A Search for Post-Modernism in Indian Ar

A SEARCH FOR POST-MODERNISM IN INDIAN ARCHITECTURE

Arjun Mukerji Dr. Sanghamitra Basu

[Published in: ABACUS, Vol.6, No.1, Spring 2011. pp.11-20. ISSN: 0973-8339]

1.0 INTRODUCTION In 1870, the English painter John Watkins Chapman used the term post-modern to

mean more modern than modern (Jencks, 1991, p.20). The meaning remains

preserved when looked strictly from a chronological point of view, and modern

translates to contemporary, but stylistically, post-modernism is not a double-dose of

modernism. In fact, it is in its reaction and opposition to modernism that post-

modernism best expresses itself, be it in literature, art, architecture, or social theory.

Post-modernism signals the emergence of a period of multiple changes in society,

involving information advances, consumerism, the omnipresence of simulations, and

the rise of a post-industrial order (Brooker, 1999, Featherstone, 1991, as cited in

Bloland, 2005, p.123). In social theory, post-modernism is a reaction to grand

narratives on the nature of the universe, and offers no vision of theory beyond many

voices in continual play (Allan & Turner, 2000, p.364).

In literature, post-modernism is a reaction to the unity and primacy of narrative, often

playfully denying the possibility of meaning, and eradicating the distinction between

high and low culture with the employment of pastiche, the combination of multiple

cultural elements, including subjects and genres not previously deemed fit for

literature.

In the visual arts, postmodernism was a rejection of the grand narratives of artistic

direction, eradicating the boundaries between high and low forms of art, and

disrupting the conventions of genre with collision, collage, and fragmentation. Post-

modern art holds that all stances are unstable and insincere, and

therefore irony, parody, and humour are the only positions that cannot be overturned

by critique. Pluralism and diversity emerge as other defining features.

Several of these attitudes are shared by post-modern architecture. However, the

commonly assumed distinction of modern as artistic autonomy and post-modern as

mass culture does not hold good in architecture as it does in some other fields

(McLeod, 1989/1998, p.681). Also, it is worthwhile to remember that modernism and

post-modernism remain inextricably entwined, and often have a fuzzy boundary as

opposed to a clear binary distinction (Bloland, 2005, p.138). The significance of

post-modernism in architecture has to be sought both in the theories professed and

the paradigms refuted.

Post-modern architecture is the architectural style which evolved from middle to late

twentieth century, as a response to the perceived failures of the modern movement in

architecture. It is worthwhile to look at the international experience of post-

modernism in order to understand the post-modernist architecture in India, which

parallel those elsewhere in the world because, at a generic level, the architectural

problems of India are not unique. Their specific solutions may be (Lang, 2002,

p.151).

2.0 POST-MODERN ARCHITECTURE: THE INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE It is always difficult and reductive to define a growing and complex movement like

post-modern architecture, and understandably, a number of different theories and

perspectives have arisen while attempting to do so. Sections 2.2 to 2.4 outline the

various attitudes and try to identify the common ground, but at first we analyze

modernist architecture as the springing board of post-modernism.

2.1. Modernist Architecture Modern refers to the core values of Enlightenment - the centrality of reason, the

belief in progress, the virtues of individualism, and faith in the scientific method

(Bloland, 2005, p.122). Modernism in architecture may be understood as a direct

consequence of the industrial revolution. As if as a homage to the invention of new

materials and the advent of new technologies, the modernist paradigm was to frankly

expose and showcase these materials and techniques of construction. Function and

efficiency were the primary inspirations for design. Uniformity and a rationalist

approach were considered a necessity to cater to an industrialized and urban society,

and mass construction and industrialized building systems provided the necessary

support. The resultant machine-aesthetic was minimalist, sans ornamentation,

employing platonic geometrical forms and planer surfaces. Classical or historical

references were consciously avoided, even though they might have been inspirations

for some architects like Le Corbusier (Curtis, 1987, p.108). The general attitude is

well expressed in oft-quoted maxims like: Form follows function, A house is a

machine for living in, and Less is more.

By the 1960s , an increasing sense of monotony of uniformity, apathy, insecurity,

lack of belongingness and ensuing social problems became serious concerns

(Jacob,1961), which led to renewed introspection by civic societies, sociologists,

urban planners and designers, and post-modern paradigms emerged. When the late

modernist Philip Johnson dismissed the Crutch of Utility (as) poppy-cock

(since) all buildings work, as well as the Crutch of Structure, it clearly undermined

the very paradigm of utilitarian modernism (Johnson, 1954/2006). Widely publicized

images of the demolition of the Pruitt Igoe Housing Complex were, as if, the final

blow to modernism.

In view of the above, post-modernism may be understood as a challenge to the

rationalization of space and the imposition of a strict and systematic order on daily

life; and, in its place, some postmodern architecture makes space more personalized

through the use of pastiche, the blending of styles, and the inclusion of historical

references (Allan & Turner, 2000, p.364). The development of post-modern

architectural theory is briefly discussed in sections 2.2 to 2.4.

2.2. Early Theories of Post-Modern Architecture Early post-modernism developed through a criticism of modernism, for being

abstract, formal and inaccessible for having lost the traditional communicative

role of architecture. In advocacy of post-modernity in architecture, Paolo Portoghesi

placed emphasis on presence of the past and historical continuity (Portoghesi,

1980/2006). Robert Stern supported the idea of historic continuity, together with

pluralistic communication, context and ornament (Stern, 1980, as cited in Jencks,

1991, p.13), and Heinrich Klotz stressed on the importance of narrative (Klotz, 1988,

as cited in Jencks, 1991, p.15).

