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A STUDY OF LEARNING STYLES OF STUDENTS ENROLLED IN
ENGLISH FOR PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT CLASSES
AT NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF DEVELOPMENT
ADMINISTRATION
SUMITTED TO
ASST. PROF. DR. ML. JIRAPA ABHAKORN
BY
PRAPHAT SIRIVONGRANGSAN
A RESEARCH PAPER FOR EPD 9000 SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ARTS
(ENGLISH FOR PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT)
SCHOOL OF LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION
2014
ii
ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation
A Study of Learning Styles of Students Enrolled in English for
Professional Development (EPD) Classes at National Institute of
Development Administration (NIDA)
Author Praphat Sirivongrangsan
Degree Master of Arts Program in English for Professional Development
Year 2014
Learning Styles are closely related to students’ academic achievement and several
environmental factors such as gender, age, field of study, and occupation. By realizing their
own learning styles, students can choose strategies to improve academic outcomes. Second
or foreign language acquisition is one of the most difficult learning environment one can
experience in a classroom setting. This study looked into the relationship between learning
styles and academic achievement, gender, age, field of study, and occupation of students
studying at NIDA for the Master’s Degree in EPD Program. This study employed a mixed
methodological approach including both quantitative and qualitative methods centered
around the Kolb Learning Style Inventory (KLSI) including questionnaires and interviews.
The results showed that the majority of the students preferred Accommodating style
(59.09%) and Diverging style (34.09%). Only three persons out of 44 samples preferred
Assimilating or Converging. Findings from chi-square tests indicated that there were
significant correlations of learning styles and academic performance, gender, age, field of
study, and occupation. Most students preferred classroom activities such as open-ended
problems, student presentations, design projects, subjective exams, and simulations. They
also like to solve homework problems, conduct computer simulations, enjoy field trips,
making individuals’ reports, and demonstrating what they knew. Students and educators
would benefit from this study through a better understanding of factors affecting academic
performance and the adaptation of learning and teaching strategies.
Key Words: Learning Styles, Second Language Acquisition, Academic Achievements, Kolb
Learning Style Inventory, Chi-Square Test
iii
บทคดยอ
ช�อวทยานพธ การศกษารปแบบการเรยนรของนกศกษา หลกสตรภาษาองกฤษเพ�อการพฒนาอาชพ
คณะภาษาและการส�อสาร สถาบนบณฑตพฒนบรหารศาสตร
ช�อผเขยน นายประพชร ศรวงศรงสรร
ช�อปรญญา ศลปศาสตรมหาบณฑต หลกสตรภาษาองกฤษเพ�อการพฒนาอาชพ
ปการศกษา ภาคเรยนท� 2/2556
การวจยน2 ศกษารปแบบการเรยนรท�มตอความสาเรจในการเรยนและความสมพนธระหวางรปแบบ
ของการเรยนรกบ เพศ อาย สาขาวชา และอาชพ กลมตวอยางจานวน 44 คน เปนนกศกษาระดบปรญญา
โท หลกสตรภาษาองกฤษเพ�อการพฒนาอาชพ สถาบนบณฑตพฒนบรหารศาสตร เคร�องมอท�ใชเปนแบบ
วดรปแบบการเรยนรตามแนวคดของเดวด คอลบ (David Kolb) ซงแยกรปแบบการเรยนรออกเปน 4
แบบ คอ แบบอเนกนย (Diverger) แบบดดซม (Assimilator) แบบเอกนย(Converger) และแบบ
ปรบปรง(Accommodator) และใชการสมภาษณและเขยนบนทกจากตวอยาง 4 คนท�เลอกจากกลม
ตวอยางขางตน ผลการศกษาพบวานกศกษามรปแบบการเรยนรท�กระจกตวอยสองรปแบบคอ รปแบบ
ปรบปรงมากท�สดคอรอยละ59.09% และรองลงมาเปนรปแบบอเนกนยคอรอยละ34.09% สวน
ความสมพนธของรปแบบการเรยนรตอผลการเรยน เพศ อาย สาขาวชา และอาชพ เคร�องมอท�ใชคอไคส
แควร(Chi-square) การทดสอบมความสมพนธกนอยางมนยสาคญ ท� .05 ผวจยเช�อวาผลการศกษาคร2 งน2
ไดใหแนวคดดานการออกแบบหลกสตรการเรยนการสอนภาษาองกฤษไดด โดยเนนความคดเชงรปธรรม
การทดลองท�ใหประสบการณจรง และความหลากหลายในการใชความคดของนกเรยนเปนสาคญ
คาสาคญ: รปแบบการเรยนร, เดวด คอลบ, ไคสแควร, การเรยนการสอนภาษาองกฤษ, ความสาเรจในการ
เรยน
iv
Acknowledgements
This research paper is the sign of the end of my journey in fulfilling a major part of
requirement for my Master’s Degree at NIDA. I own a debt of gratitude to many persons
during my struggle for knowledge, and I need to mention them here. First and foremost, I
would like to express my gratitude to Assistant Professor Jirapa Abhakorn for her kind and
persistent advice in her role as my supervisor and helping me throughout this research task.
Her constructive comments and encouragement have been invaluable and inspired me to do
the best I can.
Additionally, I wish to mention the following faculty members of Graduate Language
and Communication for their great effort in teaching me: Assist. Professor Saksit
Saengboon for World Englishes and Research Methods, Assist. Professor Kasma
Suwanarak for Integrated Reading and Writing and English for Business Communication,
Assist. Professor Ketkanda Jaturongkachoke for Grammar for Professional Context,
Associate Professor Varasiri Sagaravasi for English for Human and Social Services, Assist.
Professor Compol Sawanboonsatic for Professional Writing, Assist. Professor Yu-Hsiu
(Hugo) Lee for English for Media and Technology, Assist. Professor Ora-Ong Chakorn for
Theory and Practice in Translation, and, again, Assist. Professor Jirapa Abhakorn for
Listening and Speaking in Workplaces, and English for Academic Professions. I am
eternally grateful and proud to be their students.
I also would like to thank Dr. Narathip Thumwongsa for teaching me a practical 3-
hour course in information retrieval technique of searching the internet, which proved
helpful in doing this research.
Indeed, I would not have been able to complete this paper without the help of students
who filled in the questionnaires and did the interviews. I am in their debts.
Furthermore, I would like to thank Ajarn Andrew James West for proofreading this
paper, providing the clear language of a native English speaker.
Finally, my special thanks go to my family for their support and understanding so that
I could concentrate on my study.
Praphat Sirivongrangsan
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF TABLES VII
LIST OF FIGURES VIII
LIST OF ACRONYMS IX
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Research Background 1
1.2 Rationale of Research 2
1.3 Research Objective 2
1.4 Significance of the Research 3
1.5 Scope of the Study 3
1.6 Research Hypothesis 4
1.7 Organization of the Research 4
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 5
2.1 Introduction 5
2.2 Background of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) and Learning
Styles 5
2.3 Definition of Learning Styles 6
2.4 Classifications of Learning Styles 6
2.5 Review of Previous Research 9
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 11
3.1 Introduction 11
3.2 Research Questions 11
3.3 Research Method 11
3.4 Participants 12
vi
3.5 Procedure for Developing Instruments 12
3.6 Procedures for Scoring and Analyzing 13
3.7 Validity and Reliability of the Research 14
CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS 16
4.1 Introduction 16
4.2 Quantitative Results 16
4.3 Qualitative Results 23
CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION 25
5.1 Introduction 25
5.2 Discussion of Research Question 1 25
5.3 Discussion on Research Question 2 26
5.4 Discussion on the Third Research Question 27
5.5 Discussion of the Hypothesis 27
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS 29
BIBLIOGRAPHY 31
APPENDICES 34
Appendix A: Questionnaire 34
Appendix B: Interview Questions 36
Appendix C: Data from the Questionnaire 37
Appendix D: Data Analysis 52
Appendix E: Interview Transcript 54
Appendix F: Table of Chi-Square Probabilities 58
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Tables Page
1 Mean of Four Dimensions 16
2 Distribution of Students’ Learning Styles 17
3 Chi-Square on Learning Styles and Academic Achievement 18
4 Chi-Square on Learning Styles and Gender 19
5 Chi-Square on Learning Styles and Age 20
6 Chi-Square on Learning Styles and Fields of Study 21
7 Chi-Square on Learning Styles and Occupation 22
8 Ranking the Chi-Square Values among the Findings 23
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figures Page
1 A Four-Stage Hypothetical Learning Cycle 8
2 The Learning Style Grid on Fields of Study 10
3 Learning Style Type Grid by Kolb (1976) 17
ix
LIST OF ACRONYMS
AC Abstract Conceptualization
ACC Accommodating
AE Active Experimentation
AEC Asean Economic Community
ASS Assimilating
C Converging
CE Concrete Experience
D Diverging
df Degree of Freedom in Chi-Square
ELM Experiential Learning Model
EPD English for Professional Development
GPA Grade Point Average
KLSI Kolb Learning Style Inventory
L2 Second Language
LSI Learning Style Inventory
NIDA National Institute of Development Administration
p Possibility in Chi-Square
RO Reflective Observation
SLA Second Language Acquisition
1
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Research Background
It is commonly known that only a comparatively few adult second language (L2)
learners can attain a native speaker level, and that not all child L2 beginners will be
equally successful in the long term (Hulstijin, 2007). For several decades, researchers have
tried to explain these learning phenomena by investigating a wide range of factors
including mental and physical mechanisms in the brain/mind. One of the major questions
raised by researchers concerns how learning styles affect outcomes in second language
acquisition (SLA). Learning styles closely relates to SLA due to the fact they are
phenomena of mind. Learning styles are an individual’s natural, habitual, and preferred
ways of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills (Reid, 1995). In
the early 70s, scholars began to explore influential factors from different academic
backgrounds in order to explain the fundamental issues in SLA. During the past three
decades, linguists, psychologists, and educationalists have identified 21 models of learning
styles in relation to L2 learning (Reid, 1995). The conclusion, thus far, have led to further
questions with respect to the relative weight of various socio-psychological factors (e.g.
learning context, quantity and quality of input; and leaner attributes, e.g., attitudes,
motivation, aptitude) (Hulstijn, 2007). Researchers have explored this vast area of study,
raising the importance of this field of study. However, only few publications are available
in the literatures that discuss learning styles with reference to academic achievement of L2
learners in Master’s Degree programs in Thailand. In this paper, the researcher studies the
learning styles of students enrolled in the Master of Arts Degree in English for
Professional Development (EPD) courses at National Institute of Development
Administration (NIDA). The study focusses on Kolb’s Learning Styles Inventory (KLSI)
as a research instrument, and the relationships of learning styles and students’ academic
performances. Also, the researcher studies the relationship between learning styles and the
environmental factors such as age, gender, field of study, and occupation of the subjects.
2
1.2 Rationale of Research
The Graduate School of Language and Communication at NIDA offers a Master’s
Degree in EPD to develop the English communication proficiency of the Thai community
in preparation to meet the challenges resulted from Thailand’s imminent integration as
part of the Asean Economic Community (AEC) in 2015. This program consists of many
intermediate to advanced courses in listening, speaking, reading, and writing to develop
students’ English proficiency. These comprehensive courses are useful for career
development and, as a result, attract people in large numbers from the Thai community.
