwanigira, F.X 1949 Aniakulu ga Kiziha n’Abakaìna Bumu (A History of h’iziba and Its Kings). Runiiili Press, Bukoba.

59

Lwamgira, F.X 1949 Aiiiakulu ga Buliaya. Unpublished Ms, National Museum, DSM.

Mapalaln, i3 I992 A’rc~u Ileri I.se/u~~ruguzi. ‘ïPI I, Dar cs Ssilaaiii.

Mkiibiirali, J 1074 Muisliay(r Strlirrri A/)duI/tr/i. ‘I‘UKI, ¡.>rir cs Sala;iiii.

Mulokozi, M.M 1988 Mzrkwavn w n Uhehe. DUP, Dar es Salanin.

Mulokozi, M.m I Y90 Ngome ya Micrnzi. 1’1’1 I, Dar es Salaaiii.

Mulokozi, M.M 1991 Ngoriin ya Mianzi. MPB, Dar CS Salaaiii.

Mulokozi, M.M 1996 Mofo wu Mionzi. Ecol, Morogoro.

Mulugala, N. E and Shorter, A 197 1 Nyungu-ya-Mawe: Mlawala Shiijan \va Kinyamwezi. EALB, Nairobi/Dsm.

Ngaiza, M.K & Koda, B 199 1 Unsung Heroines. DUP, Dar es Salaam.

Schmidt, P 1977 Historical Archaeology. Greenwood Press, Westport.

Stahl, K.M 1964 Hislory of the Chagga People of Kiliriianjaro. The Hague.

11.7 TI-IEATRICAL ARTS

Kaduma, G.Z I972 A Theatrical Description of Five Tanzanian Dances. M.A. Thesis, UDSM.

Mlania, P 1973 Music in Tradiiioiial Theater: The Kaguru Case Study. M.A. Thesis, UDSM.

Muhando, P.0 (Mlania) 1984 Traditional African Theatre as a Pedagogical Institution. P1i.D Thesis, UDSM.

***

B.8 SPECIAL INSTITUTIONAL LORE

Cory, FI 1963 Taiiibiko (Fika). ‘I’NR 62: 274-282.

Sengo, ’I’.S.Y na Liiczis, !%A I975 Ulmi uti h ~ i i i Ukwox. Foiiiidíitioil Ilooks Ltd., Nnirobi.

Baguma, K A 1974 Utani I<elatioiisli¡ps: The I laya iii Lucas, S.A. (ed) Utriiii I<elalioiisliips in ’ïaiizania (Miiiico) Dept. of Sociology, UDSM.

***

IL9 IIRUM LI’ïEItATUlZE

Nil

60

APPENDIX C

INDEX OF RESEARCH ON ORAL Tl¿AI)lTIONS UNDERTAKEN BY TAKILUKI ZANZIBAR 1979-1999

TAASISI Y A KISWAI-IILI NA LUCHA ZA KICENI - ZANZIBAR

I . I-laditiii zii i’aiikwa - I’aknwn 1982 2. Unyago i 982

4. Slicrclic zii iiiwakíi w;i 1982 5. Nyimbo za kazi - Usereinala iia i982

6. Tiiiiibuizo ZR Iiíiriisi - 1982

3. Nyiiilbo 73 kazi - kii1)igì iiitriiníi i982

kupanda mpunga

MADA MWAKA Ilcsliiri, Mila iiii sclieri;i I>ciiiI~ii I970 v ilelido wil i 1081

Metliali 1981

I<aliiiia .M. Nxiinnii I-laji Cliiiiii-Miissa

I Climi Mussa i inji Cliiiiii Mussa Ali Mbaroiiku Mzee Ali Mbaioiikii Mzcc.

I<iìliiiì;i .M. Niiniiìíiii

5. Nyirnbo za iigoina 1981 6. Usiiairi wa kuburudislia 1981

2.

M’I’A 1~1’1‘1 Ali lkikíiri MOI~’(~, I(iiIiiiiii.M. Niiiiiiiíiii iiii

Haji Chum M&sa

Vitendawili I983 Mwanammtc Kliaiiiisi Acli

-

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Ali Bakari Moli’d. I

Nyimbo za kuanishia daku 1983 I-laji Chum Mussa Nyimbo za kupungia mashetani 1983 Ali Mbarouku Mzee na Asia

Ai&l la M baroii k Rubamba na Umundi i-ladi th i zu puli kwa-pii kuwa Utenzi w a siku ya wazazi Taasisi 1983 Asia Abdulla Mbarouk,

..._.___I ~ --__-_. ___-. .~

1083 Asio Abdolu Mbnroiik

I O. Mohamed Khamis Nassor

Nvimbo za kuchombeza watoto 1983 Mwanamtiate Khamis Ad¡

13. I Methali 1 1983 I Mai¡ Chum Mussa na 1

I. 2. 3. 4. 5.

1 4. 1 Maudliui va nviiiibo za iimiiia va dola I 1983 I Ali Mbarouku Mzee I

I-Iekaya 1984 M waiiaiiipatc Kliaiiiisi Adi Methali 1984 Mwaiiampate Kliainisi Ad¡ Migeni 1984 Hai¡ Chum Miissa *

Nyimbo za mwaka w a Nairuzi 1984 Ali Bakari Mohamed Ushairi wa aiiia zote I984 Mohamed Khamisi Nassor.

