a student’s guide to proofreading

michael sellarsauthor of the no-nonsense proofreading course

a student’s guide to proofreading

© Michael Sellars and Jeff Fullerton

This ebooklet is produced in the UK (2010)

Protection is under Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

The user agrees that this ebooklet is only a guide. Any outcome (by using this ebooklet) will be the result of the user’s own effort. The user agrees that neither the author nor any parties involved in producing or distributing or any activity directly or indirectly relating to this ebooklet can be held liable on any outcome whatsoever arising directly or indirectly from the use and application of any contents of this ebooklet.

contentsintroduction ..................................................... 4

proofreading preparation ............................... 6

proofreading method one ............................... 8

proofreading techniques .............................. 14

proofreading method two ............................. 21

proofreading method checklist .................... 24

proofreading techniques checklist ............... 25

thorny words ................................................. 27

proof readers’ marks .................................... 29

introduction

what is proofreading?

Before a document can be published, it is vital that it be free from error. A proofreader is someone who checks the pages (or ‘proofs’ as they are known in the printing trade) of a document before it is published. So, ‘proofreading’ is simply the act of checking a document for errors.

why is proofreading important?

When you submit an essay, project or dissertation, it will not be judged simply on the merit of its content but also on

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the perceived effort and dedication that has gone into its creation. Spelling errors, grammatical blunders and general inconsistency are often just the result of carelessness; unfortunately, they are frequently seen as indicators of lack of commitment.

Take this example from Dr Amy Fountain of the University of Arizona’s Department of Linguistics, when posting grades for Research Portfolio submissions:

“For groups that scored lower than you may have hoped, it was due in every case to a lack of good editing. Style issues, proofreading, and organizational problems cost some groups substantially...” (Quoted with permission.)

By thoroughly proofreading a piece of work, you can ensure it is well received and the considerable effort you’ve put into the content of your work isn’t needlessly jeopardised by poor presentation.

isn’t proofreading a special skill?

If we’re talking about professional proofreading, then the answer is ‘yes’. It can take a little time to develop the level of expertise required to proofread for a magazine, newspaper or publishing house. However, the degree of skill required to proofread your own work is considerably less and easily picked-up.

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proofreading preparation

Find a quiet place to work, somewhere with little or no distractions. If this isn’t possible, use headphones and unobtrusive music to block out any commotion.

If there are visual distractions, try to position yourself as best as possible to push them to the periphery of your vision. Again, if this isn’t possible, you’ll have to rely upon your own discipline.

Make sure you have plenty of light, preferably daylight or the nearest artificial equivalent.

Make sure you have plenty of space. You’re going to be checking printed documents, so you’ll need to have

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somewhere to put them where they won’t quickly degenerate into a chaotic heap. The reason we’re checking printed documents (or ‘hard copies’) is that errors are notoriously difficult to spot on-screen.

You’re also going to need:

a fine-tipped red pen, preferably one that doesn’t ‘bleed’. •(the Pentel Slicci 0.25mm red gel pen is a favourite of many proof readers)a reliable, modern dictionary•three different-coloured highlighter pens•a calculator•a copy of • Fowler’s Modern English Usage may be useful if you’re not particularly confident when it comes to grammar

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proofreading method: one

Proofreading isn’t simply a case of reading a piece of work very carefully. Effective proofreading is all about thoroughness. The following stages will ensure nothing is overlooked and errors are given no opportunity to escape your careful scrutiny. At the end of this ebooklet, you’ll find a checklist which you can print out and copy. Use this checklist whenever you are proofreading to make sure you have carried out each step.

proofreaders’ marks

But first a word about proof reader’s marks (sometimes referred to as ‘proofreading symbols’). You’ll find a list of

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these on page 29 of this ebooklet, with a description of when and how to use them. Although professional proof readers rely on all these arcane little squiggles, you’ll probably only use a handful of them. But do get into the habit of using them. They allow you to make quite complex comments whilst using very little space on the page. Without them, the substance of your document will soon vanish behind a tangle of scrawl.

More importantly, make sure you divide marking-up your work and correcting it into two distinct phases. Looking for errors and figuring out how to put them right (particularly where some rewriting might be involved) requires two entirely different mindsets. Checking and changing at the same time is a surefire way of letting errors slip though the net.