Students with different backgrounds apply for the courses. The students are differed in
their English proficiency level, gender, age, field of study, and occupation and despite the
school administering an admission exam, there remains a high level of withdraws , with
ten out of every forty-four students leaving the school after only the first term. Therefore,
it is a challenge for both educators and students to find an effective means to improve the
situation other than simply screening out the lower-achieving students. One-way to
approach the problem is to rely on teaching methods and classroom activities that build
optimal teaching and learning performance. To implement an effective approach, the
learning styles of students need to be determined so that educational and research tools
and strategies can be designed.
Among the numerous theories of learning, David A. Kolb (1971) developed a theory
of experimental learning that proved useful in many areas including educational strategies
and career development. In this theory, Kolb created the learning style inventory (LSI) as
a tool to classify students’ learning styles. From that time, Kolb’s LSI (KLSI) emerged as
the essential instrument in many academic fields as it helped determine the uniqueness,
complexity, and variability of individual approaches to learning (Kolb & Kolb, 2005: 8).
1.3 Research Objective
This study aims to understand the relationship between learning styles and SLA by
looking at academic achievement. It also investigates the influence of gender, age, field of
study, and occupation on learning styles. To be more specific, this research adopts the
following objectives:
1.3.1 To determine the characteristics of learning styles among the students in two
3
EPD classes.
1.3.2 To examine if there were the correlations between learning styles and their
academic achievement, gender, age, field of study, and occupation among the students in
two EPD classes.
1.3.3 To understand the perceptions of a few selected students from the two EPD
classes concerning their learning styles.
1.4 Significance of the Research
The literature concerning learning styles indicates that some individuals demonstrate
a quick learning absorption of subject matter when the pedagogical approach utilized in
instruction caters to the students’ learning style inclination (Felder & Silverman, 1988;
Garcia, Schiaffino & Amandi, 2008; Honey & Mumford, 1992; Kolb, 1984; Litzinger &
Osif, 1993). This current research may be useful in that it could achieve the following
outcomes:
1. The finding of this research would improve the understanding of experimental
learning theory, linked to practice in the classroom, resulting in an improved
overall academic performance among EPD students.
2. Entrance examiners may select EPD students due to a better understanding of
individuals through looking into the backgrounds, saving resources and
disappointments of those who had been admitted inappropriately.
3. This paper highlights areas for future research on SLA in particular in the area of
dynamic interactions between teachers and students.
1.5 Scope of the Study
This research uses KLSI to determine learning styles of 50 students from two NIDA
EPD classes. The study uses a statistical quantitative approach to determine the
relationships of students’ learning styles and academic performance. In addition, it
investigates the correlation of students’ learning styles compared to gender, age, field of
study, and occupation. This paper classifies subjects by gender; classifies subjects into
four categories of age 20-30, 31-40, 41-50, and 51-60; classifies subjects by field of study
into language, education, service, and others; and classifies subjects by occupation into
language, education, science, and others.
4
1.6 Research Hypothesis
The hypotheses formulated for the study are as follows:
1. The students in the two EPD classes have the characteristics of learning styles
fairly distributed among all learning types.
2. The learning styles of the students in these classes correspond to the fields of
study as suggested by Kolb’s learning style grid on Fields of Study.
3. There are correlations between the EPD students’ learning styles and their
academic achievement, gender, age, field of study, and occupation.
1.7 Organization of the Research
This paper is organized into six chapters. After this introduction, Chapter 2 examines
the extent literature addressing the research questions of this thesis. It also provides the
theoretical concepts of the fields required to support the arguments presented in this paper.
This paper, then, reviews the work of previous researchers in order to identify a gap in the
research raises and justifies the research questions in the next chapter.
Chapter 3 portrays the research methodology adopted in the study. Following
introductory statements giving an overview of the chapter, research questions are
established based on the research objective. In turn, the reasoning for the adoption of a
mixed method, including both quantitative and qualitative approaches, is discussed.
Subsequently, details of participants, procedure for developing instruments, and procedure
for scoring and analyzing the data are discussed to corroborate the designed process.
Significantly, issues of reliability and validity are provided at the end of this chapter.
Chapter 4 concludes the findings from an analysis of the research data based on the
use of both quantitative and qualitative research techniques.
Chapter 5 includes a detailed interpretation of the findings in relation to both
research questions and previous relevant research findings.
In the final chapter, Chapter 6, a summarization of the study with a focus on key
findings draws the conclusion of this study. This chapter ends with an outline of this
study’s limitations and suggestions for further research.
5
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This literature review contained five sections. After the introduction, section 2.2
provides background of SLA related to learning styles. The third section defines learning
styles as related to SLA. Next, in section four learning styles are divided into four types
according to KLSI. The fifth and final section focuses on previous studies on SLA, KLSI,
and factors affecting them.
2.2 Background of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) and Learning
Styles
SLA represents all languages that learners learn after their first or native language. In
general, it refers to the scientific discipline devoted to studying the process of acquiring a
second language. In the past two decades, with the collaboration of many researchers in
the fields of linguistics, psychology, and education, researchers in SLA have shifted the
view of transferring knowledge from the traditional way of “How to Teach” to a new way
of “How to Learn”. This “How to Learn” method focused on factors related to learners
themselves. Learning styles became the emphasis for researchers in SLA. Students and
educators in SLA needed to know the learning styles of students in order to implement
effective learning and teaching strategies. This study explores the learning styles of
students from different backgrounds so that strategies were implemented with a proper
awareness of factors affecting the learning outcomes. Moreover, Saengboon (2013)
concluded that the success of learning among L2 students was not based on the teachers
themselves; rather it was based on the learners and the learning process. This conclusion
strengthened the view that learning strategies and styles were important factors in
students’ academic success. Similarly, students were more inclined to use social and
practical learning strategies. The learners and the learning process, then, became the
central issue among L2 learners as it would benefit them and to add practical learning
environment and their learning process (Suwanarak, 2012).
Many studies on L2 learning have found out that social and practical classroom
activities were important to students’ learning process. For instant, Abhakorn (2004)
concluded that the students in a MBA program at NIDA preferred Extraversion, Sensing,
6
Thinking, and Judging to Introversion, Intuitive, Feeling, and Perceiving. She also urged
that language learners were diverse in learning styles and that the social and practical
types of learning activities contributed to the learning success.
2.3 Definition of Learning Styles
Learning styles are characteristics of individuals related to how they perceive and
process information, and represent unintentional or automatic responses. Learning styles
are related to all types of learning including the acquisition of English as a second
language. Learning styles promote learning strategies in the achievement of L2 learning in
the classroom (Suwanarak, 2012: 3). Learning strategies are actions chosen by students to
facilitate learning to achieve the best possible learning outcome. Students need to know
their own learning styles in order to choose effectively their learning strategies. In fact, the
difference between learning styles and learning strategies was the level of intentionality
and awareness (Spolsky quoted in Bailey, 2000:116-117). Furthermore, Bailey (2000:115)
stated that recent research in the field of L2 acquisition have increasingly examined a
multitude of variables affecting foreign language achievement. Moreover, the study of
learning styles and the SLA had become an increasingly interesting subject as many
students appeared to have difficulty adapting their cognitive set to study foreign
languages, and understanding of their learning styles appeared to play an important role in
finding a solution to this problem.
2.4 Classifications of Learning Styles
Many scholars have simplified and categorized individual approaches to learning
over the last five decades, from Field-dependence / independence by Witkin (1962) to
SPQ by Biggs, Kember, & Leung (2001). In total, scholars offered as many as 23 models
with eight different disciplinary aspects (Cassidy, 2004). For example, Keefe proposed
that learning styles were cognitive, affective, and physiological traits that were relatively
stable indications of how learners perceived, interacted with, and responded to the
learning environment (Keefe, 1979: 4, quoted in Eliason, 1989). In addition, Reid (1995:
14) classified learning styles into Sensory, Cognitive, and Temperament. Each
classification consisted of two to four different types of learning styles. The three most
7
prominent styles were Kolb Experiential Learning Model (ELM) in Cognitive, Perceptual
Learning Styles in Sensory, and Myers-Briggs Temperament Styles in Temperament. Due
to a limitation of time, this paper uses Kolb ELM as a method of classification.
Kolb (1976) defined ELM based on his theory of experiential learning to assess
individual learning style. This concept was based upon three previous works: the
developmental studies by Piaget, experiential learning by Dewey, dialectical tension by
Lewin, and ideas of types and nonpreferred modes of learning by Jung (Koob & Funk
2002:294). Later, Kolb (1984) described learning as the process of transforming
experience into knowledge, having four dimensions: (1) affective (sensing, feeling), (2)
perceptual (skills of observation), (3) symbolic (cognitive, thinking skills), and (4)
behavioral (doing).
Based on these four dimensions, Kolb developed four learning abilities: (1) affective
into Concrete Experience (CE) (feeling), (2) perceptual into Reflective Observation (RO)
(reflection, watching), (3) symbolic into Abstract Conceptualization (AC) (abstractness,
thinking), (4) behavioral into Active Experimentation (AE) (action, doing). Learners
choose between two polar opposites: (1) AC to CE, and (2) AE to RO, as shown in figure
1. The first polar opposite AC to CE represented prehension or perceiving (the vertical
axis) – the grasping of information from experience. The second polar opposite AE to RO
represented transformation or processing (the horizontal axis) – the process of grasped
information.
The two polar opposites formed a four quadrant of learning models: accommodating,
diverging, converging, and assimilating, with each representing a prevalent learning style.
Moreover, they formed a four-stage learning circle, starting from the top and moving in
clockwise direction. From the top, people started the four-stage circle by having a concrete
experience. Then they observed and reflected upon it from different perspectives. After the
reflection, they formed concepts, generalizations, and theories in their mind. Finally, they
tested their understanding of abstracts in a tangible way of doing through complex
situations. Again, if the tested theory failed, they began the first stage of the circle by
learning from failure, experiencing a new problem at hand.
Figure 1 A Four-Stage Hypothetical Learning Cycle
(Adapted from Litzinger & Osif, 1992: 79)
8
Kolb (1984) characterizes learning styles into the following four basic types based
on both research and clinical observation of the patterns on LSI scores.
Divergers, the imaginative learner, carefully considered observations and
experiences, sought information and pondered all things thoroughly, postponed judgement
until all data was collected, watched, and listened to before yielding an opinion. In the
classroom situation, Divergers preferred working in groups, listening with an open mind,
and receiving personal feedback (Francis, Mulder & Stark, 1995).
Assimilator, the analytic learner, moves gradually toward problems, pulls together
raw facts into coherent theories, seeks perfection, and is bored by flippancy and
uninformed decision-making. Concerning classroom activities, Assimilators rely on
readings, lectures followed by a demonstration, exploring a subject in a lab with analytical
models, and thinking things through (Litzinger & Osif, 1992).
Converger, the precision learner, acts fast with confidence, implements practical
problem-solving and decision-making ideas, and considers problems as a way to success.