- 1. Ushauri wa kisiasa I985 M waiiainpslc Kliamisi Ad¡

Slialila li. Ali na I-Iaji Cliuin Mussa na Moh’d Khamis

62

-___ 2. Nyimbo za kuaiiisliia dakii

3. Lalia~~y~!l<oiii bciii 4. I,~illOj~i ya .-. l~llllllxl ... - .

5. Laliaja ya Kiluiiibalu 6. Kliarafa 7.

. ., .. . .. .... -. -~ ~ _--

Nyiinbo za kuouiigia slictani na

i 985 Mwaiiaiiipate Khaniisi Adi na Haj i C hiim

I985 Mwanampate Khamisi Ad¡ I O85 M wiinniiipalc Kliamisi Acli 1985 Ali Mbarouk Mzee 1985 Ali Bakar Moh’d

Ali Bakar Moli’d.

_...___--__I .-

1.

- 2. 3. -

8.

4.

- 5.

iimundi Methali 1985 Moh’d Khamis Nassor

6. 7. -

Sanaa za inaoiiyesho - kiiiyago

8. 9.

1 o. 1 1 . 12.

13. 14. 15.

- - - - - - -

- 16. 17. 18.

19.

- - -- .-

-

1986

Wasl1aii.i lll~l~lrlllii

Ushairi kaiika ngoina ya Juiigubovu Migaiii

1986

1986 1986

I

Nvinibo za iinoiiia I 1986

Vyama vya taarab, kusini Lahaja

Ushauii wa Ujenzi wr? Janiii

1986 1986

1986

Maudliiii ya iiyiiiibo za Jando Sanaa za Maoiiyesho (Ngoiijera) Makosa 1 4 k a Kiswuliili diu Magazeli na Iteclio Nyimbo za iigome(nirloi1~Ö) . __ - _-I_. -

1986

I986 I986 1986

1986 --

Masliairi ya iiiapciizi 1986

I

Ushairi katika npoiiia va Poiida I 1986

M waiiaiiipale Kliainisi Adi’Darweish, Ali Mbarouk Mzee, Haji Chum Mussa, Salila H.Ali, Moh’d Khamis Nassor na Ali Bakar. M wanamriate Kliainisi Adi Mwanampate Khamisi Ad¡, Maryam Darweish na I-liiji Cliuin Mussa. Mwanampate Kliamisi Ad¡, Ali Mbarouk, Haji Clium Mussa na Maryam Darweisli. Mwaiiaiiipate Kliamisi Ad¡, Maryam A. Darweish, i-laji Clium, Moh’d Kh.Nassor, Ali Mbarouk Mzee na Maryam A. Darweish iia Ali B ;i ka r Mo li ’ d.

Ali Bakar Moh’d, Maryam A .Darweish Haji Chum Mussa I-hji Chum Mussa na Maryam Darweisli. Maryam A.Danveish Marvam A. Darweish Maryam A.Darweish na Haji Clium i-laji Chum Mussa Haji Chum Mussa Ali Bakar Moh’d, Salila H.Ali na Moh’d Khamis Nassor. Ali Bakar Moh’d. Salila H. Ali Sulilsi 1-1. Ali na Moli’d -- Kliainis Nassor Salila IlAli

63

20. Nyimbo za kiiamshia daku 1986 21. Nyiiiibo za Umbi iiaNyciiii 1986 22. IJsliairi Iaíika iigoim y:) I3oso .. . ._ . . . - I OX6 . ^ _ ~ .....

~- ____- . .. ...

- 1 . 2. -

Moh’d Khamis Nassor Moli’d Khaiiiis Nassor Moli’tl Kliaiiiis Nnssor -__

3.

Maltosa k z k a Magazeli na - -- Kedio L I O87 Msainiali w a [Jvuvi 1987

Majiiia ya Miiaa 1987

---

-

Kiswaliili clia sliciia 1987

Si m o tia in n ta 1 i %o y alte 1987

Kiswaliili cha kibaliaria 1987 Lahaja- orodlia ya cliakula 1 O87 Maiiciio ya Kiswaliili yciiyc asili ya 1087 Ki i npcrczit

4.

5.

6.

- -

Mwanampate Khamis Ad¡ Ali Abdalla Ali na Haji Chum Mussa Mwanampate Khainis na Aiiiour A. Khaiiiis, Ali Dakar Moli’d na Salila H. Ali. Maryam A. Darweisli na Moli’d Kh.Nassor Maryam A.Darweish na Ali Bakar moh’d na Salila H. Ali Maryam A.Danveish Ainour A. Khainis 1 iaji Cliuiii Mussa na Salila 1-1. Ali

7. 8. - v.--- Maiieiio ya iipishi Ny¡ nibo %LI I< li pu iig ia iiiashc tan i

9. 1 O.

1 1 .

- - - 12.

1987 Haji Chum Mussa 1987 Ali Bakar Moh’d

13.

14. 15. 16.

- - -

(kumbwaya) Msamiati wa vyonibo vya baharini

Msamiati wa viwaiidani na kazi mbali inbali Usliaiii w;i lGcliiii - kascla V y a in ii v y a ‘liin rii 13 Nyinibo za kuamsliia dakii Visasili

. .. ~ .... . ... . ~-

1987 Ali Bakari Moh’d

1987 Ali Bakar Moh’d

1 987

1987 Siilila i-1.Ali 1987 Salila H.Ali 1987 Salila H.Ali na Moh’d

Ali Bakar Moh’d na Abdulla II diid _______ _.

