A study of gender differences among school psychologists

Psychology in the Schools, Vol. 33(4), 1996 0 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. CCC 0033-3085/96/04035 1-09

A STUDY OF GENDER DIFFERENCES AMONG SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS

ALEX THOMAS AND RAYMOND WITTE

Miami University

Full and intern members of ten state school psychology associations were surveyed regarding demographics, salaries, experience, yearly evaluations completed, contractual arrangements, and professional credentials and affiliations (N = 1.527). Results indicate higher proportions of women are increasingly entering the field. With years of experience considered, there were significant gender differences in yearly ( p < .05), daily ( p < .Ol), and hourly ( p < .05) salary. There were no gender differences in the number of days worked yearly, number of hours worked daily, number of yearly evaluations completed, or the number of assigned schools. Gender differences were noted in professional credentials and professional affiliations. Implications of the emerging gender trend for service delivery are dis- cussed. 0 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

From the emergence of school psychology as a separate profession within psychology both women and men have contributed to the research and practice of the field. Fagan (1995) estimates that females have always had strong proportional representation since the origin of the profession in the early 1900s, perhaps never less than 30%.

A review of the gender make-up of the field over the past quarter century indicates increasing numbers of females relative to males entering the field. Farling and Hoedt (197 1) found a total male/female proportion within school psychology to be 60/40 with a higher percentage of females (47%) being members of the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) than of the American Psychological Association (35%). At that time male representation in NASP was comparable (52%), but much higher in the American Psychological Asso- ciation (64%). Through using varying methods of sampling, a chronological review of studies related to gender representation generally indicate a trend toward higher proportions of females within the field since the Farling and Hoedt study. Meacham and Peckham (1978) found the male/female proportion to be 56/44, Ramage (1979) found 55/45, and Smith (1984) found 54/46. In a carefully sampled study of NASP members (Reschly, Genshaft, & Binder, 1986), it was reported that female practitioner school psychologists represented 6045% of the field.

In 1988, a sample of members of the newly formed National School Psychology Certifi- cation System indicated 60% of the members were female (NASP, 1989). Reschly and Wilson (1995), using a larger cross section of school psychologists, found 65% of the sample were female.

A 1994 NASP report of approximately 15,000 members indicated 70% of the membership were female and that females constituted 85% of all members below the age of 30 (Daw- son, Mendez, & Hyman, 1994). The report further indicated that “male school psychologists earn higher salaries than female school psychologists” (Dawson et al., 1994).

These previous surveys, however, report information related only to gender representation and very little information related to such factors as job setting or job functions. The purpose of this study was to further explore the trend toward greater female employment in school psychology and to examine gender differences and similarities in school psychologist compensation, experience, employment conditions, yearly evaluations, credentials, and professional affiliations among a sample of school psychologists in several states. Much of the previous survey research has had school psychologist respondents drawn from NASP membership, the affiliated National Certified School Psychologist (NCSP) rolls, or Division 16 membership of the American Psychological Association (APA). The study reported here is part of a research effort exploring differences and similarities among school psychology state association members, who may or may not be members of NASP, have the NCSP credential

35 1

352 Thomas and Witte

or be an APA member. All survey respondents were members of state school psychology associations.

Specific questions to be addressed by the survey were: Are females increasingly entering the specialty of school psychology? Do male and female school psychologist practitioners receive similar compensation, work the same number of days in a contracted work year, work the same number of hours in a contracted day, report working the same number of hours daily, have the same professional degrees, have similar credentialing and organizational affiliations, and do they conduct the same number of yearly evaluations?

METHOD

Procedure for Selection In February 1994, presidents and presidents-elect of 50 state school psychology associa-

tions were sent a letter requesting permission to survey their respective state association memberships. Information regarding demographics, salaries, district employment characteristics, professional memberships and certifications, highest degree, percentages of time spent in var- ious professional activities, opinions regarding issues facing the profession, number and types of psychoeducational evaluations, contracting issues, frequency and nature of professional evaluation, bargaining representation, as well as job satisfaction was sought. A sample of the proposed survey was included with the letter (and is available on request). The letter also stat- ed that each participating state association newsletter editor, and the president and president- elect of the association, would receive a compilation of responses for that state association with the expectation that the membership would then have access to this information.