For learning in the class, Converger prefers experiencing with new ideas, running
simulations, laboratory testing, and practical application. (Kolb, 1993)
Accommodator, the dynamic learner, acts first, considers the consequences later,
focuses on the present, tries anything once, tackles problems by brainstorming, thrives on
9
challenges, and dislikes implementation. In formal learning situations, Accommodator
prefers working with others to complete assignments, setting goals, performing fieldwork,
and testing different approaches to completing a project. They also tend to solve problem
in an intuitive trial and error method relying on other people for information (Kolb, 1993).
2.5 Review of Previous Research
This study aims to study the relationship between learning styles and academic
achievement and investigate the effects of gender, age, field of study, and occupation on
the academic achievement of EPD students at NIDA. To begin with, the author used key
words such as “Learning Theory” to search for research and this approach yielded a large
number of previous studies. The author next used the key words “Learning Style” to
narrow down the topic, and produced large volumes of articles and research papers.
Moreover, Kolb’s Learning Styles Inventory was well represented in this genre of
Learning Styles since the mid-1970s as a test instrument. Therefore, numerous articles
discussed in detail the validity and reliability of this test instruments. During the past
decade, the trend of study had shifted from Learning Styles to Learning Strategies
particularly in EFL or ESL. Nevertheless, learning style remained necessary for teaching
in a balanced way according to students’ learning style (Xu, 2011:415).
A large volume of research papers addressed how learning styles is associated with
other factors related to transactions between people and their environment. It was the
prime interest to researchers as they could make use of the learning styles by relating it to
help in difficult situations such as learning a L2. People in the educational specialization
tended to instill a positive attitude sets of learning styles as suggested in figure 2 (Kolb,
1976). For example, people specializing in the arts, history, political science, English, and
psychology tended to prefer the Diverging learning style, while those concentrating on
more abstract and applied sciences such as engineering and medicine employed the
Converging learning style. Furthermore, people with academic background in education,
communications, and nursing adhered to the Accommodating learning style, and those
with a major in mathematics and physical science adhered to the Assimilating style (Kolb
and Kolb, 2005: 6).
10
Figure 2 The Learning Style Grid on Fields of Study
(Adapted from Kolb, 1976)
In the like manner, people with professional careers developed a preference for a
particular learning style. People in social services and art careers preferred Diverging
learning style; those in the sciences and information, or research had people with an
Assimilating learning style; the Converging learning style tends to be dominant among
professionals in technology and applied science such as medicine and engineering; and
finally, people with careers in sales, social service, and education learnt most using the
Accommodating learning style (Kolb & Kolb, 2005: 36-43).
11
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
Due to the limitation associated with most research methods and complexity of
classroom learning, a mixed method approach was adopted to data collection to strengthen
the quality of this research. The mixed methods technique represented the most
appropriate approach for this project because the qualitative approach would complement
the quantitative approach, adding to the elaboration, enhancement, illustration, and
clarification of the results. This study employed a quantitative questionnaire and a
qualitative interview to collect data.
3.2 Research Questions
Based on the designed research objective, this study will answer the following
questions:
3.2.1 What are the characteristics of learning styles according to David Kolb’s
learning styles model (1984) among EPD students at NIDA?
3.2.2 How the learning styles of the samples corresponded with the findings in the
KLSI (1984) model?
3.2.3 Are there correlations between the students’ learning styles and their academic
achievement, gender, age, field of study, and occupation?
3.3 Research Method
The mixed method approach consisted of both the quantitative and qualitative parts.
Both parts attempted to answer the same research questions. While the quantitative
approach aimed to gather data for the findings, the qualitative approach was intended to
understand the opinions of selected samples. No generalizations were made based on the
qualitative data. The mixed methodology has been used in this research, as it is the most
suitable technique to examine the learning styles and factors affecting academic
performance. The key issue in using mixed methods is to cover both the characteristics of
the research purpose and to understand the point of view of the students studied.
12
Quantitative Method
A quantitative approach is used as it is convenient and time saving to answer the
research question in general, describing characteristics of students in relation to the
research purpose. After knowing the scores of the questionnaire, students are divided into
four groups according to each learning style. The author used basic statistics such as mean
and percentage to determine the characteristics of students’ learning styles. In the findings
(Chapter 4), the author selected chi-square to determine the correlations between learning
styles and others factors as it showed the degrees of significant differences between
observed and expected frequencies. Educators could pay attention to the items with
relatively larger degrees of chi-square.
Qualitative Method
Selected students have been interviewed in order to gain an insight into the attitudes
and awareness of their learning styles in relation to factors affecting academic
performance.
3.4 Participants
The respondents consisted of 50 students from the entire EPD2 and EPD3 classes.
The samples from the population and the numbers of samples gave adequate statistical
reliability to find modest or strong relationships among the variables in this study. The
interviews were conducted in a semi-structured and informal manner. The researcher
selected two samples from the top GPA students and another two samples at random.
They were asked the open-ended questions provided in Appendix B. The purpose of the
interview is to discover whether the answers from the interview were consistent with the
answers obtained from the questionnaire.
3.5 Procedure for Developing Instruments
Questionnaires consisted of nine multiple-choice questions adapted from Kolb
(1976, 1984) to determine the learning style of the individual samples as shown in
Appendix A. Each question had four options. Students were requested to assign a score
from 4 to 1 to each expression, starting from the most likely to the least likely. For
instance, the expression in one of the questions was “I am open to new experiences.” and
13
the respondent was asked to rank the four learning styles from 4 to 1, to the extent that
each learning style applied to him or her. The scoring system was based on ranking in
which no score could be repeated twice on the same row. In other words, each expression
on the same row was dependent on the others in terms of ranking. Next, the fill-in the
blanks section was provided for other information: name, phone number, age, GPA,
gender, field of study, and occupation. Each of the other information was divided into four
categories, except gender, for analysis as shown in the tables in the next chapter. These
tables are ordered in four categories following the pattern provided by EPD grading
system of academic performance. In addition, by using the same pattern the calculation in
the Excel of the value of the chi-square of the tables is facilitated.
For the interview, the author used the semi-structured form, providing opportunities
to interact with the participants and to collect informative data. Since the author was a
classmate and friend of the respondents, the author was aware of possible bias during the
interview. The interviews questions were limited to 10 items in order to concentrate on
important issues. Some items of the same nature had two questions to cover all aspects.
The multiple questions, leading questions, and yes-or-no questions were avoided to
eliminate confession and bias. Four types of questions suggested by Strauss, Schatzman,
Bucher, and Sabshin (1981) were used in the interview such as: Devil’s advocate question
in item no. 1, hypothetical question in item no.10, ideal position question in item no. 2,
and interpretive question in item no. 4. Other types of questions suggested by Patton
(2002) were also used in the interview, such as the feeling question in item no. 6, sensory
question in item no. 9, and opinion and value question in item no. 8.
3.6 Procedures for Scoring and Analyzing
The questionnaires were distributed on May 17, 2014. The author explained the
purpose, the definition, the methods for answering the questionnaire, and the ethical aspect
of maintaining the privacy of the respondents. This questionnaire was designed to explore
the way students preferred to learn English. There were no right or wrong answers. The
purpose of the inventory was to describe the style in which students preferred to learn
English most often, not the style students were permanently locked into, and not how
effectively students learn. Students read the four statements in column A, B, C, and D in
each row and decide to give scores to them according to his/her preferences. The score ran
14
from 1-4 according to the following meaning: 4 = Best describes you, 3 = Second Best, 2
= The Third best, and 1=Least describes you. The students were reminded to apply a
different ranking number to each choice in a row. Finally, the questionnaires were
collected for data analysis.
For the analysis, Excel was the only software used because it was capable of
performing most of the common forms of statistical analysis for a quantitative research
project (Arthur, Waring, Coe, & Hedges, 2012: 261). First, simple statistical functions
such as mean and percentage were used to determine characteristics of learning styles. To
determine the complicated parts, chi-square was used, to discover if there was a
correlation between any sets of categories. For example, one category was the four types
of learning styles and another category was the students’ academic achievement. Chi-
square was selected because it was easy to access, being readily available as a function in
Excel, and could be shown explicitly step-by-step in tables, and was known to find
correlation between two sets of categories, fitting the analytical patterns (Introduction to
SAS, 2006). The calculation of chi-square involved the concept of probability represented
by the “p” values as provided throughout Chapter 4, and a test of independence describing
the likelihood of the results being the product of chance (Sealey, 2010: 39).
In the chi-square process, the data was organized into sets of categories, each set
displayed as frequencies and not in percentages, more than 20% of the cells being larger
than five cases, and the data at random representing the population of interests (Wrench,
Thomas-Maddox, Richmond, & McCroskey, 2008: 313). Calculation of chi-square using
excel are shown in tables throughout Chapter 4.
3.7 Validity and Reliability of the Research
The researcher carefully selected the 44 out of 52 questionnaires distributed to two
EPD classes and used a p-value of p = 0.05 with the degrees of freedom of df = 16 in chi-
square test. The questionnaire adopted from Kolb (1981) and McCarthy (1987) was LSI
3.1, a modified LSI 3 that included new normative data that had new norms relying on a
larger, more diverse and representative sample of 6,977 LSI users. Results from seven
different studies of the LSI 3.1 suggest that the scales show good internal consistency
reliability across a number of different populations. In several studies, test-retest
correlation coefficients range from moderate to excellent (McCarthy, 2010: 134).
15
The interview questions were adopted from the questionnaire that was to be
conducted in an informal, semi-structure manner. A recording device was used throughout
the interview. The interviews were used to strengthen the validity of this research. Three
experts, each one with 10-30 years of teaching experience in the fields of English
language, accounting, and marketing, reviewed the interview questions and approved for
the validity. The recording device recorded all interviews for transcription. Finally, the
interviewees approved all transcripts for accuracy.
16
CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS
4.1 Introduction
The findings were divided into two parts – quantitative and qualitative results.
These two parts are treated separately in this chapter and related to each other in the next
chapter.
4.2 Quantitative Results
The quantitative results were divided into five parts to answer the research questions
given in chapter 3.2.
4.2.1 Distribution of Students’ Learning Styles
First, table 1 and figure 3 show that the mean value of the dimension perception in
the vertical axis for AC-CE was -2.75 and the mean value of the dimension processing in
the horizontal axis for AE-RO was 3.61. The mean of the perceiving vertical axis was
nearer to the top, and it was nearer to the left side of the processing horizontal axis. As the
result, the learning style of most students was Accommodating. The calculation of mean is
provided in Appendix D.
Table 1 Mean of Four Dimensions
Score of all
students
No. of students Mean
CE 728 44 16.54545455
RO 581 44 13.20454545
AC 607 44 13.79545455
AE 740 44 16.81818182
AC-CE -2.75
AE-RO 3.613636364
17
Figure 3 Learning Style Type Grid by Kolb (1976)
Distribution of students’ English learning styles preferences is given in Table 2. The
result shows that the majority of EPD students at NIDA preferred the Accommodating
style (59.09%).
Table 2 Distribution of Students’ Learning Styles
Learning Styles Frequency Percentage
Diverging (D) 15 34.09%
Assimilating (ASS) 1 2.27%
Converging (C) 2 4.55%
Accommodating (ACC) 26 59.09%
Total 44 100.00%
AE-RO = 3.61,
AC-CE = -2.75
18
4.2.2 Correlation between EPD Students’ Learning Styles and Their Academic
Achievement
Student achievement had been divided into four groups according to their GPA
namely excellent (3.80-4.00), very good (3.40-3.79), fairly good (3.00-3.39), and others
(2.99 or below). Chi-square critical value = CHISQ.INV(0.05,9) = 3.325112843, p = .05,
df = 9. Table 3 below shows the chi-square value = 14.37884. Because the chi-square
value was much higher than the chi-square critical value, it can be concluded that there
were correlations between the learning styles and the academic achievement among the
EPD students.
