INT. REV. APP. PSYCHOL. VOL. 18. NO. I

A SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL A P P R O A C H TO T H E R I N G I - S Y S T E M

K . TAKAGI Chuo-Gakuin University, Japan

Several years ago, F. Harbison and C. A. Myers wrote about business manage- ment, and especially about decision-making problems, in Japan as follows: ‘Though respect for age and reliance on group decision-making were admirable social customs in traditional Japanese culture, individual initiative and some atypical behaviour are now recognized as indispensable for the healthy develop- ment of modern managerial organizations’ (1).

I cannot, however, completely accept the viewpoint they expressed. For while we can certainly find, on the one hand, many of the symptoms of modernity to which they referred, we can also find, on the other hand, plenty of evidence that many traditional patterns are still strongly entrenched in our firms.

I venture to say, therefore, that we should speak about ‘the oldness’ of Japan not in the past tense as Harbison and Myers spoke, but rather in the present tense.

For instance, the fact that the traditional Ringi-System,’ the original decision- making system of Japan, has been for a long time widely maintained in our companies is sufficient indication as to the strength of tradition.

According to the research of the Japanese Committee for Economic Develop- ment (JCED), this system is even now supported by 94 per cent of our big companies. Furthermore, it is reported that most of them (81.7 per cent) intend to continue the Ringi-System on the old lines.

What then is the relationship between this system and social attitudes in Japan? What sorts of social predisposition have supported a system of this kind having the characteristics of, firstly, a lack of individuality and, secondly, ambiguity as to responsibility ?

These problems may be approached from the standpoint of social psychology. The psychological understanding of the decision-making behaviour has been

gradually advanced by a number of psychologists in recent years (2). We have very few studies, however, for this kind of problem in Japan. Accordingly, we do not have any psychological studies and experiments on the Ringi-System in our country.

Under these circumstances, my report is necessarily confined mainly to general observations of a hypothetical nature.

J. G . Abegglen described the characteristics of such a decision-making system in Japan as follows: ‘In the first place, nearly all decisions are worked out by groups of people in conferences and discus- sions. . . . Second, communication is not well defined, and the levels of authority through which decisions must be transmitted are numerous. Third, and perhaps most significant, it becomes nearly impossible in this system to fix individual responsibility for decisions or for errors in decision-making’, 7 h e Japanese Factory, 1958, pp. 83-4.

54 A SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE RINCI-SYSTEM

Let me indicate, then, some of my hypotheses derived from the results so far obtained through interviews and other investigations.

In this case I approached firstly the problem of social attitude not from the viewpoint of inter-attitude organization, but from that of intra-attitude organiza- tion which has three aspects : cognitive, emotional, and evaluative. And I consider, secondly, decision-making behaviour under each of these aspects, finally setting up six hypotheses on the interrelationships between social attitudes and decision- making behaviour.

Firstly, considered from the cognitive aspect, it is possible to assume the three following hypotheses :

Hypothesis I-A Decision-making behaviour in Japan is often more influenced by the TATEMAE (i.e. ‘rule’)-Centred predispositions than by HONNE(i.e. real intention)-centred predispositions.

This implies, in other words, that we Japanese are probably more prone to be dominated by social norms and customs than by individual intention in the ordinary course of social behaviour, as T. Fukutake and his collaborators once suggested (3). Similarly F. Shinagawa also characterized this as ‘the absence of self-independence’ (4).

Decision-making in Japanese enterprises, therefore, is liable to rely on the group-centred system rather than on an individual-centred system, and as a result ‘it becomes nearly impossible to fix individual responsibility’, as F. G. Abegglen mentioned.

This is one of the psychological foundations that has maintained the Ringi- System.

Hypothesis I-B Decision-making in Japan is supported by the latent other-oriented attitudes of the Japanese.

I t is often said, for instance, that planning by middle managers can often be accepted immediately by their superiors in a Japanese firm. This is precisely an expression of such an other-oriented predisposition; provided we understand that the meanings of ‘other oriented behaviour’ in this case is not precisely what D. Riesman proposed (5).

This point of view is also supported by the study of M. E. Goodman, which makes a most interesting suggestion (6). According to his research, Japanese children are more other-oriented than American children. If children are so oriented, it is even more likely that business men are so. I want to propose, therefore, that this orientation is likely to be even more marked in Japanese behaviour than in the description given by D. Riesman.

Hypothesis I-C Decision-making in Japan will be greatly influenced by the clique-oriented attitudes of the Japanese.

K. TAKACI 55

In fact, according to the research of the Institute of Middle Class, it is reported that 33.5 per cent of the middle class recognize the powerful and irrational influence of cliques (e.g. academic cliques, hereditary cliques, etc.) in their com- panies and strive to ingratiate themselves with these cliques.

And in my interviews I heard many businessmen expressing themselves in the following language: ‘Owing to cliquism in our firm promotion is slow for anyone who is not a Tokyo University man.’

Furthermore, as the business society of Japan has the characteristics of a closed society and has a tendency to distinguish sharply in-group from out-group, such cliquism, as many investigators have shown, tends to become more and more prominent.

I t is very natural, consequently, that the decisions in the council of general executives are department-centred rather than firm-centred. In my view this represents an overlapping of Japanese cliquism and sectionalism.

In the circumstances business men in Japan find it almost impossible not to become clique-centred.

Looking at the matter from the point of view of the effective component of social attitudes, the following hypothesis can be put forward.