Three complete sets of mailing labels for all full and intern members of the state association were requested from each state. With the exception of Ohio, which was surveyed in Jan- uary 1994, other participating states were those that had responded to the request by April 1, 1994 and included Rhode Island, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Iowa, Colorado, West Virginia, Washington, Indiana, and New Hampshire. Six other states provided sets of mailing labels after this date and four others indicated willingness to do so, but logistics and expenses prevented their use in the spring of that year.

Participants A total of 2,772 surveys were sent to the membership of the ten participating states. Twen-

ty-seven surveys were returned as undeliverable. The total number of surveys returned by respondents was 1558 (57% response rate). Of this total received, 1527 (56%) were usable for analyses.

Table 1 provides information regarding the sampling, gender distribution, and return rate for each of the participating state associations (N = 1527). Table 2 provides information on gender differences based on years of experience as a school psychologist (N = 1492). The re- maining tables, except for Table 4, present information on full-time practicing school psychologists. Only school psychologists reporting full-time employment in school related settings were included. Interns, state level personnel, university teachers, private practitioners, and part- time employees were excluded in order to facilitate comparisons by maintaining the same professional role as a full-time school psychologist practitioner employed for a school district.

Instrument and Survey Procedure School psychologists within the participating states were mailed a survey packet consist-

ing of a cover letter describing the study and its purpose, the 7 1 question survey, and a return addressed envelope. For four states (NH, OH, IA, and RI) a cover letter from state association

Gender- Differences 353

Table 1 Survey Respondents by State and Gender

Total Total Not Total Total Total Percentage State Sent Returned Delivered Usable Males Females Retum

NH 113 75 1 75 35 (47%) 40 (538) 66.96% PA 21 1 126 2 124 SO (40%) 74 (60%) 60.29% RI 106 62 1 59 22 (37%) 37 (63%) 59.05% CT 293 128 0 125 35 (28%) 90 (72%) 43.69% WV 157 69 9 68 21 (31%) 47 (69%) 46.62% WA 364 186 1 180 65 (36%) 115 (64%) 5 1.24%

IN 34 1 203 2 193 42 (22%) 151 (78%) 59.88% IA 194 114 5 112 45 (40%) 67 (60%) 60.32% OH 747 466 1 463 143 (31%) 320 (69%) 62.47% Total 2772 1558 27 1527 505 (33%) 1022 (67%) 56.76%

co 246 129 5 128 47 (37%) 81 (63%) 53.53%

leadership encouraging participation was also included. Surveys and an explanatory letter were sent to all members provided on the mailing lists from each state, with the exception of Con- necticut. In that state, expense considerations resulted in surveys being sent to a random sample of one half of their 568 members. Surveys were anonymous but coded, and a second mailing was sent to all non-respondents one month after the first mailing. The study survey was modified from a yearly survey distributed to all members of the Ohio School Psychologists As- sociation (Thomas & Mcloughlin, 1994). The Job Satisfaction Scales (JSS: Reschly & Wilson 1995) was embedded within the survey.

RESULTS The overall type I error of the research was controlled at less than the 5% level. This con-

trol was conducted by using Bonferroni Inequality. With 22 individual statistical tests, the ci level for each test was therefore set at .002.

Gender and Years of Experience as a School Psychologist

Table 2 summarizes by gender the years of experience as a school psychologist for the entire sample. There was a significant difference between gender (male n = 498 & female n

Table 2 Gender and Years of Experience as a School Psychologist

Years of Experience

0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 2&24 25-29 30or Gender years years years years years years more Total

Male Actual 72 75 97 135 84 24 11 498 Percentage 23.4% 22.7% 32.1% 45.0% 48.0% 45.3% 45.8% 33.4%

Female Actual 236 255 205 165 91 29 13 994 Percentage 76.6% 77.3% 67.9% 55.0% 52.0% 54.7% 54.2%

x2 (6, n = 1492) = 7 1 . 0 0 , ~ < ,0001.