Table 3 Chi-square on Learning Styles and Academic Achievement
OBSERVED
Diverging Assimilating Converging Accommodating TOTAL
Excellent 1 1 0 0 2
V. Good 3 1 0 7 11
F. Good 8 0 2 12 22
Others 2 0 1 6 9
TOTAL 14 2 3 25 44
EXPECTED
Diverging Assimilating Converging Accommodating TOTAL
Excellent 0.636364 0.090909 0.136364 1.136364 2
V. Good 3.5 0.5 0.75 6.25 11
F. Good 7 1 1.5 12.5 22
Others 2.863636 0.409091 0.613636 5.113636 9
TOTAL 14 2 3 25 44
OBSERVED - EXPECTED
Diverging Assimilating Converging Accommodating TOTAL
Excellent 0.363636 0.909091 -0.13636 -1.13636
V. Good -0.5 0.5 -0.75 0.75
F. Good 1 -1 0.5 -0.5
Others -0.86364 -0.40909 0.386364 0.886364
TOTAL
(OBSERVED - EXPECTED)^2 / EXPECTED
Diverging Assimilating Converging Accommodating TOTAL
Excellent 0.207792 9.090909 0.136364 1.136364 10.57143
V. Good 0.071429 0.5 0.75 0.09 1.411429
F. Good 0.142857 1 0.166667 0.02 1.329524
Others 0.260462 0.409091 0.243266 0.153636 1.066455
TOTAL 0.68254 11 1.296296 1.4 14.37884
19
4.2.3 Correlation between EPD Students’ Learning Styles and Their Gender
Students had been divided into four groups according to their gender – male and
female. Chi-square critical value = CHISQ.INV(0.05,3) = 0.351846318, p = .05, df = 3.
From table 4 below, the chi-square value = 0.883223. Because the chi-square value was
higher than the chi-square critical value, it can be concluded that there were correlations
between the learning styles and gender among the EPD students.
EXPECTED
Diverging
(D)
Assimilating
(ASS)
Converging
(C)
Accommodating
(ACC) TOTAL
Male 3.068182 0.204545 0.409091 5.318182 9
Female 11.93182 0.795455 1.590909 20.68182 35
TOTAL 15 1 2 26 44
OBSERVED - EXPECTED
Diverging
(D)
Assimilating
(ASS)
Converging
(C)
Accommodating
(ACC) TOTAL
Male -0.06818 -0.20455 -0.40909 0.681818
Female 0.068182 0.204545 0.409091 -0.68182
TOTAL
(OBSERVED - EXPECTED)^2 / EXPECTED
Diverging
(D)
Assimilating
(ASS)
Converging
(C)
Accommodating
(ACC) TOTAL
Male 0.001515 0.204545 0.409091 0.087413 0.702564
Female 0.00039 0.052597 0.105195 0.022478 0.180659
TOTAL 0.001905 0.257143 0.514286 0.10989 0.883223
Table 4 Chi-square on Learning Styles and Gender
OBSERVED
Diverging
(D)
Assimilating
(ASS)
Converging
(C)
Accommodating
(ACC) TOTAL
Male 3 0 0 6 9
Female 12 1 2 20 35
TOTAL 15 1 2 26 44
20
4.2.4 Correlation between EPD Students’ Learning Styles and Their Age
Students had been divided into four groups according to their age namely senior (51
or above), upper-middle (40-50), lower-middle (30-39), and junior (29 or below). Chi-
square critical value = CHISQ.INV(0.05,9) = 3.325112843, p = .05, df = 9. From table 5
below, chi-square value = 39.13854. Because the chi-square value was much higher than
the chi-square critical value, it can be concluded that there were correlations between the
learning styles and ages among the EPD students.
Table 5 Chi-square on Learning Styles and Age
OBSERVED
Diverging Assimilating Converging Accommodating TOTAL
Senior 1 0 0 1 2
Up-Mid 1 0 0 5 6
Low-Mid 6 0 2 9 17
Junior 7 1 0 10 18
TOTAL 15 1 2 25 43
EXPECTED
Diverging Assimilating Converging Accommodating TOTAL
Senior 0.697674 0.046512 0.093023 1.162791 2
Up-Mid 2.093023 0.139535 0.27907 3.488372 6
Low-Mid 5.930233 0.395349 0.790698 9.883721 17
Junior 6.27907 0.418605 0.837209 10.46512 18
TOTAL 15 1 2 25 43
OBSERVED - EXPECTED
Diverging Assimilating Converging Accommodating TOTAL
Senior 0.302326 0.953488 -0.09302 -1.16279
Up-Mid 0.906977 0.860465 -0.27907 3.511628
Low-Mid 2.069767 -0.39535 1.209302 2.116279
Junior -4.27907 -0.4186 0.162791 -4.46512
TOTAL
(OBSERVED - EXPECTED)^2 / EXPECTED
Diverging Assimilating Converging Accommodating TOTAL
Senior 0.131008 19.54651 0.093023 1.162791 20.93333
Up-Mid 0.393023 5.306202 0.27907 3.535039 9.513333
Low-Mid 0.722389 0.395349 1.849521 0.453133 3.420392
Junior 2.916107 0.418605 0.031654 1.905116 5.271481
TOTAL 4.162527 25.66667 2.253268 7.056078 39.13854
21
4.2.5 Correlation between EPD Students’ Learning Styles and Their Fields of Study
Students had been divided into four groups according to their fields of study –
language, education, science, and others. Chi-square critical value = CHISQ.INV(0.05,9)
= 3.325112843, p = .05, df = 9 From table 6 below, chi-square value = 7.642987964.
Because the chi-square value was much higher than the chi-square critical value, it can be
concluded that there were correlations between the learning styles and fields of study
among the EPD students.
Table 6 Chi-square on Learning Styles and Fields of Study
OBSERVED
Diverging Assimilating Converging Accommodating TOTAL
Language 9 1 2 9 21
Education 0 0 0 2 2
Science 3 0 0 3 6
Others 1 0 0 7 8
TOTAL 13 1 2 21 37
EXPECTED
Diverging Assimilating Converging Accommodating TOTAL
Language 7.378378 0.567568 1.135135 11.91892 21
Education 0.702703 0.054054 0.108108 1.135135 2
Science 2.108108 0.162162 0.324324 3.405405 6
Others 2.810811 0.216216 0.432432 4.540541 8
TOTAL 13 1 2 21 37
OBSERVED - EXPECTED
Diverging Assimilating Converging Accommodating TOTAL
Language 1.621622 0.432432 0.864865 -2.91892
Education -0.7027 -0.05405 -0.10811 0.864865
Science 0.891892 -0.16216 -0.32432 -0.40541
Others -1.81081 -0.21622 -0.43243 2.459459
TOTAL
(OBSERVED - EXPECTED)^2 / EXPECTED
Diverging Assimilating Converging Accommodating TOTAL
Language 0.3564 0.329472 0.658945 0.714837 2.059655
Education 0.702703 0.054054 0.108108 0.658945 1.52381
Science 0.377339 0.162162 0.324324 0.048263 0.912088
Others 1.16658 0.216216 0.432432 1.332207 3.147436
TOTAL 2.603022 0.761905 1.52381 2.754252 7.642988
22
4.2.6 Correlation between EPD Students’ Learning Styles and Their Occupation
Students had been divided into four groups according to their occupation – language,
education, science, and other. Chi-square critical value = CHISQ.INV(0.05,9) =
3.325112843, p = .05, df = 9 From table 7 below, chi-square value = 3.797293588.
Because the chi-square value was a little higher than the chi-square critical value, it can be
concluded that there were correlations between the learning styles and occupation among
EPD students.
Table 7 Chi-square on Learning Styles and Occupation
OBSERVED
Diverging Assimilating Converging Accommodating TOTAL
Language 1 0 0 2 3
Education 1 0 1 6 8
Science 3 0 0 5 8
Others 6 1 1 10 18
TOTAL 11 1 2 23 37
EXPECTED
Diverging Assimilating Converging Accommodating TOTAL
Language 0.891892 0.081081 0.162162 1.864865 3
Education 2.378378 0.216216 0.432432 4.972973 8
Science 2.378378 0.216216 0.432432 4.972973 8
Others 5.351351 0.486486 0.972973 11.18919 18
TOTAL 11 1 2 23 37
OBSERVED - EXPECTED
Diverging Assimilating Converging Accommodating TOTAL
Language 0.108108 -0.08108 -0.16216 0.135135
Education -1.37838 -0.21622 0.567568 1.027027
Science 0.621622 -0.21622 -0.43243 0.027027
Others 0.648649 0.513514 0.027027 -1.18919
TOTAL
(OBSERVED - EXPECTED)^2 / EXPECTED
Diverging Assimilating Converging Accommodating TOTAL
Language 0.013104 0.081081 0.162162 0.009792 0.26614
Education 0.798833 0.216216 0.744932 0.212103 1.972085
Science 0.162469 0.216216 0.432432 0.000147 0.811265
Others 0.078624 0.542042 0.000751 0.126387 0.747804
TOTAL 1.05303 1.055556 1.340278 0.34843 3.797294
23
4.2.7 Comparing the Degrees of Correlation among the Findings
Table 8 Ranking the chi-square Values among the Findings
Chi-square Statistical Value Ranking
Academic Achievement 14.37884 2
Gender 0.883223 n/a (Different df)
Age 39.13854 1
Fields of Study 7.642987964 3
Occupation 3.797293588 4
While the chi-square critical value was equal to 3.325112843 for every finding
except gender, table 8 shows the levels of likelihood that there were statistically
significant differences between observed and expected frequencies. The results suggested
the ranking of the findings in relative degrees of correlation with the learning styles shown
in column 3 of table 8.
The findings of chi-square statistics from table 3-7 also suggested the balance
between observed frequencies – numbers of times students fell into specific category (how
many females and males preferred each of the learning styles), and expected frequencies –
(numbers of times one would expect students to fall into a specific learning style). Further
research could use the chi-square table provided in Appendix F to predict the level of
confidence in correlations of the findings in this study.
4.3 Qualitative Results
The interviews with four students in EPD class gave results consistent with those
results from the questionnaires. One student preferred the Diverging learning styles while
the other three learned mostly by the Accommodating learning style.
Students No.1 was a female aged between 30-39 years old. She earned a GPA of
nearly 4.0 and preferred the Diverging learning style. She preferred concrete experience
and reflective learning that were the characteristic of the Diverging style. She also thought
that group discussion and role play were useful and fun. However, she would prefer more
time to reflect on the experience. She did not think that learning style affected the learning
outcome.
24
Students No.2 was a female in between 30-39 years old. She earned a GPA of 3.9
and preferred the Accommodating learning style. She stated in the interview that she liked
a group discussion most, above play role. She believed that the learning outcome was
affected by the learning style.