1.

2.

3. 4. 5.

6. 7. - 8.

--_ Methali 1988 Mwanampate Kliamis Adi,

Hassan Gora Haji, Ali Bakar Moli’d na Ali Abdalla Ali

Mwanampate Khamis Adi Msaiiiinii wa ma7.ishi 1988 Abdalla Rashid Juina iin

Majina ya dawa na matuniizi yake 1988 Maryam A. Darweish Michezo ya watoto 1988 Maryam A.Darweish Majina ya watu na asili yake 1988 Hassan G.Haji, Anisa S. Said,

Ali Abdalla na Maryam A. Darweish

Sanaa za iiiaoiiycslio(iigo1ijccra) 1988 Ali B‘akar Moli’d Nyiinbo za tari 1988 Ali Bakari Moh’d Sikiikii~i ya Iclcl-cl-17itri 1988 Abdalla Rashid Juina na Ali

Abdalla Ali

K Ii.Nassor

64

Mi geni Msaiiiiati wa viwanda

1988 1988

Ngonia Makosa katika kiswaliili dia magazeti Sanaa za inaonvcslio

1988 1988 1988

Visa na Mikasa I989

2.

3. 4.

Msainiati w a Uharusi, Unyumba na Talalta Naliuu í Ibara Msaiiiiati wa ufiiivaiizi . . . . . . . . . .

7. 8.

Ngoma Msainiati w a useremala

1991

199 1

199 1 1991

1991

I-iatua mbalinibali aiiazopitia 1991 binadaiiiu

Maryam A. Darweish, Hassan Gora Haji, Haji Churn Mussa tin Faida Moli’d Bakar I-Inssan G. Hajj, Ali Bakar tiil Abdalla Rashid Juma Hassan Gora Haji Hassan Gora Haji, Ali Bakar naAbdalla Rashid Juma J iaji Chum Miissu, Faida Moh’d Ali Bakar Moli’d tia Abdalla Rashid Abdalla B. Juma na Hassan G. Haj i

9.

~

A bdalla Rashid Juma Abdalla Rashid Juma na Anisa I S. Said Abdalla Rasliid Juiiia

I

Maiiiin va iiii 1x1 I 1988 Aiiisa S. Said Aiiisa S.Saleh na Ali Abdalla

Simo Maudliui ya nyiiiibo za

Ali I Aiiisa SSaleli I Ali Abdalla Ali

7 7 1

- Mwanampate Khamis Adi, Ali Abdalla Ali, Hassan Gora Fhji na I-Iaii Chum Mussa

Miiko ya Itikadi 1989 Mwanampate Khamis Adi, Hassan Gora Haji, Ali Bakar Moh’d, na Anisa S. Said iia Faida Moli’d Bakar.

Ali Abdalla Ali 1990 i 990 Ali Abdalla Ali na Hassan

Gora Haji tlassaii Gora Haji I-laii Chum na Hassan G.Haii

1990 1990 1990 I 5. I ~~aciitiii fiiii iiini.. . . . . . . ... I-laii Chiiiii Mussa

I 6. I Ikjcsln .... ,. .. .. 1990 .y >> 9,

’1 > Y Y,

Faida Moh’d Bakar 1990 1990

19. 1 Wasliairi chipukizi Ali Bakar Moh’d i 990

i.

- 2.

3. -

Uganga w a mitishamba

Wasliui ri inaarufii

Simo 4. Miiko na Itikadi

5. Visa nn i1lik~iSíi

6. -

I 1. I Vifaa vya miti na inajaiii vitumikavyo 1 1992 I Ali Bakar Moli’d 1 2.

inaj u ni ba n i Nahau 1992 Ali Bakar Moh’d.

~~

i. M e t i d 2. Mapisliio

UNDATEII RESEARCHES

1993 Aii Bakar Moli’d 1993 Ali Dakar Moh’d, Haji Chuiii

Mussa, Maryam A.Darweisli, i-lassan G. Maji na Abass Mdungi.

‘1’0 1’1 c RESEARCHER

1. Hadithi zenye maudhui ya ngoma - Abdalla Rashid Juma 2. Methali - Salila H. Ali 3. Nyimbo za kwenye inichezo ya watoto 4. Unyago Pemba - Asia Abdalla Mbarouk 5. Historia ya niichezo ya ng’ombe - Asia Abdalla Mbarouk 6. Nyimbo za michezo ya iigware ’9 ’3 ’9

7.Nahau - Abdalla Rashid Juma 8. Hadithi fupi fupi - Anisa S. Said 9.Nishad za Isliiriki - Moli’d Khaiiiis Nassor 1 O. Sanaa za inaoiiycslio (iigiiijcra) ’1 ’9 ’9