1. the run-through

Although, you’re proofreading, you’ll probably spend less than half your time actually reading. You should ‘read’ the document once, and this is the only time you will read the document in the traditional sense. For this read, you are basically focusing on sense and readability. This is when obvious mistakes such as missing words and general poor grammar will become apparent. Awkward phrasing and lack of clarity will also be highlighted during this stage of the process

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It’s a good idea, if at all possible, to read aloud for the ‘running through’ phase, as some errors that might otherwise be missed will leap out when spoken out loud.

Whether or not you’re reading aloud, you should try to read a little slower than usual. Read in a very measured, deliberate manner. Imagine you’re reading to someone who is a little hard of hearing, isn’t familiar with the subject matter and has the attention span of a goldfish.

Use a pen, pencil or ruler to follow what you’re reading, never a finger. Even the slenderest of digits looks like a gnarled old tree trunk when you put it next to 12-point Times New Roman. And do physically follow what you’re reading, no matter how childish it may seem. Whole lines may go unread if you don’t.

Now the run-through is complete, you can begin checking the document in detail. This time, you’re going to check one element of the page at a time. Use your checklist to make sure you don’t miss anything.

2. check line-endings

I find it’s always best to get this out of the way. Line-endings can prove something of a minefield for proof readers because of the psychological pause/refresh that occurs when we reach the end of each line.

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A typical example of this would be:

“When assembling your new Redwood loft bed, you must must always use the screws, bolts and nuts provided. Using anything other than the officially sanctioned items may invalidate your warranty.”

For those of you who missed it:

“When assembling your new Redwood loft bed, you must must always use the screws, bolts and nuts provided. Using anything other than the officially sanctioned items may invalidate your warranty.”

3. check headings

Rather than reading chapter headings and subheadings (assuming there are any) along with the rest of the text, read headings and subheadings in isolation from the rest of the text. If headings or subheadings are numbered, make sure they run in sequence.

As a rule with headings, the bigger they are the harder they fall. You’ll be surprised how many glaring errors escape undetected despite being in 72-point Helvetica Black. It’s human nature to automatically become less cautious where we perceive less risk. You’ll need to overcome (or, at the very least, circumvent) this behaviour.

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4. check captions

If there are any photographs or illustrations, check any associated captions separately, as you would headings and subheadings. The difference here is you’ll also have to consider the nature of the image and the corresponding caption. Does the caption make sense in relation to the image it references? If you’re looking at a picture of a Cairo bazaar and the caption reads ‘The Pyramid of Cheops’, you’ve clearly got a problem.

5. highlight page numbers

Using a highlighter pen, mark up every page number. And I mean every page number, not just those at the top or bottom of the page. Highlight all page numbers in the index, appendices, contents page, in fact anywhere there is a cross-reference to another page. Don’t worry whether the page numbers you’ve highlighted are right or wrong at this stage. We won’t be checking for accuracy until the ‘subsequent reads’ phase.

6. check headers and footers

As well as for accuracy, you should be checking headers and footers for consistency and relevance (just as you did

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for photograph and illustration captions). If the information in the header or footer doesn’t appear to logically correspond to what’s on the page, there’s a problem.

7. visual check

A colleague of mine refers to this as ‘eyeballing’. You’re looking for visual problems or inconsistencies. Such as illegible type and inconsistent presentation.

The first of these is by far the more serious. If you have problems reading something, so will the intended audience of your document.

The second is more a question of aesthetics. For example, chapter headings may normally be in sentence case but, in one instance, all initials are in capitals. This is a minor detail but an accumulation of such incidents can result in a poor reception for your work.

8. the big check

You’re ready to get down to the really demanding part now. It’s fine-tooth comb time. This is less about method and more about technique; these techniques are outlined in the following chapter. Once you’ve completed the big check, the ‘proofreading process’ begins again.