Student no. 3 was a female aged below 30. She earned a GPA between 3.40-3.79 and
preferred the Accommodating learning style. She was a concrete and active learner. She
learned by practicing. She liked a systematic way of learning. In addition, she thought that
lecturing alone was boring.
Student no. 4 was a female aged below 30. She earned a GPA of 3.00-3.39 and
preferred Accommodating style. Her interview indicated the same result as the
questionnaire. She liked group discussion more than role-play and was in the
Accommodating quadrant of the matrix. She disliked a long lecture and actively asked
questions in the class.
The interviews indicated that the first student had a learning style different from the
other three students who showed a distinguished preference in classroom activities – the
ability to reflect the information. Student no.1 adapted well to all types of classroom
activities including a long lecture. She welcomed information from listening and, then,
reflected on it to gain knowledge.
The other three students with the Accommodating learning style distanced
themselves from the long lecture of type that characterized the traditional teaching style.
They preferred learning by experience in diverse situations.
The qualitative results were congruent with the quantitative results because as all the
students fell into two only types of learning types – Diverging and Accommodating. In
addition, the majority of students preferred the Accommodating learning style.
25
CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION
5.1 Introduction
This chapter takes the findings of previous chapter and answers the research
questions with reference to previous research studies. Section 5.2 discusses the
characteristics of learning styles. The learning styles of the samples corresponded with the
findings of the previous study by Kolb’s LSI model are discussed in section 5.3. Next,
section 5.4 presents the level of the correlations between the students’ learning styles and
their academic achievement, gender, age, field of study, and occupation. The last section is
the discussion on the hypothesis of this research that may have been unanswered by
previous sections.
5.2 Discussion of Research Question 1
The first research question examined the characteristics of learning styles according
to David Kolb’s learning styles model (1984) among EPD students at NIDA. Although the
subject was large and covered many theoretical concepts including education, psychology,
and language, the data collection was limited in this study to two EPD classes at NIDA.
With this narrow scope in mind, it was difficult to compare the results of this study to
previous research in this field. The author was well aware of this limitation; however, the
study may be significant and prove useful in its application. The findings of this study
may have revealed a phenomenon: that almost entire population of EPD students preferred
only two types of learning styles, that is Accommodating and Diverging. Only three
persons out of 44 samples preferred Assimilating and Converging. In fact, this finding was
no surprise in terms of identification of preference as the results agreed with the previous
studies as described in section 2.5. Should the results point in another direction, the
discussion part would be complicated and probably provide no immediate usefulness.
Although the overwhelming nature of preferences looked doubtful, it did not hinder the
usefulness concerning the finding’s application. To this end, scholars and students could
use this finding to help plan for strategic implementation of learning and studying.
26
5.3 Discussion on Research Question 2
The second research question compared the findings with the previous research by
Kolb (1971, 1984). First, Kolb did not intent to reveal how people fall into the categories
because the classifications did not exist at that time. When Kolb started his project, it was
much more problematic than other academic projects due to the fact that he was trying to
formulate a theoretical concept. He surveyed thousands of samples from a diversity of
populations across vast areas to determine patterns of similarity. The outcome of the
research was the theoretical concepts based on cognition and experience in psychological
and educational fields. In 1971, he published a text on individual learning styles and
learning process that became one of the most popular reference books across many fields.
When comparing this study to Kolb’s work, any inconsistent findings deserve an
explanation focusing on the inconsistency of the findings. Primarily, while Kolb’s
database covered the general population, this study used a small database that
concentrated on L2 learners at NIDA. The results showed a large discrepancy in that
characteristics of learning styles in this study were extremely concentrated. The author
used original English version of standard questionnaires adapted from Kolb’s to identify
the learning styles in the subject group that were familiar with the English language. The
whole process of data collection and analysis was conducted following standard practices
under supervisions of experts in the field. As the result, deviation caused by the
application of non-standard survey technique can be ruled out. The samples in the survey
share the similarities in terms of society, culture, native language, L2 learner status,
classroom environment, and living in the same area. The combinations of these factors
may affect the samples and cause them to adopt similar learning styles. Moreover, Kolb
developed his questionnaire on a ranking system that it reflected the internal comparison
of preference in the scoring system. In other words, the questionnaire was valid within the
comparison of each question itself and limited the independence of assigning the score
according to level that the participants would prefer to give them.
Finally, Kolb’s LSI was based from the beginning on the learning process on
concrete experience that the learners would learn from the sensory cortex of the brain,
observing the environment around them (Zull 2002: 18-19). In case of the EPD students,
they had a short span of time to process the learning that they experienced, which was the
same learning environment in the same classroom. They did not have enough time to
reflect on the way they learned and move to the next level of learning process. Many
27
students tried to grasp the knowledge as best they could to pass the intensive learning
while concurrently working for a living. The subjects all fit into the same competitive
mold of learning which may result in them also falling into the same category of learning
styles.
5.4 Discussion on the Third Research Question
The third research question investigated the correlations of the factors affecting the
learning styles. Primarily, the results showed that all individual factors have chi-square
values higher than the chi-square critical values. As the result, there are correlations
between these factors and the learning styles.
5.5 Discussion of the Hypothesis
The three hypotheses are the reflections of the research questions that aim to answer
the research objective of this study. This section discusses the hypothesis itself, avoiding a
repetitive discussion of subjects covered above. To begin with, the hypotheses in this
paper utilize the advantage of One-Tail Hypotheses in that they predict the specific nature
of the relationship or difference by making positively predictive statements. However,
many scholars argue that researchers should observe the Two-Tailed Hypotheses that does
not predict the specific nature of the difference or relationship. According to the consensus
of scientific community, researchers should assume that the null hypothesis is true until
the results show support to the contrary (Wrench et al., 2008: 91). Fisher (1935) urges that
researchers can never really prove anything as true using statistics; however, researchers
can use statistics to prove that something is false. Imagine a researcher observed 10,000
swans that were white and then made the statement, “every swan was white”. In the null
hypothesis, all the researcher had to do was to find a swan that was not white to disprove
the statement “every swan was white.” Based on this argument, it has been accepted as a
common practice to make a null hypothesis so that the researchers can prove that the null
hypothesis is false. Yet, this paper uses One-Tailed Hypotheses, which is an opposing
view held by much of the scientific community, for two reasons. First, this research
narrows down its scope to include only two EPD classes, avoiding the necessity to prove
the hypotheses in general. In addition, the research takes the whole population of the two
EPD classes as the samples, leaving little room for uncertainty. Second, many scholars in
the field of language and communication find it easier to comprehend the positive
28
statement of the One-Tailed Hypotheses. To this end, the purpose of this study is to
provide the educational tool that works and the one-tailed hypothesis provides a
satisfactory proving principle in this research.
29
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS
This study was to investigate the characteristics of learning styles among the EPD
students and to study the correlation between learning styles and background factors. This
study employed a quantitative questionnaire and a qualitative interview. Chi-square was
selected as an instrument to determine the correlations of the quantitative data. For the
interview, the author used a semi-structured format, providing opportunities to interact
with the participants and to collect informative data.
The results showed that the majority of the students preferred Accommodating style
(59.09%) and Diverging style (34.09%). Only three persons out of 44 samples preferred
Assimilating or Converging. Most students preferred to learn from concrete experience
and they are active learners. They preferred classroom activities such as open-ended
problems, student presentations, design projects, subjective exams, and simulations. They
also like to solve homework problems, conduct computer simulations, enjoy field trips,
making individuals’ reports, and demonstrating what they knew. The finding indicated
that learning styles of EPD students correlated with academic performance, gender, age,
field of study, and occupation. However, the characteristics of the sample indicated a
strong preference to learn from experience regardless of their processing continuum,
having scores distributed primarily above the x-axis.
Although the research was performed in a strict disciplinary fashion; nevertheless,
there are limitations that need mentioning. However, other researchers could develop a
board research plan to address the gap and limitations that occurred in this study. While
small studies can be completed over a short time-frame, there needs to be a balance
between those that can be performed in few months and those that should investigate
issues extensively and hence may take many years to complete. Notably, this research
provides a narrow scope of the large theory to fit the available resources. In fact, it is not a
bad practice to conduct well-designed small-scale studies; they only need to be defined to
justify the content carefully. While small studies can provide results quickly, they do not
typically yield reliable or precise estimates to represent the large picture. Therefore, this
research will not make strong conclusions in its findings, or judge whether the results are
accurate or not. Instead, data from this study should be used to design larger confirmatory
studies. If the aim is to provide reliable evidence to make an important decision, the future
study should be large enough to do so.
In particular, learning style research seems outdated due to the lack of the
30
development of theory for a specific purpose. For the most part, people in the field of L2
learning are adhering to learning theories that have been utilized since many decades ago.
It is clear that learning styles in foreign language learning remains a new topic in Thai
society. Therefore, it will take time to discern the implications for SLA and claim its full
usefulness in the learning of foreign languages. It will require the understanding of and
efforts by scholars, students, and teachers alike. With commitment from all parties,
language learners can learn about learning styles and benefit from teaching that focuses on
the process of learning; teachers can center their teaching on the students and drive
forward the development of the entire field of L2 teaching and learning in Thailand.
31
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34
APPENDICES
Appendix A: Questionnaire
Learning Style Inventory (Kolb, 1981 & McCarthy, 1987) This survey is designed to explore the way you prefer to learn English. There is no right or wrong answer. The purpose of the inventory is to describe the style in which you prefer to learn English most often, not the style you are permanently locked into, and not how effectively you learn. Read the four statements on column A, B, C, and D in each row and decide to give scores to them according to your preferences. 4=Best describes you 3 = Second Best 2 = The Third 1=Least describes you
Be sure to apply different above ranking number to each choice in a row. Do not put the same number in the same row. A B C D 1)When I learn English,
I like to get involved.
I like to take my time before acting.
I am particular about what I like.
I like things to be useful.
Scores 2)When I am learning English,
I like to try things out.
I like to analyze things and break them into parts.
I am open to new experiences.
I like to look at all sides of issues.
Scores 3)When I am learning English,
I like to watch. I like to analyze things and break them into parts.
I am open to new experiences.
I like to think about things.
Scores 4)When I am learning English,
I accept people and situations the way they are.
I like to be aware of what is around me.
I like to evaluate. I like to take risks.
Scores 5)When I am learning English,
I have gut feelings and hunches.
I have a lot of questions.
I am logical. I am hard working and get things done.
Scores 6)When I learn I like concrete I like to be active. I like to observe. I like ideas and
35
English, things, things I can see, feel touch or smell.
theories.
Scores 7)When I learn English,
I prefer learning in the here and now.
I like to consider and reflect about them.
I tend to think about the future.
I like to see the results of my work.
Scores 8)When I learn English,
I have to try things out by myself.
I rely on my own ideas.
I rely on my own observations.
I rely on my feelings.
Scores 9)When I am learning English,
I am quiet and reserved.
I am energetic and enthusiastic.
I tend to reason things out.
I am responsible about things.
Scores
Fill-into the blank or circle the appropriate answers below
Name / Telephone No.
Age 29 or Below 30-39 40-50 >50 GPA EPD Program
2.99 or Below 3.00-3.39 3.40-3.79 3.80-4.00
Gender Male Female xxx Field of Study (I got my B.S. degree in …) Occupation
36
Appendix B: Interview Questions
1. People say that some students have advantage background in taking this EPD class,
what would you response to them?