I 1 .Vilciidnwili 7’ 9’ 7 9

12. I-Iadiihi fiipi fupi - Moh’d Khamis Nassor

15. Mjamzito . . . . . .. Malezi ya mtoto 16. Mazishi 3’ ’9 9’

17. Lahaja ya Ucliumi - Haji Chum Mussa 18. Nyimbo za Dandaro 3’ ’3 ’9

19. Nyimbo za mwaka 3’ ’Y ’Y

20. Maudhui katika ngoma ya msewe - Ali Bakar Moh’d

22. Michezo ya watoto - Faida Moh’d Bakar 23. Nyimbo za kuchombezea watolo - Maiyaiii A. Darwcisli.

- Asia Abdalla Mbarouk

-

-

13. Maneno ya Kiswahili yenye asili ya Kihindi - i 4. Usliairi katika iigoiiia ya Iclciiiaiiiu

Ali Abdalla Ali Maryani A. Darweisii - Raliina M. Naaman -

- -

21. Maudhui katika nyimbo za kuchombezea watoto - Faida Moh’d Bakar

66

APPENDIX D LIST 0 1 7 INS'I'I'I'U'I'IONS DIMLING WIT1 I O K A L 'I'I~AI)I'I'IONS

ü.1 TANZANIA MAINLAND

I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. I o. 1 1 . 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Arts and Languages Directorate, Ministry of Education and Culture Bagainoyo College of Arts BAKITA, National Kiswahili Council, Dar es Salaam DASA'I'A, National Arts Council, Dar es Salaam Utijora Museum, M w a n z a Coininission for Science and Technology Dai' es Salaaiii Televisioii Fine aiid Performing Arts Dept., University of Dar es Salaam Independent Television, Dar es Salaam Kiswaliili Dept., University of Dar es Salaam Literature Dept., University of Dar es Salaam National Archives, Dar es Salaam National Muscum, Dar cs Salaam Radio One, Dar es Salaam Radio Tanzania, Dar es Salaam TUKVIKR, University of Dar es Salaam Village Museum, Dar es Salaam IJNIClil:, Dar es Salaani 'I'GNP, Dar es Salaam

All secondary scliools All teachers colleges

D.2 ZANZIBAII

I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 1 o. I I.

Taasisi ya Kiswaliili na Luglia zu Kigeiii, S.L.P 882, Zanzibar Chuo cha Walimu Nkurumah, Zanzibar Idara ya Tainaslia, Mila na Sanaa, S.L.P 772, Zanzibar UNICEF, Zanzibar Idara ya Eliinu Msingi na Kati, Zanzibar Idara ya Nyaraka za Makunibuslio, Zanzibar Idara ya Habari na Utangazaji, Zanzibar Radio Zanzibar Televislieni Zanzibar C h a m a cha Waandislii w a Vitabu, S.L.P 4105, Zanzibar BACRO'I'ANAL, Zanzibar

67

APPENDIX E

LIST OP ItEGISTEItISi~ PEIWORMINC Sr OIS IWOMOTION GROUI>S

E.1 Tarizsiiia Maiiilaiid

I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. I o. I I . 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45.

Chamwenyewe Theatre Group, S.L.P. 5147, Dar es Salaam Dojo Acrobatics and Gymnastics, S.L.P. 25303, Dar es Salaam Afrika Ngoma Troupe, S.L.P. 61432, Dar es Salaam Aiigo Arts Group, S.L.P. 142 19, Dar es Salaani Miu Kwao 'I'Ioiipe. S.L.1'. 367, Dar es Salaam ïïic New V¡,i;iiiii ïïiciiírc, S.I,.I'. 25098, Diir es SiiI:iiiiii Utaiiiaduiii Muugazi 'I'roupe, S.L.P. 37 I, 'I'aiiga Painbazuko Theatre Troupe, S.L.P. 15486, Dar es Salaam Viiuko Oraiiia Troupe, S.L.P. 9 192, Dar es Salaaiii Prof. Black I.lcaríman, S.L.P. 103, Kyela- Mbeya Mirakiiu ï'licalre Troupe, S.L.P. I5 150, Dar es S. 'i I aiiiii Coiiiiiiiiiiiiy Tliciitrc Group, c/o BASATA, S.L.P. 4779, üiir CS Siiliiaiii The Lighters Arts Group, S.L.P. 21765, Dar es Salaani Bukene Maleiigo Group, S.L.P. 9530, Dar es salaam Mandela Theatre Troupe, c/o BASATA, S.L.P. 4779, Dar es Saluaiii Dar es Salaam Cultural Group, S.L.P. 15054, Dar es salaam Afrika Group International, S.L.P. 67029, Dar es Salaain Ideteiiya Professioal Group, S.L.P. 333 I , Dar es Sala:iin Future Watch Cultural Group, S.L.1'. 1759, Dar es Salaam Waziri Mkiiii Dodoiiin, c/o FIASATA, S.L.1'. 4770, I>iir cs Sal~iiiiii Kimoiido Group, c/o BASATA, S.L.1'. 4779, Dar es Salaam Proiiiotoiis Tlicaíre aiid Bcauty Arts, S.L.P. 7795, Dar cs Solaíiiii