= 994) and years of experience ~ ~ ( 6 , n = 1492) = 71.00, p < .0001 with men considerably underrepresented at the 0-9 year experience levels, and over represented at the 15-24 year levels. The 41 intern members of the sample included within the 0-4 years of experience catego- ry were comprised of 7 (17%) males and 34 (83%) females.

When analyses were conducted on only full-time employed school psychologists cur- rently working in school districts (excluding interns, university trainers, state level employees, private practitioners, and part-time employees) the difference was still significant x2(6, n = 1174) = 5 9 . 4 1 , ~ < .0001.

Gender, Years of Experience as a School Psychologist, and Financial Compensation

Tables 3 and 4 provide information on yearly, daily, and hourly salaries for male and female school psychologists based on years of experience as a full time school psychologist. The yearly salary was taken from the returned surveys. The daily salary was determined by dividing the yearly salary by the number of reported days in the practitioner’s contract year. The hourly salary was determined by dividing the daily salary by the number of reported hours in the practitioner’s contract day.

For yearly salary, gender, F( 1,1193) = 18 .32 ,~ = 0.0001, years of experience, F(6,1193) = 4 4 . 8 6 ~ = 0.0001, and degreeF(2, 1193) = 7 . 0 1 , ~ = .001 were significant. Men received higher yearly salaries, evidenced a higher proportion of advanced degrees, and more years of experience as school psychologists. When considering daily salary, gender F( 1, 11 37) = 6.43 p = .01, years of experience F(6, 1137) = 2 5 . 0 7 , ~ = .0001, and degree F(2, 1137) = 7 . 2 2 , ~ = .001, were significant. For hourly salary, gender F( 1, 1008) = 4.8, p = .05, years of experience F(6, 1008) = 16.71, p = .0001, and degree F(2, 1008) = 6.92, p < .001 were significant. Significant gender differences were found across all salary schedules.

Gender and Part-Time Employment

Part-time employment was the designated status for those respondents reporting less than a 180 day contracted year schedule and working 5 hours or less per day or 30 hours or less per week over a full- or part-time contracted year in a school district. Table 5 reports gender and

Table 3 Men, Years Experience as a School Psychologist, and Yearly, Daily, and Hourly Salary

Years of Experience as a School Psychologist

Group WI 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30+ Mean ~ ~~

Yearly $ 34,414 41,489 44,352 47,472 50,613 47,127 49,125 44,695 SD 7835 8855 7692 7405 8157 5653 8702 9224 n 55 61 85 112 71 17 4 405

$ 176.46 210.42 223.05, 235.56 253.50 236.16 247.91 224.42 SD 44.53 45.95 39.29 40.12 41.01 37.12 13.84 47.17 n 55 61 85 112 71 17 4 405

$ 24.37 30.39 31.00 33.41 35.57 34.65 32.14 31.73 SD 7.26 8.24 6.60 7.43 7.34 8.03 2.93 8.03 n 46 59 73 99 68 15 4 364

Daily

Hourly

Gender Differences 355

Table 4 Women, Years Experience as a School Psychologist, and Yearly, Daily, and Hourly Salary

Years of Experience as a School Psychologist

Group 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 2G24 25-29 30+ Mean

Yearly $ SD n

Daily $ SD n

Hourly $ SD n

32,757 7926

156

36,982 8542 202

43,344 8980

155

45,582 12,588

125

50,07 1 8692 64

45,928 6955

20

45,875 12,017

8

40,393 10,865

730

166.17 41.85

156

189.92 45.10

202

216.26 44.40

155

233.51 69.56

125

249.17 49.13 64

229.90 43.88 20

232.88 68.96 8

204.66 56.76

730

22.96 6.30

144

26.62 6.93

181

30.66 24.21

135

33.07 12.64

109

38.70 24.21 58

32.47 7.42

16

32.93 12.47 7

29.02 11.66

650

Table 5 Gender and PartlFull-Time Positions

Part-time Full-time Total

Male 8 431 445 Female 59 799 858 Total 61 1236 1303

xz (1, n = 1303) = 1 5 . 5 , ~ < .oOOl.

part- and full-time positions. There is a significantly higher than expected proportion of women than men in part-time positions x2(1, n = 1303) = 1 5 . 5 , ~ < .0001.