2. Please explain your ideal of classroom settings and enjoyable activities.
4. How would you find all EPD classes useful? How would this EPD program help you
in your career development?
5. What do you think about the homework exercises? How would you complete your
homework exercises before coming to the class?
6. How do you feel about a role play in the class?
7. What do you think about a long lecture session? Please explain the way you find an
answer to the question in your mind?
8. What do you think about a group work on discussion and presentation?
9. What would you do if you do not understand something from the lecture in the
class?
10. What if you have been asked by a friend who is considering taking the EPD class,
what do your suggest?
37
Appendix C: Data from the Questionnaire
Sample No. 01
CE RO AC AE
1A 1 1B 3 2B 4 2A 1
2C 3 2D 2 3D 1 3C 4
3B 3 3A 2 4C 3 6B 1
4A 2 6C 3 6D 4 7D 4
8D 3 8C 1 8B 2 8A 4
9B 2 9A 4 9C 1 9D 3
TOTAL 14 15 15 17
AC-CE 1 AE-RO 2 Style Diverger
Age R 2 GPA R 4 Gender F
FS Accounting Occup Auditor/Tutor
Sample No. 02
CE RO AC AE
1A 4 1B 1 2B 4 2A 2
2C 3 2D 1 3D 2 3C 4
3B 3 3A 1 4C 2 6B 1
4A 3 6C 4 6D 3 7D 3
8D 2 8C 3 8B 1 8A 4
9B 3 9A 1 9C 2 9D 4
TOTAL 18 11 14 18
AC-CE -4 AE-RO 7 Style Accommodator
Age R 2 GPA R 4 Gender F
FS Library Science Occup Librarian at NGO
Sample No. 03
CE RO AC AE
1A 1 1B 3 2B 3 2A 2
2C 1 2D 4 3D 4 3C 1
3B 2 3A 3 4C 4 6B 3
4A 2 6C 4 6D 2 7D 2
8D 3 8C 2 8B 1 8A 4
9B 4 9A 3 9C 1 9D 2
TOTAL 13 19 15 14
AC-CE 2 AE-RO -5 Style Diverger
Age R 2 GPA R 2 Gender F
FS English Occup English Instructor
38
Sample No. 04
CE RO AC AE
1A 1 1B 2 2B 3 2A 2
2C 4 2D 1 3D 1 3C 4
3B 3 3A 2 4C 3 6B 2
4A 1 6C 1 6D 4 7D 3
8D 4 8C 2 8B 1 8A 3
9B 4 9A 1 9C 3 9D 2
TOTAL 17 9 15 16
AC-CE -2 AE-RO 7 Style Accommodator
Age R 3 GPA R 2 Gender F
FS Occup Human Resource
Sample No. 05
CE RO AC AE
1A 3 1B 2 2B 1 2A 2
2C 3 2D 4 3D 4 3C 3
3B 2 3A 1 4C 1 6B 2
4A 2 6C 1 6D 3 7D 4
8D 1 8C 4 8B 2 8A 3
9B 1 9A 2 9C 3 9D 4
TOTAL 12 14 14 18
AC-CE 2 AE-RO 4 Style Accommodator
Age R 3 GPA R 3 Gender F
FS Political Science Occup Secretary
Sample No. 06
CE RO AC AE
1A 1 1B 3 2B 4 2A 1
2C 3 2D 2 3D 3 3C 2
3B 4 3A 1 4C 2 6B 3
4A 3 6C 1 6D 2 7D 3
8D 1 8C 2 8B 4 8A 3
9B 3 9A 4 9C 2 9D 1
TOTAL 15 13 17 13
AC-CE 2 AE-RO 0 Style Diverger
Age R 4 GPA R 3 Gender M
FS Engineering Occup Production Manager
39
Sample No. 07
CE RO AC AE
1A 1 1B 3 2B 1 2A 4
2C 3 2D 2 3D 3 3C 4
3B 2 3A 1 4C 2 6B 4
4A 3 6C 2 6D 1 7D 2
8D 3 8C 4 8B 2 8A 1
9B 4 9A 1 9C 3 9D 2
TOTAL 16 13 12 17
AC-CE -4 AE-RO 4 Style Accommodator
Age R 1 GPA R 2 Gender M
FS Human Resource Occup Manager
Sample No. 08
CE RO AC AE
1A 3 1B 1 2B 3 2A 2
2C 4 2D 1 3D 1 3C 4
3B 2 3A 3 4C 2 6B 1
4A 4 6C 2 6D 3 7D 2
8D 1 8C 3 8B 2 8A 4
9B 1 9A 4 9C 3 9D 2
TOTAL 15 14 14 15
AC-CE -1 AE-RO 1 Style Diverger
Age R 2 GPA R 1 Gender F
FS English Occup
Sample No. 09
CE RO AC AE
1A 2 1B 4 2B 2 2A 1
2C 4 2D 3 3D 3 3C 4
3B 2 3A 1 4C 2 6B 4
4A 4 6C 2 6D 1 7D 3
8D 2 8C 4 8B 1 8A 3
9B 4 9A 1 9C 2 9D 3
TOTAL 18 15 11 18
AC-CE -7 AE-RO 3 Style Accommodator
Age R 3 GPA R 1 Gender F
FS English Occup Instructor
40
Sample No. 10
CE RO AC AE
1A 3 1B 1 2B 3 2A 1
2C 4 2D 2 3D 1 3C 3
3B 2 3A 4 4C 2 6B 4
4A 3 6C 2 6D 1 7D 3
8D 3 8C 1 8B 2 8A 4
9B 2 9A 1 9C 4 9D 3
TOTAL 17 11 13 18
AC-CE -4 AE-RO 7 Style Accommodator
Age R 1 GPA R 2 Gender F
FS Marketing Occup Sales Marketing
Sample No. 11
CE RO AC AE
1A 1 1B 2 2B 1 2A 2
2C 4 2D 3 3D 2 3C 4
3B 1 3A 3 4C 2 6B 1
4A 3 6C 3 6D 2 7D 3
8D 4 8C 3 8B 2 8A 1
9B 2 9A 3 9C 1 9D 4
TOTAL 15 17 10 15
AC-CE -5 AE-RO -2 Style Diverger
Age R 1 GPA R 2 Gender F
FS English Occup Teacher
Sample No. 12
CE RO AC AE
1A 1 1B 4 2B 3 2A 1
2C 4 2D 2 3D 3 3C 4
3B 1 3A 2 4C 3 6B 1
4A 4 6C 4 6D 3 7D 3
8D 2 8C 1 8B 3 8A 4
9B 3 9A 1 9C 2 9D 4
TOTAL 15 14 17 17
AC-CE 2 AE-RO 3 Style Accommodator
Age R 1 GPA R 2 Gender F
FS Food Science Occup Research and Development Supervisor
41
Sample No. 13
CE RO AC AE
1A 2 1B 4 2B 1 2A 3
2C 4 2D 2 3D 4 3C 3
3B 1 3A 2 4C 2 6B 4
4A 4 6C 2 6D 1 7D 3
8D 2 8C 3 8B 1 8A 4
9B 1 9A 2 9C 3 9D 4
TOTAL 14 15 12 21
AC-CE -2 AE-RO 6 Style Accommodator
Age R 1 GPA R 1 Gender F
FS International Biz Management Occup Secretary
Sample No. 14
CE RO AC AE
1A 4 1B 1 2B 3 2A 2
2C 4 2D 1 3D 1 3C 4
3B 3 3A 2 4C 2 6B 4
4A 4 6C 3 6D 1 7D 1
8D 1 8C 2 8B 3 8A 4
9B 4 9A 3 9C 1 9D 2
TOTAL 20 12 11 17
AC-CE -9 AE-RO 5 Style Accommodator
Age R n/a GPA R 1 Gender M
FS n/a Occup Teacher
Sample No. 15
CE RO AC AE
1A 2 1B 4 2B 3 2A 1
2C 4 2D 2 3D 2 3C 4
3B 3 3A 1 4C 2 6B 3
4A 4 6C 2 6D 1 7D 4
8D 4 8C 2 8B 3 8A 1
9B 2 9A 1 9C 4 9D 3
TOTAL 19 12 15 16
AC-CE -4 AE-RO 4 Style Accommodator
Age R 3 GPA R 2 Gender F
FS n/a Occup n/a
42
Sample No. 16
CE RO AC AE
1A 3 1B 1 2B 3 2A 2
2C 4 2D 1 3D 2 3C 4
3B 3 3A 1 4C 2 6B 3
4A 4 6C 1 6D 2 7D 3
8D 2 8C 3 8B 1 8A 4
9B 3 9A 1 9C 2 9D 4
TOTAL 19 8 12 20
AC-CE -7 AE-RO 12 Style Accommodator
Age R 2 GPA R 2 Gender F
FS Communication Arts Occup Ground Airline Service
Sample No. 17
CE RO AC AE
1A 4 1B 1 2B 1 2A 4
2C 3 2D 2 3D 3 3C 2
3B 1 3A 4 4C 2 6B 3
4A 3 6C 2 6D 1 7D 2
8D 4 8C 2 8B 3 8A 1
9B 3 9A 2 9C 4 9D 1
TOTAL 18 13 14 13
AC-CE -4 AE-RO 0 Style Diverger
Age R 2 GPA R 2 Gender F
FS Linguistics Occup Flight Attendant
Sample No. 18
CE RO AC AE
1A 2 1B 1 2B 2 2A 1
2C 4 2D 3 3D 3 3C 4
3B 2 3A 1 4C 3 6B 4
4A 4 6C 1 6D 2 7D 3
8D 1 8C 3 8B 2 8A 4
9B 4 9A 1 9C 2 9D 3
TOTAL 17 10 14 19
AC-CE -3 AE-RO 9 Style Accommodator
Age R 1 GPA R 2 Gender F
FS physical education Occup physical therapy
43
Sample No. 19
CE RO AC AE
1A 1 1B 3 2B 1 2A 3
2C 4 2D 2 3D 2 3C 3
3B 1 3A 4 4C 2 6B 2
4A 3 6C 3 6D 1 7D 4
8D 3 8C 1 8B 2 8A 4
9B 1 9A 2 9C 3 9D 4
TOTAL 13 15 11 20
AC-CE -2 AE-RO 5 Style Accommodator
Age R 1 GPA R 3 Gender F
FS Social Development Management Occup Secretary
Sample No. 20
CE RO AC AE
1A 3 1B 4 2B 4 2A 3
2C 1 2D 2 3D 4 3C 2
3B 3 3A 1 4C 3 6B 2
4A 1 6C 3 6D 1 7D 3
8D 1 8C 4 8B 3 8A 2
9B 2 9A 4 9C 3 9D 1
TOTAL 11 18 18 13
AC-CE 7 AE-RO -5 Style Assimilator
Age R 1 GPA R 3 Gender F
FS Communication Arts Occup Wedding Organizer
Sample No. 21
CE RO AC AE
1A 2 1B 1 2B 2 2A 1
2C 4 2D 3 3D 3 3C 4
3B 2 3A 1 4C 2 6B 2
4A 4 6C 3 6D 4 7D 3
8D 1 8C 3 8B 2 8A 4
9B 3 9A 4 9C 2 9D 1
TOTAL 16 15 15 15
AC-CE -1 AE-RO 0 Style Diverger
Age R 2 GPA R 2 Gender M
FS Science Occup Medical Assistant
44
Sample No. 22
CE RO AC AE
1A 4 1B 1 2B 1 2A 3
2C 4 2D 2 3D 4 3C 2
3B 3 3A 1 4C 4 6B 1
4A 3 6C 2 6D 3 7D 2
8D 2 8C 3 8B 1 8A 4
9B 4 9A 1 9C 3 9D 2
TOTAL 20 10 16 14
AC-CE -4 AE-RO 4 Style Accommodator
Age R 2 GPA R 2 Gender M
FS English Occup Auto Trader
Sample No. 23
CE RO AC AE
1A 4 1B 2 2B 1 2A 3
2C 4 2D 2 3D 1 3C 3