Abiiicsliwcka Nyoiiiu 'I'toupc, S.L.1'. 55 127, üai. cs Saliii~iii Uinoja Club Cultural Troupe, S.L.P. 2773, Dar es Salaam Kicaina Bantu Arts & Acrobatics Promotion, S.L.P. I5 1 16, Dar es Salaam Sereiigeti 'I'lieatre Troupe, S.L.P. 45778, Dar es Salaain Tung¡ Culiiiral 'I'roupe, S.L.P. 65360. Dar es Srilaaiii Splendid Theatre Group, S.L.P. 45978, Dar es Salaam Buiigo Players Association, S.L.P. 1735, Morogoro Serengeii Dancing Group, S.L.P. 25098, Dar es Salaain Aiiiaiii Draina Group, S.L.P. 10602, Dar cs salaaiii Parapanda Arts (PAA), S.L.P. 25098, Dar es Salaam Eiideleza Vijaiia Sangula, S.L.P. 9293, Dar es Salaam Simba Theatre Group, S.L.P. 22224, Dar es Salaam Luglia na Utamaduni (Luu-Promoter), S.L.P. 35054, Dar es Salaam Shomala Arts Theatre (Promoter), S.L.P. 32967, Dar es Salaam Ncliaila Dancing Troupe, S.L.P. 960 I, Dar es Salaam Uawaziri Culiural Troupc, S.L.P. 90436, Dar es Salaaiii l'lie l'op Magician, S.L.P. 138, Saine-Kijijiiii Saiiaa 'I'oiido Groiip, S.L.P. 142 19, Dar cs Salaaiii Aziiiiio Culiiiral Group, c/o BASATA, S.L.P. 4779, Dar es Salaaiii Woiiiny Theatre Productions, S.L.P. 25 142, Dar es Salaairi The Black Warriors Acrobatics Group, S.L.P. 18 124, Dar es Salaam Up to Date Acting Group, S.L.P. 16201, Dar es Salaain

I>CSCCiidÍiiiiS Culi~iríll 'I'roupc, S.L.1'. 1788, K"gci';1

68

46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82,

Mbagala Cultiiral Group, S.L.P. 10085, Dar es Salaain Tanza Theatre Troupe, S.L.P. 745, Dar es Salaam Kainongo Mirrow Group, S.L.P. 16457, Dar es salaaiii ïlic African Stars Group, S.L.P. 935, Dar CS Salaani Zama Theatre Group, S.L.P. 3 I 833, Dar es Salaam Hisia Theatre Troupe, S.L.P. 2329, Dar es Salaam Nydnza Folklore Research Trust (Promoter), S.L.P. 2948, Dar es Salaain Iiiiara Troupe, S.L.P. 2057, Dar es Salaaiii The Black Blood Acrobatics, S.L.P. 45 143, Dar es Salaani Hodi ‘I‘heatre Productioii, S.L.P. 23053, Dar es Salaam Ten Best Cultural Troupe, S.L.P. 8233, Same-Kijijini Temeke Theatre Group, S.L.P. 8830, Dar es Salaam Feca Cultural Group of Environmental Cleanliness Awareness, S.L.P. 21632, Dar es Salaam Bagaiiioyo Snake Dance (BSD), S.L.P. 56, Bagamoyo Tlic Black Maii’s Visioii Tlicatrc Group, S.L.P. 76689, Dar cs Salaeiii Tanga African Cultural Group, S.L.P. 2249, Tanga Maislia Leiigo Troupe, S.L.P. 7495, Dar es Salaam Kikuiidi cha Sanaa cha Malezi ya Jainii, S.L.P. 25056, Dar es Salaain Ndoinoiido Mila ’I’hcalrc, S.I,.I’. I 1786, Dar es salaaiii Cliaiigainoto Intcriiatioiial Group, c/o BASATA, S.L.P. 4779, Dar cs Salaaiii Koiiibora Spoti Ngoma, S.L.P. 234, Dar es Salaam Ilulu Theatre Group, S.L.P. 45478, Dar es Salaam Tumaini Group, S.L.P. 72453, Dar es Salaain Fossam Group, S.L.P. 6047, Dar es Salaam Makuti Modern Theatre Troupc, S.L.P. 15984, Dar es Salaaiii New Generation Troupe (NGT), S.L.P. 14333, Dar CS Salaaiii Ukclcwc Orgaiiizatioii Group, S.L.P. 1 15, Ukelcwe Aziina Modern Theatre Troupe, S.L.P. 70243, Dar es Salaam The Black Eagle Acrobatics Group, c/o BASATA, S.L.P. 4779, Dar es Salaam Uinoja Cultural Troupe, S.L.P. 25 162, Dar es Salaani Waungwana Group Mikoclieni ‘A’, S.L.P. 76492, Dar es Salaam Tliealre Cultural Dancing Group, S.L.1’. I 93 I, Dar es Salaaiii Mkongo Cultural Troupe, S.L.P. 1609 1, Dar es Salaam Juhudi Theatre Troupe, S.L.P. 62769, Dar es Salaam Cliaiiia clia Siirakasi (M) Dar cs Salam, c/o BASATA, S.L.1’. 4779, Dar cs Salaaiii Kisaina Bantu Art Promotion, S.L.P. 1227, Dar es salaam Kigamboni Acrobatic Theatre Troupe, c/o BASATA, S.L.P. 4779, Dar es Salaam

69

E.2 Zanzibar

I . 7.

J. 5. 6. 7. 8. 0. I O. I I . 17. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. i S. 19. 20. 21. 27. 23. 24. 25, 20. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 37. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 43. 43. 44, 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51.