Hypothesis IZ Decision-making in Japan is frequently influenced by social attitudes which tend to respond emotionally rather than naturally to others.

Although it is certain that decision-making must be primarily carried out at the rational level, the decision-making in Japan in concrete instances seems not necessarily to be so.

Broadly speaking, it is probably because Japanese society has the characteristics of a unilateral society (as C. Nakane suggested (7)) that Japanese enterprises have been maintained and developed by the ‘emotional participation’ of their members. This phenomenon is basically nothing but the remaining vestiges of ‘familialism’ in industrial relations in Japan, as K. Noda pointed out (8).

So business men tend to respond emotionally in their companies as well as in their families. And it is also probably for the same reason that they prefer ambiguity to logical strictness in their discussions. They want to avoid the emotional antagonism that arises from opposition based on reasoned grounds.

Finally, looking at the matter from the point of view of the evaluative aspect of social attitudes, the two following hypotheses may be proposed.

Hypothesis 111-A Decision-making in Japan is greatly influenced by the social attitude that gives to authority a high prestige and ready acceptance.

It is often heard said in our country, for instance, that decision-making is dis- torted only in order to save the KAO (i.e. ‘honour’) of a certain member. This is no doubt an expression of the ‘authoritarianism’ of Japan.

The following interesting research gives us clearer information on this matter. According to the study of K. Noda (9), it is reported that about 90 per cent

56 A SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE RINGI-SYSTEM

of the representative managers in Japanese firms have authority-oriented characters and almost all managers are conservative. If so, it follows naturally that many decisions in Japan are still distorted by considerations of authority or prestige and not determined solely on economic grounds.

Hypothesis ZII-B

Decision-making in Japan is influenced by the social attitude that esteems outward form above essential content. To cite only one instance, conferences in Japan frequently devote more effort to arriving at conformity than to letting each member advocate his own opinion.

Furthermore, since the Ringi-System is, above all, bureaucratic, it is natural that this tendency should become more and more prominent.

Conclusion In conclusion, the following illustration, which shows the interrelationships between the social attitudes of the Japanese and the characteristics of the Ringi- System, is put forward.

CHARACTERISTICS O F RINGI-SYSTEM

HYPOTHESES

I-A TATEMAE-centered

Lack of I-B .Other-oriented

I-C Clique-oriented

I1 Emotional response to othcn

111-A Authority-oriented

111-B Forrn-centered

Indkiduadty

Ambiguity of - Responsibility

R E F E R E N C E S

1. HARBISON, F., and MYERS, c. A., Management in the Industrial World, 1959. 2. BLOCK, J., and PETERSEN, P., ‘Some personality correlates of confidence,

caution and speed in a decision situation’, Abn. €3 SOC. Psychol., 1955, 34-41.

DUBNO, P., ‘Decision time characteristics of leaders and group problem solving behavior’, Soc. Psychol., 1963, 231-43.

BRIM, 0. G. JR., et al., Personality and Decision Processes, studies in the social psychology of thinking, 1962.

COLLINS, B. E., and GUETZKOW, H., A Social Psychology of Group Processes for Decision-Making, 1964.

3 . FUKUTAKE, T., et al., Social Consciousness o f the Iapanese, 1960. 4. SHINAGAWA, F., Racial Characteristics, 1953.

K. TAKAGI 57 FUESMAN, D., ‘The Lonely Crowd’, 1950. GOODMAN, M. E., ‘Values, Attitudes and Social Concepts of Japanese and

NAKANE, c., ‘The discovery of the Japanese social structure,’ Chuokoron,

5. 6.

7. American Children’, ‘Americana’, Vol. 4, July 1958, No. 7.

May 1964, 48-85. 8. NODA, K., ‘Traditionalism in Japanese management’, J.appl.Psychol., 6 , 1963,

127-70. 9. - ‘Job and social consciousness of the representative managers’, Modern

Management, November 1959.

ETUDE PSYCHO-SOCIOLOGIQUE DU ((SYSTEME RINGID

K. TAKAGI

Le systkme-Ringi est caract&& par 1”) l’absence d’individualisme et 2”) l’ambiguitt des responsabilitb. Pendant longtemps, ce syst2me d’tlaboration des dtcisions a ttt un des plus employ& dans les entrepnses japonaises.

Quelles sont les attitudes japonakes likes B ce systkme? Quelles dispositions sociales ont ttayt ce systkme?

Le problkme a CtC envisage du point de vue de la psychologie sociale, en parti- culier des trois aspects fondamentaux des attitudes sociales (cognitive, affective, qualitative) et les six hypothbes suivantes ont 6th formultes, B partir d’entretiens avec des cadres suptrieurs et d’autres recherche.

Hypothdse I-A Au Japon, le comportement de prise de dtcision est souvent influence par les tendances dirigtes vers la TATEMAE (la rkgle) plut8t que par les tendances centrtes vers le HONNE (les intentions propres B chacun).

Hypothdse I-B Au Japon, la prise de dtcision est fondte sur les attitudes orienttes vers autrui, latentes chez les Japonais.

Hypothdse I-C Au Japon, la prise de dtcision est fortement influencke par les attitudes orient& vers la foule, propres aux Japonais.

Hypot hBse I I Au Japon, la prise de dtcision est frtquemment influencte par des attitudes sociales qui poussent B rtpondre aux autres affectivement plut8t que rationnelle- ment.