3B 4 3A 3 4C 1 6B 3
4A 2 6C 2 6D 1 7D 4
8D 1 8C 2 8B 4 8A 3
9B 3 9A 2 9C 1 9D 4
TOTAL 18 13 9 20
AC-CE -9 AE-RO 7 Style Accommodator
Age R 3 GPA R 1 Gender F
FS Nursing Occup Nurse
Sample No. 24
CE RO AC AE
1A 3 1B 2 2B 2 2A 3
2C 4 2D 1 3D 3 3C 4
3B 2 3A 1 4C 2 6B 4
4A 3 6C 3 6D 1 7D 4
8D 1 8C 3 8B 2 8A 4
9B 4 9A 1 9C 3 9D 2
TOTAL 17 11 13 21
AC-CE -4 AE-RO 10 Style Accommodator
Age R 2 GPA R 3 Gender F
FS Journalism and Mass Communication Occup Communicator
45
Sample No. 25
CE RO AC AE
1A 4 1B 2 2B 1 2A 2
2C 4 2D 3 3D 3 3C 4
3B 2 3A 1 4C 2 6B 4
4A 4 6C 3 6D 2 7D 2
8D 1 8C 3 8B 2 8A 4
9B 4 9A 1 9C 2 9D 3
TOTAL 19 13 12 19
AC-CE -7 AE-RO 6 Style Accommodator
Age R 2 GPA R 3 Gender F
FS Education Occup Teacher
Sample No. 26
CE RO AC AE
1A 4 1B 3 2B 2 2A 1
2C 3 2D 4 3D 2 3C 4
3B 3 3A 1 4C 2 6B 2
4A 3 6C 4 6D 3 7D 3
8D 1 8C 3 8B 2 8A 4
9B 4 9A 3 9C 1 9D 2
TOTAL 18 18 12 16
AC-CE -6 AE-RO -2 Style Diverger
Age R 3 GPA R 2 Gender F
FS English Occup Secretary
Sample No. 27
CE RO AC AE
1A 1 1B 3 2B 2 2A 3
2C 4 2D 1 3D 2 3C 3
3B 4 3A 1 4C 4 6B 1
4A 1 6C 2 6D 3 7D 1
8D 4 8C 2 8B 1 8A 3
9B 2 9A 1 9C 4 9D 3
TOTAL 16 10 16 14
AC-CE 0 AE-RO 4 Style Accommodator
Age R 1 GPA R 2 Gender M
FS English Occup Meeting Coordinator
46
Sample No. 28
CE RO AC AE
1A 2 1B 1 2B 2 2A 1
2C 3 2D 4 3D 3 3C 2
3B 4 3A 1 4C 4 6B 4
4A 2 6C 2 6D 3 7D 1
8D 1 8C 3 8B 2 8A 4
9B 3 9A 1 9C 2 9D 4
TOTAL 15 12 16 16
AC-CE 1 AE-RO 4 Style Accommodator
Age R 1 GPA R 2 Gender F
FS n/a Occup Student
Sample No. 29
CE RO AC AE
1A 3 1B 1 2B 1 2A 3
2C 4 2D 2 3D 4 3C 3
3B 1 3A 2 4C 2 6B 4
4A 4 6C 2 6D 3 7D 4
8D 1 8C 2 8B 3 8A 4
9B 4 9A 1 9C 3 9D 2
TOTAL 17 10 16 20
AC-CE -1 AE-RO 10 Style Accommodator
Age R 2 GPA R 1 Gender F
FS n/a Occup n/a
Sample No. 30
CE RO AC AE
1A 4 1B 1 2B 2 2A 1
2C 4 2D 3 3D 2 3C 1
3B 4 3A 3 4C 1 6B 4
4A 2 6C 3 6D 2 7D 1
8D 3 8C 2 8B 1 8A 4
9B 2 9A 4 9C 3 9D 1
TOTAL 19 16 11 12
AC-CE -8 AE-RO -4 Style Diverger
Age R 1 GPA R 2 Gender F
FS n/a Occup Student
47
Sample No. 31
CE RO AC AE
1A 3 1B 2 2B 1 2A 2
2C 4 2D 3 3D 4 3C 3
3B 2 3A 1 4C 1 6B 4
4A 3 6C 3 6D 2 7D 2
8D 1 8C 4 8B 2 8A 3
9B 3 9A 4 9C 1 9D 2
TOTAL 16 17 11 16
AC-CE -5 AE-RO -1 Style Diverger
Age R 1 GPA R 3 Gender F
FS English Occup Officer
Sample No. 32
CE RO AC AE
1A 4 1B 1 2B 1 2A 3
2C 4 2D 2 3D 1 3C 4
3B 2 3A 3 4C 2 6B 3
4A 4 6C 4 6D 1 7D 2
8D 1 8C 4 8B 2 8A 3
9B 3 9A 4 9C 1 9D 2
TOTAL 18 18 8 17
AC-CE -10 AE-RO -1 Style Diverger
Age R 1 GPA R 2 Gender F
FS English Occup Officer
Sample No. 33
CE RO AC AE
1A 3 1B 2 2B 1 2A 2
2C 4 2D 3 3D 4 3C 3
3B 2 3A 1 4C 1 6B 4
4A 3 6C 3 6D 2 7D 4
8D 3 8C 4 8B 1 8A 2
9B 3 9A 4 9C 1 9D 2
TOTAL 18 17 10 17
AC-CE -8 AE-RO 0 Style Diverger
Age R 1 GPA R 2 Gender F
FS English Occup Administrator
48
Sample No. 34
CE RO AC AE
1A 4 1B 3 2B 3 2A 4
2C 2 2D 1 3D 2 3C 4
3B 3 3A 1 4C 2 6B 1
4A 1 6C 4 6D 2 7D 3
8D 1 8C 3 8B 4 8A 2
9B 2 9A 1 9C 4 9D 3
TOTAL 13 13 17 17
AC-CE 4 AE-RO 4 Style Converger
Age R 2 GPA R 1 Gender F
FS Linguistics Occup Educator
Sample No. 35
CE RO AC AE
1A 4 1B 1 2B 2 2A 1
2C 3 2D 4 3D 4 3C 2
3B 1 3A 3 4C 2 6B 3
4A 4 6C 2 6D 4 7D 3
8D 1 8C 2 8B 4 8A 3
9B 2 9A 1 9C 3 9D 4
TOTAL 15 13 19 16
AC-CE 4 AE-RO 3 Style Converger
Age R 2 GPA R 2 Gender F
FS English Occup Administrator
Sample No. 36
CE RO AC AE
1A 3 1B 2 2B 3 2A 1
2C 4 2D 2 3D 2 3C 4
3B 3 3A 1 4C 2 6B 2
4A 3 6C 1 6D 3 7D 4
8D 3 8C 1 8B 2 8A 4
9B 4 9A 1 9C 2 9D 3
TOTAL 20 8 14 18
AC-CE -6 AE-RO 10 Style Accommodator
Age R 2 GPA R 2 Gender F
FS English Occup Sales Coordinator
49
Sample No. 37
CE RO AC AE
1A 4 1B 3 2B 2 2A 1
2C 4 2D 3 3D 1 3C 4
3B 3 3A 2 4C 2 6B 4
4A 4 6C 2 6D 1 7D 2
8D 1 8C 3 8B 2 8A 4
9B 1 9A 4 9C 3 9D 2
TOTAL 17 17 11 17
AC-CE -6 AE-RO 0 Style Diverger
Age R 1 GPA R 1 Gender F
FS Journalism Occup Self-Employed
Sample No. 38
CE RO AC AE
1A 3 1B 1 2B 3 2A 1
2C 4 2D 2 3D 2 3C 4
3B 3 3A 1 4C 2 6B 4
4A 3 6C 3 6D 2 7D 3
8D 2 8C 1 8B 3 8A 4
9B 3 9A 1 9C 2 9D 4
TOTAL 18 9 14 20
AC-CE -4 AE-RO 11 Style Accommodator
Age R 1 GPA R 2 Gender F
FS Business in Japanese Occup Interpreter
Sample No. 39
CE RO AC AE
1A 2 1B 1 2B 3 2A 2
2C 4 2D 1 3D 2 3C 4
3B 3 3A 1 4C 2 6B 3
4A 4 6C 2 6D 1 7D 4
8D 3 8C 2 8B 4 8A 1
9B 3 9A 1 9C 4 9D 2
TOTAL 19 8 16 16
AC-CE -3 AE-RO 8 Style Accommodator
Age R 1 GPA R 1 Gender M
FS Engineering Occup Engineer
50
Sample No. 40
CE RO AC AE
1A 4 1B 3 2B 3 2A 2
2C 4 2D 1 3D 3 3C 2
3B 4 3A 1 4C 3 6B 4
4A 1 6C 3 6D 2 7D 3
8D 4 8C 2 8B 1 8A 3
9B 3 9A 2 9C 4 9D 1
TOTAL 20 12 16 15
AC-CE -4 AE-RO 3 Style Accommodator
Age R 2 GPA R 3 Gender F
FS English Occup Secretary
Sample No. 41
CE RO AC AE
1A 4 1B 3 2B 1 2A 3
2C 4 2D 2 3D 3 3C 1
3B 2 3A 4 4C 4 6B 4
4A 3 6C 2 6D 3 7D 3
8D 1 8C 2 8B 4 8A 3
9B 4 9A 1 9C 3 9D 2
TOTAL 18 14 18 16
AC-CE 0 AE-RO 2 Style Diverger
Age R 1 GPA R 2 Gender F
FS n/a Occup n/a
Sample No. 42
CE RO AC AE
1A 1 1B 2 2B 1 2A 2
2C 4 2D 3 3D 2 3C 4
3B 1 3A 3 4C 1 6B 2
4A 4 6C 3 6D 4 7D 3
8D 3 8C 1 8B 2 8A 4
9B 2 9A 1 9C 3 9D 4
TOTAL 15 13 13 19
AC-CE -2 AE-RO 6 Style Accommodator
Age R 2 GPA R 3 Gender M
FS English Language Occup Information Technology
51
Sample No. 43
CE RO AC AE
1A 2 1B 1 2B 2 2A 1
2C 4 2D 3 3D 3 3C 2
3B 4 3A 1 4C 2 6B 2
4A 4 6C 1 6D 4 7D 3
8D 1 8C 3 8B 2 8A 4
9B 2 9A 1 9C 3 9D 4
TOTAL 17 10 16 16
AC-CE -1 AE-RO 6 Style Accommodator
Age R 4 GPA R 3 Gender F
FS Education Occup Teacher
Sample No. 44
CE RO AC AE
1A 3 1B 4 2B 2 2A 4
2C 1 2D 3 3D 1 3C 2
3B 3 3A 4 4C 1 6B 2
4A 4 6C 1 6D 3 7D 3
8D 1 8C 2 8B 3 8A 4
9B 1 9A 2 9C 4 9D 3
TOTAL 13 16 14 18
AC-CE 1 AE-RO 2 Style Diverger
Age R 2 GPA R 3 Gender M
FS Nursing Science Occup Aviation physiology
52
Appendix D: Data Analysis
Student ID CE RO AC AE
1 14 15 15 17
2 18 11 14 18
3 13 19 15 14
4 17 9 15 16
5 12 14 14 18
6 15 13 17 13
7 16 13 12 17
8 15 14 14 15
9 18 15 11 18
10 17 11 13 18
11 15 17 10 15
12 15 14 17 17
13 14 15 12 21
14 20 12 11 17
15 19 12 15 16
16 19 8 12 20
17 18 13 14 13
18 17 10 14 19
19 13 15 11 20
20 11 18 18 13
21 16 15 15 15
22 20 10 16 14
23 18 13 9 20
24 17 11 13 21
25 19 13 12 19
26 18 18 12 16
27 16 10 16 14
28 15 12 16 16
29 17 10 16 20
30 19 16 11 12
31 16 17 11 16
32 18 18 8 17
33 18 17 10 17
34 13 13 17 17
35 15 13 19 16
36 20 8 14 18
37 17 17 11 17
38 18 9 14 20
39 19 8 16 16
40 20 12 16 15
41 18 14 18 16
42 15 13 13 19
53
43 17 10 16 16
44 13 16 14 18
Total 728 581 607 740
Mean 16.54545455 13.20454545 13.79545455 16.81818182
54
Appendix E: Interview Transcript
(Excerpted from the interview on May 17, 2014)
Sample 01 (Accuracy check confirmed by respondent on May 27, 2014)
1. People say that some students have advantage background in taking this EPD class,
what would you response to them?