.> ,

Cliaina clia kucndeleza wacliniri (Ciiakiiwaza), P.O. Ilox 3045, Ziiiiziixir

Laiizil)ar Iiitcr. Filin L'csiivnl, P.O. 13ox 3032, %aiizib;ii Ukufcza (Uiiioja w a kuendeieza fens¡), P.O. Box 772. Kariakoo. Liiiviixir ARTIST Kainwe, P.O. Box 341. Tel. 30891, Zanzibar Kikundi clia Sanaa - Uinoja w a vijana, P.O. Box 875. Zanzibar Zanzibar Ngoina Troupe. P.O.Box 772, Zanzibar Aliicaii Culture Troupe, Mweriibe shauri, Zanzibar Super Slar Ihiciiig 'lroupe. I'.O.l3ox 772. Zanzibar Uiiio.ja Ngoina Troupe. Ainatii Fresh, Zanzibar I i a I i k I I I i i k i K íitn n i bavii, C li i i i iilxi ti i, Zíiiizi bar Nyota ya Uiiioja, Nungwi, Zanzibar Chaiiganika, Ofisi ya Mkuu, Wilaya ya Mjini Beni ya Wanawake, S.L.P 42 1 I, MILadu, Zanzibar Sekembuke Tamthilia Group, P.O. Box 772, Zanzibar Group Mandoba, Zanzibar Indian Musical Group, P.O. Box 3014, Zanzibar Zanzibar Cultural Club, P.O. Box 1504, Zanzibar Tweiide Painoja Group, P.O. Box 2672, Zanzibar Tazania Lijalo, P.O. Box 3812, Zanzibar Burudani za Mashaka, P.O.BOX 1169, Zanzibar Zuiiiari Dancing Co., P.0.ßox 772, Zanzibar l'arabu Uinoja ni Nguvu, Box 1708, Zanzibar Kupaia Ma.jaaliwa, 'Tarabu Groiip. Aninni Zanzibar (*iil~~ire Miisic (:liil), l',O, Ilox 4030, %iiii/.iixir N;id Ihliwaii Safíia, I'.O.1Jox 3345, Kokoiii, Latizibar Nyuki Modern Tarab, Zanzibar Ilyasi &- Twinklin Stars, P.O. Box 772, Zanzibar Zeiij Musical Club, P.O.BOX 842, Zanzibar Nyota Njema Musical Club, Sebleii, Zanzibar The Coconut Band, S.L.P. 1806, Zanzibar Kakanika Musical Club, Mahonda, Zanzibar Kizazi Kipya, Box 1198, Zanzibar East African Melody, S.L.P 1379, Zanzibar Vijaiia Modern Tarab, S.L.P. 3066, Zanzibar Subira Musical Club, Kilimahewa, Zanzibar The Ci-Clef Taarab, Zanzibar Jamaica, Kwaalanisha, Zanzibar Ulaci, I luiu Cultural Troupe, Zaii~ibar Hero Disco Sound, Kiembe Samaki, Zanzibar Long Rango Music, Amani, .Zanzibar Rio »e Jarmo, M w e m b e Ladu, Zanzibar Cíitiieroiiii, Kiliinaiii, Zaiizibar 'l'ti I ¡/¿i ilol i. Kwaiitipura. Zaiizibw 'l'iiiic Square. Zanzibar Black Roots Culture Troupe, S.L.P. 401 5, Zanzibar Zanzibar Sound Bend, S.L.P. 747, Zanzibar Islander's Bend, Box 25 I, Zanzibar Paíiiicca Ngoiiia, Jaiig'oiiibe, Zanzibar Big Stars. S.L.P. 875, Zanzibar Iwe Nini, Mwenda Pole, Zanzibar

Cliiiiiiii ~ l i ~ i iiiiiitlislii \ V ~ I vitíibii, l'.O. ISOX 4 105, Ztiiizilìiii.

70

52. 53. 54. 55. SO. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62.

Sanaa I.K.U.. P.O.BOX 985, Zanzibar Hatukosani Cultural Troupe, Cliumbani, Zanzibar Jiíamiiic Group. Nycrcrc, Zniizibíir I h i i Ilali, Muuiigíiiio, Zaiizilxir 13eni ya Weiiia, Ki.jaiigwaiii, Zaiizihnr Ainaani Ngoiiia Troupe, Kariakoo, Zanzibar Uyazi Dancing Troupe, Tcnibo, Zanzibar Tabasainu Group, S.L.P. 4039, Zanzibar Soweto Cultural Group. Sliakani, Zanzibar Utamaduni Mafunzo. Mafunzo. Zanzibar Stone T o w n M o d e m . Soko M u h o g o 405

71

APPENDIX F

I . 2. 3. 4. 5. h. 7. X. 9. I o. I I . 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. I x. I o. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 21. 28. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. .1.1. 45. -16.