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proofreading techniques

Believe it or not, your biggest enemy as a proof reader is your ability to read. Since about the age of four, you’ve been rigorously and comprehensively taught how to read. By the age of about eight, there will have been very little you couldn’t read, with the strategic application of a few nifty tricks and handy tools. Now, reading is second nature, entirely intuitive. If you don’t believe me, see how easily you read the following, despite the fact that, at first glance, it appears to be complete gibberish.

“Porof reerdas are anazmig pepole. Tehy are paetnit, peerpvctie and narulalty iuqisviinte.”

See? Despite the fact that the words are completely jumbled

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(with the exception of the first and last letters in each case) you were able to decipher the above with little or no difficulty. It’s second nature. Entirely intuitive. This is a huge problem when you’re proofreading. Fortunately, there are a number of proofreading techniques that will help you overcome this particular ‘disadvantage’.

1. the proof reader’s mindset

You’re going to start proofreading now. The real deal. Once you’ve been proofreading for some time, you’ll develop a proof reader’s mentality, but until then, you’ll need to get yourself into the right frame of mind.

When proofreading, you have to tell yourself there is a mistake in the document you’re checking. Not there might be a mistake. There is a mistake. I’ve never read an error-free document in my life. Not once.

There is a mistake in the document you are about to check. Find it.

2. read slowly

Not painfully slowly. But slowly in the sense of ‘slow and steady wins the race’. Different proof readers have a different idea of just how slow ‘slowly’ is. As a rule, however long it takes you to read a page normally, it should take you about three times as long to proofread it. Any quicker and you’re

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probably going at it a little fast and you’re likely to miss something.

3. read arrhythmically...

Good writing has a distinct, almost poetic rhythm. It flows. It sweeps us along with its undulating musicality. When proofreading, good writing is a positive liability. Great writing is practically fatal. As you are pulled along, you will begin to overlook errors that may seem blindingly obvious to others.

To counteract the effect of tempo and cadence, use a small piece of card or paper to conceal everything but a maximum of six words on a line. This will interrupt the natural flow of the sentence.

Many experienced proof readers are able to read arrhythmically without the help of a ‘shield’, but, I freely admit, I’m not one of them. A piece of card works just fine for me.

4. ...or read rhythmically

Personally, I use the arrhythmic approach. But many proof readers I’ve worked with have used the rhythmic approach. For this method, you read rhythmically, but you impose your own rhythm on the document. One proof reader I know always forces everything he checks to follow the rhythm

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and melody of ‘Jerusalem’. Give it a try; see if it works for you. Pick your own tune, but always use something with a relatively slow tempo. Mozart’s ‘Turkish Rondo’ is probably not a good idea.

5. read backwards

This breaks up the rhythm of a piece of writing and also helps highlight incorrectly spelled words. If you don’t have time to read an entire document backwards (perhaps, you’re working to a tight deadline), at least make sure you read any difficult passages in this manner, or possibly alternate between reading forwards and backwards.

6. syllable mode

For words of five syllables or more, go into ‘syllable mode’. Break the word down into its syllabic components. So, ‘miscellaneous’ becomes ‘misc-ell-an-e-ous’. Sound out each syllable distinctly (aloud if at all possible, or mutter it to yourself). I’ve unconsciously developed a habit of tapping my finger along to the sounding of each syllable, which seems to help. Slipping in and out of syllable mode also has the added benefit of disrupting the intended rhythm of a piece of writing.

7. read out of sequence

Don’t read page one followed by page two and so forth. 17

Read page eight, then page five, then page seven, then page six. Likewise, with paragraphs: read the last paragraph first, then the first, then the second to last and so on. Remember, you’ve already carried out your ‘sense and readability’ check, so you can afford to completely mix things up. Make sure you keep track of what you have and haven’t read; use a writing pad if necessary to note down where you are up to.

8. watch out for capital letters and italics

I don’t know why, but capital letters and italics seem to act like camouflage for spelling errors. There’s probably a three-year research project in some linguistics laboratory in Switzerland taking place right now with the objective of getting to the bottom of this particular phenomenon. Until they publish their findings, you’ll just have to be especially careful around caps and italics.

9. verbally identify apostrophes

Apostrophes can prove to be a real fly in the ointment. They’re so easily overlooked and play a crucial role in the meaning of a sentence. So, when you hit an apostrophe, verbally identify it in your head or, preferably, out loud.