Practical use of English and the love for learning English are favorable background
advantage.
2. Please explain your ideal of classroom settings and enjoyable activities?
I love to write and the class that trains us to write is my favorite class.
4. How would you find all EPD classes useful? How would this EPD program help you
in your career development?
All classes serve some purposes; however, I am a serious writer and I find writing
classes most useful to my interest.
5. What do you think about the homework exercises? How would you complete your
homework exercises before coming to the class?
I love writing exercises especially when the teacher takes time to look and correct
our works.
6. How do you feel about a role play in the class?
Role play is fun and useful. We need role plays to practice our English conversation
7. What do you think about a long lecture session? Please explain the way you find an
answer to the question in your mind?
I don’t mind some lecture. It is for my logical thinking and gives me time to work on
my own reflection.
8. What do you think about a group work on discussion and presentation?
We should have more group discussions so that we could share the ideas.
9. What would you do if you do not understand something from the lecture in the
class?
I would wait to find out on my own. I am a quite type of girl.
10. What if you have been asked by a friend who is considering taking the EPD class,
what do your suggest?
The classes are useful; but, could be improve to accommodate serious learners.
55
Interview Transcript (Excerpted from the interview on May 17, 2014)
Sample 02 (Accuracy check confirmed by respondent on May 27, 2014)
1. People say that some students have advantage background in taking this EPD class,
what would you response to them?
I have a habit of searching for knowledge, being self-reliance, at various sources
when I want to know something. This personal character gives me advantage in
learning this EPD course.
2. Please explain your ideal of classroom settings and enjoyable activities?
I love to discuss in group because it gives us a chance to share idea. In fact, I love
the combination of various activities that they would give us a chance for learning
adaptation.
4. How would you find all EPD classes useful? How would this EPD program help you
in your career development?
I love to learn pragmatic in EPD7003 class.
5. What do you think about the homework exercises? How would you complete your
homework exercises before coming to the class?
I finish my work at last minute just before the deadline.
6. How do you feel about a role play in the class?
I don’t mind doing the role play.
7. What do you think about a long lecture session? Please explain the way you find an
answer to the question in your mind?
I don’t think much of the lecture at master level.
8. What do you think about a group work on discussion and presentation?
9. What would you do if you do not understand something from the lecture in the
class?
If it is about my personal feeling and opinion, I would express myself right away.
However, for facts and figures, I rather keep it for later finding on my own accord.
10. What if you have been asked by a friend who is considering taking the EPD class,
what do your suggest?
I would recommend to a friend who likes to learn in different classroom activities.
56
Interview Transcript (Excerpted from the interview on May 17, 2014)
Sample 13 (Accuracy check confirmed by respondent on May 27, 2014)
1. People say that some students have advantage background in taking this EPD class,
what would you response to them?
The love for English language is the key factor for success in taking this class.
2. Please explain your ideal of classroom settings and enjoyable activities?
I like to work in group and love to join the group discussion and do the role plays. I
also like the courses that are well planned and organized with known criteria in
course design.
4. How would you find all EPD classes useful? How would this EPD program help you
in your career development?
I found writing class useful for future learning classes.
5. What do you think about the homework exercises? How would you complete your
homework exercises before coming to the class?
I manage to finish my homework every times coming to classes.
6. How do you feel about a role play in the class?
I love role play most among all activity.
7. What do you think about a long lecture session? Please explain the way you find an
answer to the question in your mind?
I don’t think much about class lecture; you can always catch up the class lecture by
doing your own reading. In fact, a class lecture could put me to sleep.
8. What do you think about a group work on discussion and presentation?
I like group work with discussion and presentation.
9. What would you do if you do not understand something from the lecture in the
class?
I will not ask the teacher in the class. I will ask my friend later outside the class.
10. What if you have been asked by a friend who is considering taking the EPD class,
what do your suggest?
I would recommend to common learners. The course is weak for serious language
learners.
57
Interview Transcript (Excerpted from the interview on May 26, 2014)
Sample 18 (Accuracy check confirmed by respondent on May 27, 2014)
1. People say that some students have advantage background in taking this EPD class,
what would you response to them?
I think that people graduate in linguistics or English Language background have the
advantages.
2. Please explain your ideal of classroom settings and enjoyable activities?
I like the combination of teaching environment except field trip and singing contest.
4. How would you find all EPD classes useful? How would this EPD program help you
in your career development?
The EPD course did not meet my expectation.
5. What do you think about the homework exercises? How would you complete your
homework exercises before coming to the class?
I don’t like to write.
6. How do you feel about a role play in the class?
I don’t mind doing the role play that everyone in the group have to participate;
however, the group discussion give you the opportunity to react quickly.
7. What do you think about a long lecture session? Please explain the way you find an
answer to the question in your mind?
It depends on the things you have to learn. Some subjects could be learned through
lecture alone.
8. What do you think about a group work on discussion and presentation?
I like to work in group and don’t mind presentation
9. What would you do if you do not understand something from the lecture in the
class?
I would raise my hand or find the opportunity to ask the question right away.
10. What if you have been asked by a friend who is considering taking the EPD class,
what do your suggest?
I find the translation class useful to my career development; however, I don’t
recommend this EPD course to friends.
58
Appendix F: Table of Chi-Square Probabilities
(from Howell, D. C. (2011: 250-252)
df 0.995 0.99 0.975 0.95 0.90 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.01 0.005
1 --- --- 0.001 0.004 0.016 2.706 3.841 5.024 6.635 7.879
2 0.010 0.020 0.051 0.103 0.211 4.605 5.991 7.378 9.210 10.597
3 0.072 0.115 0.216 0.352 0.584 6.251 7.815 9.348 11.345 12.838
4 0.207 0.297 0.484 0.711 1.064 7.779 9.488 11.143 13.277 14.860
5 0.412 0.554 0.831 1.145 1.610 9.236 11.070 12.833 15.086 16.750
6 0.676 0.872 1.237 1.635 2.204 10.645 12.592 14.449 16.812 18.548
7 0.989 1.239 1.690 2.167 2.833 12.017 14.067 16.013 18.475 20.278
8 1.344 1.646 2.180 2.733 3.490 13.362 15.507 17.535 20.090 21.955
9 1.735 2.088 2.700 3.325 4.168 14.684 16.919 19.023 21.666 23.589
10 2.156 2.558 3.247 3.940 4.865 15.987 18.307 20.483 23.209 25.188
11 2.603 3.053 3.816 4.575 5.578 17.275 19.675 21.920 24.725 26.757
12 3.074 3.571 4.404 5.226 6.304 18.549 21.026 23.337 26.217 28.300
13 3.565 4.107 5.009 5.892 7.042 19.812 22.362 24.736 27.688 29.819
14 4.075 4.660 5.629 6.571 7.790 21.064 23.685 26.119 29.141 31.319
15 4.601 5.229 6.262 7.261 8.547 22.307 24.996 27.488 30.578 32.801
16 5.142 5.812 6.908 7.962 9.312 23.542 26.296 28.845 32.000 34.267
17 5.697 6.408 7.564 8.672 10.085 24.769 27.587 30.191 33.409 35.718
18 6.265 7.015 8.231 9.390 10.865 25.989 28.869 31.526 34.805 37.156
19 6.844 7.633 8.907 10.117 11.651 27.204 30.144 32.852 36.191 38.582
20 7.434 8.260 9.591 10.851 12.443 28.412 31.410 34.170 37.566 39.997
21 8.034 8.897 10.283 11.591 13.240 29.615 32.671 35.479 38.932 41.401
22 8.643 9.542 10.982 12.338 14.041 30.813 33.924 36.781 40.289 42.796
23 9.260 10.196 11.689 13.091 14.848 32.007 35.172 38.076 41.638 44.181
24 9.886 10.856 12.401 13.848 15.659 33.196 36.415 39.364 42.980 45.559
25 10.520 11.524 13.120 14.611 16.473 34.382 37.652 40.646 44.314 46.928
26 11.160 12.198 13.844 15.379 17.292 35.563 38.885 41.923 45.642 48.290
27 11.808 12.879 14.573 16.151 18.114 36.741 40.113 43.195 46.963 49.645
59
28 12.461 13.565 15.308 16.928 18.939 37.916 41.337 44.461 48.278 50.993
29 13.121 14.256 16.047 17.708 19.768 39.087 42.557 45.722 49.588 52.336
30 13.787 14.953 16.791 18.493 20.599 40.256 43.773 46.979 50.892 53.672
40 20.707 22.164 24.433 26.509 29.051 51.805 55.758 59.342 63.691 66.766
50 27.991 29.707 32.357 34.764 37.689 63.167 67.505 71.420 76.154 79.490
60 35.534 37.485 40.482 43.188 46.459 74.397 79.082 83.298 88.379 91.952
70 43.275 45.442 48.758 51.739 55.329 85.527 90.531 95.023 100.425 104.215
80 51.172 53.540 57.153 60.391 64.278 96.578 101.879 106.629 112.329 116.321
90 59.196 61.754 65.647 69.126 73.291 107.565 113.145 118.136 124.116 128.299
100 67.328 70.065 74.222 77.929 82.358 118.498 124.342 129.561 135.807 140.169