h4r 1. Chaiiibulikazi. I>cpi. of I-iiic and I’crformiiig Arts. IJIISM I)r A. I latíir. Ikpt. ol‘l:iiic aiid l’crlì)riiiiiig Arts, IJDSM Prol: Amaridina Liliaiiiba. Dept. 01‘ Fine and l’erforniing Arts. U M M Mr D.R. Mbiliii!i. Ilept. of Fine and Performing Arts. UIXM l’rot‘. I’enina Mlama. Dept. of Fine and Performing Arts. UDSM Prof. E. Hussciii. Kariakoo, Dar es Salaani Mr I-I.A. Nakanoga, Dept. of Fine aiid Performing Arts. UDSM M r G. Kaduma. cio Tanzania lheatre Centre, Dar es Salaam Prol-. M.M. Mulokozi. Institute of Kiswaliili liesearch, UIXM Prof. S.A.K. Mlacha. Institute of Kiswahili Research. UDSM M r E. Senizaba. Institute of Kisiraliili Rcsearch. IJDSM Prol-, 1).1’.13. Massamba. Institutc of Kis\valiili rcscarch, IJIISM I>r I I. Njozi, I>cpartniciit of l,itcraturc, UlXM Mr A.O.H. Korogoto. Department of Literature, UDSM Mrs I,. Osaki. Department of 12ilerature, UDSM Mr li. Soiigoyi. 1)cpartnient ofl,¡lcr:itiire, IJDSM Mr 13, Miisclc. lkpiitíiiiciit ol~l,itcríiíiirc. IJIISM I)r Y.I. l~iil)iiiim. l)cpiirliiiciit ol’Kis~viiIiili. IJI)Shl I)r K.K. K:iliigi. I)cp;ir?iiiciit of Kicw;iliili. IJIISM I’rof., I~.I~.M.K. Sciikoro. 1)cp;irtiiiciit 01‘ Kis\v;iliili. IJIISM I Ir J. S. h4íitluiiiii Ila. I kpiiriiiici i l 01’ Kiswali i l i , 111 )SM Mr S. Saiika. Ilcpartment of Kiswahili, IJIISM Mr A. Mutenibei. Department of Kicwahili. UDSM Mr N.O. Minbaga. IJcpaniiieiit of Kiswaliili. IJIISM h4r Rashid Masiinbi. Directorate of Arts aiid Languages. Dar es Salaam Mr Peter A. Nyambasi, Haganioyo College of Arts Mr Juma A. Bakari. Baganioyo College of Arts Mc. Vuyo Wagi. cio IIWAVITA. Dar cs Salaam Mr Mnyenyelwa. Parapanda Arts. Dar es Salaani M s Eiko Kiniura. Japanese I3iibassy. Dar es Saliiani Mr Saifu Kiango c/o UWAVITA. Oíir es Salaam Mr Ci. Matcrcgo. Departnient of ï‘licalrc Arts. IJIXM Ih I,. Kalugira. hlakuiiiira ‘I‘licological College Prol: I. Kiiiiaiiilio. I listor!. I>cpartiiiciit. lJl>SM Prof. I. Kntokc. Karagwe. ür Paul Mseiiitra. Village bluscuiii. Dar es Saiaaiii Mr T. Mvungi, Taiizania Iiistitute of Educntioii Pro I‘. C. K. O i iiar i , Sociology Ilcparti iicii I, 1J I >S hl Mr Maliwanga, 1)ircctor;itc of Arls aiid I .aiiguagz Mr I~ichíirtl Míibah. IJNICI3: Mr Adam 1,usckelo. llar es Salaani Mr I Iaiiiiiiic lki,liih. Diir es Salaam Mr Alla Lugoiiic. Ihgainoyo College of Arts hlr Nkwabi Ng’hangasamala. Baganioyo College of Arts Mr Michael Kadinde. ßagamoyo College of Arts llr Johii P.I.. K!-:.iide Ihgaino).o College of Arts Mr Filemon M\rakalindile, Bagamoyo College of Arts ,Ur Kissaka A. Kissaka. Bagamo) ) Collcge of Arts

73

47. 48. 40. 50. SI. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 5X. 59. OO. 6 I . 62. (1.3.

o4 65.

Mr I4aihias Kihiiiia, Bagamoyo College of Arts Mr Bernard Kiswigu. Bagamoyo College oí Arts Mr Ahrithm l3al~idliili, I3agaiiioyo C'ollcge ol' Arts Mr I Iaji Macd;i. 13agairioyo Collcgc 01' Arts M s ( 'lirista Koiiilxi, Ikigmoyo C:ollcgc 01' Aris Mr Jdiii Mporida, I3ag;iiiioyo Collcgc of Arts Mr .Aiiold Cliiwalala, ikigamoyo Collcgc of Arts M s Luiza Magaiiga, Bagamoyo Collegc of Arts M s Elizabeth 13uriani. Bagamoyo College of Arts hlr Wcrciiia M. Chacha. 13aganioyo College of Arts Mr i3asil Mbatta. Bagainoyo College of Arts M r Tlioiiias Ilinilla. Ihganioyo Collcgc of Arts M s Mary Cliibwaiia, Ilagamoyo College of Arts M s Ncciiia Mirnmbo. I3againoyo College of Arts Mr Khalfaiii Matitu. ßagamoyo College of Arts M s Mivanaidi Zaiiibo, Bagamoyo College of Arts Mr ,ìl;iiiiitl Moli~iiiicdi. l3~i~~iiiioyo C'ollcgc of Arts Mr Irsii S. Mtiiiiibwc. I~ag;ini(iyo C'ollcgc ol.Arts Mr Siuiiiai I lalili, I3aganioyo Collegc. of Arts

LANGUAGE

I . 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. 8. 9. I o. I I. 12. 13. 1.1. IS. I (l. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33 34. 3;. 3(J.