Gender and Number of Days in Contracted Work Year and Hours in Contracted and Reported Work Day

Respondents were asked to indicate the number of days in a contracted work year, the number of hours in a contracted day, and the number of hours that they estimated they worked daily. There were no significant gender differences in the number of days per year or hours per day in the contract year or in the number of hours reported worked daily.

Gender and Number of Evaluations

Respondents were asked to estimate the total number of evaluations completed in one year, the number of re-evaluations completed in a year, and the number of evaluations that led to an Individualized Educational Plan. No significant gender differences were noted among any of these variables.

Gender and Years of Experience

Respondents were asked to indicate their total years of experience in school psychology, in education, in their school district, and to estimate their years until retirement. Men had significantly more experience in school psychology ( t (1 172) = 7.33, p < .OOl), years of experience in education ( t (1 128) = 5.82, p < .001), and years in current school district ( t (1152) =


4.55, p < .001). Men also reported a significantly shorter time until retirement (t (953) = 2.48, p < .Ol).

Gender and Working Conditions

Respondents were asked to report the number of schools they were responsible for in their daily activities and the number of school psychologists within their districts. No significant gender differences were noted.

Gender and Education

Table 6 presents information on the highest degree reported by full-time practitioners. Women reported a higher likelihood of having a Master’s Degree, and men reported a higher frequency of having a Doctorate x2(2, n = 1164) = 3 1.63, p < .0001.

Gender and Professional Credentials and AfSlliations

Tables 7 and 8 present information on professional credentials and organizational affiliations by gender for full-time practitioners. Females have a significantly higher incidence than males of possessing teacher certification x2( 1, n = 1163) = 1 0 . 3 8 , ~ < .01, being a National- ly Certified School Psychologist ~ ~ ( 1 , n = 11.58) = 4.01, p < .05, and belonging to the Na- tional Association of School Psychologists x2(1, n = 1166) = 9.06, p < .01. Men more often reported a significantly higher incidence than females of having a state psychology license

Table 6 Gender and Highest Degree

Degree

Gender Master’s Specialist Doctorate Total ~~

Male 160 145 105 410 Female 350 309 95 154

x2 (2, n = 1164) = 3 1 . 6 3 , ~ < ,0001.

Table 7 Gender, Professional Credentials and Affiliations

Male Female Comparison ~~~~ ~

State Teacher Certification n Yes No

Yes No n

Yes No

Yes No

State Board Psychology License n

State Board School Psychology License

Nationally Certified School Psychologist n

409 32% 68% 406 20% 80% 173

35% 65% 408 56% 44%

754 x2 = 10.38** 42% 58% 146 x2 = 6.5P 14% 86%

35% 65 % 750 x2 = 4.01* 62% 38%

306 x2 = 1.22

* p < .05, ** p < .01.


Table 8 Gender, Professional Credentials and Affiliations

Male Female Comparison

State Regional Association Membership n Yes No

NASP Membership n Yes No n

Yes No

APA and/or State Affiliate Membership

249 86% 14% 409 73% 27% 408 22% 78%

~

750 x2 = .17 87% 13% 157 x2 = 9.06** 80% 20% 752 x2 = 8.26** 15% 85%

** p < .01.

x2( 1 , n = 1152) = 6.57, p < .05, and being a member of the American Psychological Associ- ation or a state affiliate x2( 1, n = 1160) = 8 . 2 6 , ~ < .01. There were no significant gender differences in holding a school psychology specific license (for those states where they are available) or in belonging to a state school psychology regional association.

DISCUSSION

Increasing numbers of women are choosing school psychology as a profession and the survey data reported here confirms the trend that has developed over the past quarter century. School psychologists with over fifteen years of experience tend to be evenly divided between males and females. Women, however, constitute 75% of school psychologists with less than ten years of experience and 83% of intern school psychologists in this study. This trend is sup- ported by data reported in the most recent NASP demographic study (Dawson, Mendez, & Hy- man, 1994). Though the extent of this NASP proportional breakdown may partially be ac- counted for by the characteristics of the sample (women more often report joining school psychology organizations than men), it is clear that the field is becoming increasingly represented by females.