For example, if you were reading the sentence, ‘Mahatma Gandhi influenced Mandela’s approach, and subsequently the methods of succeeding generations of South African

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anti-apartheid activists’, you would read it as ‘Mahatma Gandhi influenced Mandela-apostrophe-ess approach, and subsequently the methods of succeeding generations of South African anti-apartheid activists’.

Using this method will force you to question every apostrophe. It also disrupts the rhythm of the document you are reading.

10. watch out for ‘thorny’ words

There are a surprising number of words in the English language that seem as if they were consciously conceived to trip up proof readers. I’ve provided a list of some of these at the end of this booklet for you to print out along with your checklist. There may be some words that you know you are particularly vulnerable to. Add these to the list.

11. do your sums

It’s easy when proofreading to think it’s all about spelling, grammar and clarity, but don’t forget to check the numbers. Make sure dates are right and everything adds up.

12. take a break

Don’t proofread continuously for more than fifteen minutes. Make sure you take a break, just for a minute, during which time, you should try to focus on something in the distance.

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This will reduce eyestrain and also help to refocus and refresh your mind. It can be very tempting to just soldier on. Resist this temptation.

13. read it again

If you have the time, take as long a break as is realistically possible, then read the whole thing again. If you have some time but not a great deal, reread any pages, paragraphs or sections you found particularly troublesome. Also, those passages which appear to be completely error-free are often worth a revisit.

14. give it to someone else to read

Find someone you trust, hand them your work, this ebooklet, your checklist and the list of thorny words and, while you take a well-earned break, leave them to it!

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proofreading method: two

Okay, so now you have a proof that you (and, possibly, a ‘trusted other’) has marked up with corrections, the ‘proofreading process’ continues.

9. second read

After a reasonable break, begin working through your corrections one by one and, using a highlighter pen, swipe through each proof reader’s mark once it has been actioned. Use a different colour to the one you used to highlight page numbers earlier. Any request for change which has necessitated a substantial rewrite, highlight in a different colour.

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Once all your corrections have been carried out, print out a fresh copy. Place the new copy directly in front of you on the desk and the marked-up copy just to one side of it. Go through each correction, making sure it has been carried out to your satisfaction.

For any substantially rewritten passages, apply all the standards and necessary procedures from the proofreading method and proofreading techniques chapters. In other words, treat these as if they are to all intents and purposes ‘first read’ material.

You will now have a proof which probably has a few marks on it, but, hopefully, not too many. Carry out these changes and print off a new hard copy. I appreciate that this is not the most environmentally friendly of procedures, so make sure you recycle all your old proofs, or use the reverse sides for note-taking or other activities.

10. final read

Check this final copy (you really shouldn’t need more than three passes to create a ‘clean’ proof) to make sure any lingering errors have been put right.

11. check cross-references

Now – and this is really important – go through the entire document checking all the page numbers and cross-

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references you highlighted earlier. Mark up and action any corrections. The reason we leave this activity right to the end is we can’t be sure, until every other correction has been carried out, precisely where every element of text is going to sit. Even the addition of a single sentence can shunt everything that follows on enough to throw out all your cross-references by a page.

And that’s it. Once your cross-references have been actioned, you should have a document that is, hopefully, free from error.

I say ‘hopefully’, because the fact is, we all make mistakes. The important thing is we do everything reasonable to ensure mistakes don’t happen. As a proof reader with 20 years of experience, I’ve let a few errors slip through the net in my time. It happens. If you’ve followed the process and techniques in this ebooklet, however, anyone who subsequently reads your work will have no doubt as to the care and dedication you have poured into your efforts.

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proofreading method

1. the run-through

2. check line endings

3. check headings

4. check captions

5. highlight page numbers

6. check headers and footers

7. visual check

8. the big check

9. second read

10. final read

11. check cross-references

proofreading techniques1. adopt the right mindset

2. read slowly

3. read arrhythmically...