l>r C.M. Rubagumya, Dept. of Foreign Languages and Liiiguistics, UDSM Ilr S.Y. Othriian, Dept. of Foreign Languages aiid Linguistics, UDSM I>r h,l.K. Kapinga, Ikpt. of Foreign I,niigii;igcs aiitl I.iiigiiistics. U M M Ur I.N. Swilla, Dcpt. ol'I~'oreign Iaigungcs arid 1,iiiguistics. IJIlSM I)r 5.13. Maghway. Dept. of loreign Languages and Linguistics. UDSM Dr J.M. Rugemalila. Dept. of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, UDShI Dr J . Lukusa, Dept. of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, UDSM Dr A.F. Lwaitaina, Dept. of Foreign Languages and Linguistics. UDSM Ilr D.M.D. Numi, Dept. of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, UDSM Dr J L.M. Hawaiiga, Dept. of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, UDSk1 Ilr I. Kapoli, Dept. of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, UDSM D r D. Ndoloi, Dept. of Foreign Languages and Linguistics. UDSM I)r h1.A. Kihogoya. Dept. of Foreign lmgiiagcs aiid I .iiigiiisiics. UDSM Ih I:.I).A. Mriiidoko. Ikpt. ofI:oreigii Imguiigcs ;tiid I.iiipiisiics. iJI)SbI MI; hl.lJ. Qorro. I)wt. ofI:oreign I.aiigiiagcs i i i i d I iii:iiistics. I1I)SM I>r i1.S. Ngoiiyaiii. of I.'oreigii 1,aiiguagcs aiid I.iiigiiistics. IJDSM Mr h1.Y. Kadcglic, Dept. of Foreign Languages aiid I,iiiguistics, UDSM Mr YA. Mweicni, Dept. of Foreign Languages and Ihguistics, UDShl I)r R.D. Mekaclia, Deparinient of Kiswahili. 1JI)SM ¡'rol', R.M. llcsli:i, Ikpartmcnt of Kiswiitiili. IJIISM Mr A. Muiciiibci, Ikpaitinent of Kis\valiili. UDSM Ur )..l. Rubanza. Ilepartment of Kiswaliili. UIXM D r L.K. Kaliigi. üepartiiieiit of Kisirahili, UDSM Mr S. Sanka, Dcp?rtment of Kiswahili. UDSM Dr Z. Mochiwa. Ueparlmenl of Kisnahii. UDSM IJrof. M. M. Mulokozi. Institute of Kis\\-ahili Research, UDSM Prof. A.M. Khaniisi. Institute of Kiswahili Research. IJDSM iJrol.. D.P.Il. Massainba, Institute ofKis\valiili I<escarcli. IJDSM IJrof. i I.J.M. Mwaiisoko. Iiistitutc ol'Kiswaliili 1kw;ircIi. IJIISM I'rol'. J.S. Mdcc. Iiistitiile of Kiswahili I-kscarcli, IJIISM Prof: S.A.K. Mlaclia. Institute of Kiswahili Research. UDSM Dr Z. 'Tumbo-Masabo, Institute of Kiswahili Research, UDSM Dr i. M. Kihore. Institute of Kiswahili Research. IIDSM Dr J.G. Kiango. Institute of Kiswahili Research, UIXM Dr Ilr i I'. Msan.jila. liisti1.it: cif Kiswahi'i Research. IJDSM

Chuwa, Institiitc ,if Kisnahili R2search. IJDSM

73

37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 41. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57.

Mr S. Scwangi. Inslitulc of Kiswahili I<esearcli, UiXM Mr C.T. Ilwcrigc. Iiistiiiitc of Kiswiiliili Rcsciircli, IJiXM I>r li. Cliiduo, institute oíKiswiiliili I(csciirc1i. 0I)SM Ms J. Y uiiibi, Iiistiliilc oí Kiswaiiiii I<csc;ircli. Ui)SM Mr F. Malangaliia, lringa ih M. Mvuiigi. c/o Natioiial Miisciiiii Dr A. Kishe, BAKITA Ms D. Mwaituka. BAKITA Mr Moliamcd Mwinyi, BAKITA Mr Akida Harnisi, UKUTA Mr E. Mollcl, Directorate of Arts and Language Ms P. Dumea, Directorate of Arts and Language Dr A.J. Saffari, Chu0 cha Diploniasia Dar es Salaam Mr Kiputiputi. Chuo cha Biashara, Dar es Salaam Mr C. W. leinu. Moshi Prof. G. Mhina, Dodoma Mr Peler A. Nyambasi, Uagarnoyo Collcgc of Arts Mr N. Karckezi. BAKITA Ms M. Mbeo, BAKITA Mr Mohamed Mwinyi, BAKITA Mr S.J. Maina, Ministry of Education and Culture

F.2 ZANZIBAR

OKAL 'I'ibîDiï'IONS J(r LANGUAGIS

I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. I o. I I. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Ali Mwalimu Rashid, 'I'AKII,UKI, Zaiizibar i larnad Dakar Mshiiido, 'I'AKiLUKi, Zanzibar Asha Mhcne Hamad, TAKILUKI, Zanzibar Mmanga Mjenge Mjawiri, TAKILUKI, Zanzibar Abbas Makame Ndungi, TAKIIJKI, Zanzibar Maryam Aiimed Darweisli, TAKILUKI, Zanzibar Ilassan Gora liaji, TAKILUKI, Zanzibar Omar Salim Moh'd, TAKILUKI, Zanzibar Salim Hamad Ali, TAKILUKI, Zanzibar Abdalla Moh'd Ali, TAKILUKI, Zanzibar Abdalla Rashid Juma, TAKILUKI, S.L.P 203, Chakc Chakc, Pemba ilaji Chum Mussa, S.L.1' 882, Zanzibar Shaiiiouii i lashirn, S.L.P 772, Zanzibar Abdalla Rashid Mdowe, S.L..P Nkurumah, Zanzibar Moh'd Ugoda, S.L.P Nkurunidi, Zaiizibar Ashn ilamis Ilnmnd. S.I..P 882. Zanzibar Abdura7A Ali Salim, Wizara ya Eliniu, Zanzibar Ali Bakar, S.L.P 203, Zanzibar

74