For this sample of full-time practitioners, there were no statistically significant gender differences for many of the contractual and working conditions studied: days worked per year or hours worked per day, number of assigned schools, the size of the district, or the number of evaluations completed yearly. Contractual arrangements and working conditions seemed to be equitable between genders, for those in full-time employment.

Review of pay equity issues provides some interesting points for discussion. When considering financial compensation while controlling for years of experience, men have a significantly higher annual ( p < .05), daily ( p < .Ol), and hourly ( p < .05) salary. Men, on the average, did have three more years of experience in school psychology and in education, and two more years of experience within their current school districts. Additionally, the average man has two additional days in a contract year which would be controlled when daily or hourly salary were considered. Men evidenced higher salary rates regardless of the payment schedule (i.e., annual, daily, or hourly) across all seven experience levels.

Women had a significantly higher incidence of part-time employment (defined as working less than 180 days per year or working five hours or less per day) and their contract year reflected, on the average, two days less than men. The data do not answer such questions as: Are disproportionate numbers of women choosing to work part-time or are they afforded an


unequal opportunity to work full-time? Does the trend toward slightly increased compensation for males reflect fair wage for years of experience and educational level, or does it reflect a slight edge in determination of compensation? To attract and keep men, do employers provide greater latitude in considering years of experience and/or terminal degree? Thus, embedded within salary determination, years of experience, and percentages of part-time employment are questions regarding the extent to which these merely reflect changes in the gender composi- tion of the profession rather than the presence of a subtle gender bias. Further study of these factors are warranted.

Gender differences were also noted in the areas of professional credentials and affiliations. Relative to credentials, it is far more often reported that women will have had teacher certification prior to becoming a school psychologist. This may reflect a cultural press of women entering the profession of education through teaching and then later migrating into the speciality of school psychology due to professional interest or as an attempt to escape teacher burnout.

Women are more likely to seek NCSP designation while men have a higher incidence of being licensed by the State Board of Psychology. This may reflect the greater experience level (some states included in the survey grandparented school psychologists for licensure) and higher educational attainment of men. In states that provide a school psychology license, there were no gender differences in holding this credential, however.

Regarding professional memberships, NASP affiliation was more common for both genders than was APA or the state affiliate. The male/female NASP membership was 73%/80% while the male/female APA and/or state affiliate membership was 22%/15%. It is likely that the higher percentage of men involved in APA and/or the state affiliate is related to the higher percentage of those possessing a terminal degree required for full membership.

There are two issues revealed by the study that may have important service delivery im- pact on the specialty. One is the trend toward decreased numbers of male school psychologists. This finding leads to concerns similar to those expressed regarding the need for more eth- nic/racial minorities. Minority recruitment has been and continues to be of significant concern to the profession. To the extent that school psychologists should reflect the population served, some of the same issues relative to minority representation can be raised relative to gender representation because a disproportionate number of referred children represent minority groups and the male gender (Chinn & Hughes, 1987; Shinn, Tindal, & Spira, 1987; Messick 1984). Though at present minority recruitment is of primary importance for the profession’s long-term integrity, a balanced gender representation is also an important factor.

The second issue relates to equitable opportunity between genders for advancement and role functioning. This study does not directly answer questions related to this issue but high- lights the importance of further study. The trend toward females having a lower number of work days per year, lower daily and hourly salary with experience considered, and the disproportionate numbers of female part-time school psychologists may reflect either conscious gender choice, subtle bias in contractual arrangements, or a combination. This is an issue worthy of further exploration.

Finally, the authors acknowledge the limitations of the present data. In particular, the participating states reflected a predominant northeastern group combined with several midwest- em states, and two western states. Due to the fact that state participation was completely vol- untary, control over geographic representation was not possible. Nevertheless, the survey data certainly represent the northeastern and midwestern regions in regards to the practice of school psychology. However, a more national representation will be needed in order to confirm the findings of the present study.


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Documents

A study of gender differences among school psychologists