4. or read rhythmically

5. read backwards

6. read in ‘syllable mode’

7. read out of sequence

8. watch out for capitals/italics

9. verbally identify apostrophes

10. watch out for ‘thorny’ words

11. do your sums

techniques continued

12. take a break

13. read it again

14. get someone else to read it

You won’t necessarily be called upon to use all of these methods and techniques. For example, there may be no footers or captions; there may be no need to ‘do your sums’; there may not be enough time to re-read the document. Let common sense be your guide. Before you consider the task of proofreading complete, make sure you have applied every technique possible under the circumstances.

thorny words

There are some words in the English language that cause problems for even the most experience and seasoned of proof readers: affect/effect, complement/compliment. forego/forgo etc.

I haven’t provided you with definitions here; you’ll have to rely on your dictionary for that. Suffice to say, whenever you encounter one of these thorny words, check the definition for each spelling, just to make absolutely certain you’re using the right word.

I’ve deliberately left a few lines at the bottom of the list where you can add any words that you feel particularly vulnerable to.

Personally, unless I’m especially cautious, I always get caught out by ‘you’re/your’. Embarrassing, I know.

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accept/except

affect/effect

a lot/allot

all ready/already

all together/altogether

alter/altar

ascent/assent

breath/breathe

canvas/canvass

complement/compliment

course/coarse

council/counsel

decent/descent/dissent

desert/dessert

elicit/illicit

eminent/imminent

flaunt/flout

forego/forgo

forth/fourth

grisly/grizzly

hoard/horde

incidence/incidents

its/it’s

lead/led

loath/loathe

lose/loose

palate/palette

passed/past

pedal/peddle

plain/plane

precede/proceed

principal/principle

proscribe/prescribe

rain/rein/reign

stationary/stationery

their/there/they’re

weather/whether

who’s/whose

your/you’re

thorny words

what it means

Ignore underscored Proof Reader’s marks in this instance

Remove marks and blemishes (usually on artwork or image)

Query with/carry forward to appropriate authority

Insert this text

Delete

Delete and close space

Replace text or character

Wrong font. Change to correct font.

Change to italics

Change to roman

Change to capitals

Change to small capitals

copy

Broken line under characters to be ignored

Circle round marks and blemishes

Circle round subject of query

This is also known as a ‘caret’

Line through character or text

through character

through text.

Line through character or text.

Circle round incorrect text.

Underscore text

Underscore text

Triple underscore text

Double underscore text

margin

or stet

or c.f.

Then copy to be inserted, or ‘A’ or ‘1’, for example, if the copy is on another sheet

New text or character

or wf

proof readers’ marks

what it means

Change from caps or small caps to lowercase

Make bold

Make superscript

Make subscript

Insert comma

Insert full stop (period)

Insert colon

Insert semi-colon

Insert apostrophe

Insert single quote

Insert double quote

Insert hyphen

Insert en-dash

Insert em-dash

Insert slash

copy

Double or triple underscore

‘Wavy’ underscore

Caret if inserting character, strike through character to be superscripted

Caret if inserting character, strike through character to be subscripted

Caret, or strike-through if character being replaced

As above

As above

As above

As above

As above

As above

As above

As above

As above

As above

margin

or

with character to be inserted on top

with character to be inserted underneath

or

or

proof readers’ marks

what it means

Insert paragraph break

Remove paragraph break

Insert indent

Remove indent

Range text left or right

Centre

Increase space

Reduce space

Remove space

Reduce or increase leading (line space)

copy

Between the words where you want the break to occur

Effectively joining the paragraphs together

Demonstrating how far you wish the text to be indented

Indicating text to be ‘outdented’

Bracket text to be ranged

Bracket text

Use caret

Use caret

use l ike this

Mark starts in margin with line extending to the offending area

margin

or

Increase or

reduce

proof readers’ marks

Proofreading symbols courtesy of the no-nonsense proofreading course: http://proofreadingcourse.weebly.com.

good luck!

I hope you’ve found this little ebooklet useful. Good luck with all your proofreading endeavours.

You’ll find more proofreading tips and resources at:http://proofreadingcourse.weebly.com

a note on printing this ebooklet

This ebooklet has been created for optimised on-screen viewing. As such, the type is quite large. If you want to print out this document, please save paper by printing two pages (of the ebooklet) to each sheet of paper.

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