Charles Jencks identifies post-modernism as having a double-agenda which

criticises Modernism and Traditionalism while, at the same time, selecting elements

from both of them (Jencks, 2006b, p.6). He elaborately charts and analyses the

different tendencies and characteristics of post-modern architecture: the historicism

which included straight revivalism to neo-vernacular and abstraction, the radical

eclecticism rich in ornamentation, juxtaposition and layering, the use of metaphor

and symbol for communication or expression, the employment of humour, and the

evolution of kitsch as culture (Jencks, 1991). In his 13 propositions for post-modern

architecture, Jencks recommends complexity and multi-valence in architecture,

intended to be communicated to a pluralistic audience through symbols, metaphors,

reference to the past and classicism (Jencks, 1996/2006a).

There are other theoretical viewpoints advocating cultural diversity and

experientialism, while at the same time emphasizing the communicative role of the

built environment through meaning. Christian Norberg-Schulz suggests perception

of form has a cultural basis, and these forms need to be ordered to evolve a formal

language of architecture (Norberg-Schulz, 1965/2006). Jane Jacobs urbanism calls

for interconnection, symbiosis, ecology, diversity and difference leading to an

organized complexity (Jacobs, 1961, as cited in Jencks, 1991, p.11). Complexity in

such cases may result from diversified perceptions, reflection of multicultural

associations, as well as through a repertoire of past traditions. Robert Venturi,

another protagonist of the theory of complexity and contradiction (Venturi,

1966/2006), also emphasizes the communicative role of architecture when he

advocates the use of the decorated shed, i.e. symbol, instead of the duck, i.e. icon

(Venturi, Brown & Izenour, 1972/2006).

It is important to note here that there were other responses arising out of the

disillusionment with modernism which paralleled early post-modernism. Most

notable of these was Kenneth Framptons idea of Critical Regionalism, which takes a

middle course between Enlightenment idealism and New Historicist materialism,

seeking to cultivate an identity-giving culture as well as to employ universal

techniques. Frampton recommends a concern for nature over culture, and the tactile

over the visual, and speaks against the ever-present tendency to regress into

nostalgic historicism or the glibly decorative (Frampton, 1983/2002, p.22). This

approach may be better understood as a reformed modernism rather than a new

architectural style.

2.3. Late Post-Modern Architecture Schismatic post-modernism or deconstructivism, spearheaded by Peter Eisenman,

developed through a celebration of the disintegration of communication and the

impossibility of postulating any meaning or cultural consensus. It is in essence post-

structuralist, denying structuralisms search for underlying scientific rules of

discourse that organize social life (Best & Kellner, 1991, as cited in Bloland, 2005,

p.122). This strain avoids historicist imagery, contextualism and humanism, and

instead exhibits a technological imagery full of fragmentation, dispersion, and

disturbance.

Deconstructivism may well be understood as a reaction to early post-modernism. In

its preference for the abstract and hi-tech, and its rejection of tradition,

deconstructivism may even appear similar to modernism, but the rejection of

fundamental ideologies like functionalism and structural rationalism makes it post-

modern. Ironically, it may be observed that deconstructivism also looks to the past

for developing its rhetoric, only now the search is centred on a more recent past

that of constructivism, structuralism and modernism.

2.4. Unity in The Post-Modern Pluralism The diversity and pluralism of the post-modern movement poses a challenge to

defining it. Early post-modernism, in the variety of all its tendencies, remains united

in its objective of architectural communication and cultural identity. The justification

is not in programme, structure, or function, but in meaning. The deconstructivists,

dialectically opposite, celebrate the decomposition of meaning. However, what is

immediately apparent is that the territory of the post-modern debate remains:

meaning and its dissolution (McLeod, 1989/1998, p.681).

In view of the international experience, we intend to seek post-modernism in Indian

architecture. However, in order to provide an understanding of the attitudes and

tendencies which give rise to the Indian experience, it is essential to have an

overview of the evolution of contemporary architecture in India.

3.0 CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA While charting the growth of contemporary Indian architecture, Jon Lang identifies

four distinct phases of modernism in India as: early modernism, first generation

modernism, second generation modernism, and post-Nehru modernism (Lang, 2002).

Each of these phases may be briefly discussed, and their contribution towards the

evolution of post-modernism is analyzed, as follows:

3.1. Early Modernism in India Galconde House (1936-48), Pondicherry, designed by Antonin Raymond, is

generally considered as the first modernist building in India. However, Indian

architectural practice continued to experience a constant tussle of looking back into

the past for cultural relevance and looking forward to a rationally designed future.

Surendranath Kar, under the influence of Rabindranath Tagore at Shantiniketan, and

following ideas of the swadeshi era, came up with explorations of nationalist

design, but it failed to garner the attention of major architectural firms. From about

the first quarter of the century, the contemporary art deco and streamline moderne

styles started to capture the imagination of Indian architects, and were profusely

employed till as late as the 1960s (by which time they were already considered pass

in the western world). A parallel evolution, with integration of indigenous cultural

precedents, was the eclectic Indo-deco style. The modern Indian architectural

movement, spearheaded by Sris Chandra Chatterjee in the 1920s and 1930s, was

reactionary to art deco and essentially revivalist, representing a belief that the past

can give order to the present and be a source of identity and pride for the people who

see it as part of their culture. However, in execution, it was considered pastiche and

retrogressive. The colonial heritage of neo-classicism continued to influence Indian

architectural practice well into the middle of the 20th century.

Though the style of international modernism, which thrived in the west from the

1920s to 1960s, was familiar to the Indian architectural fraternity, there was limited

evidence of it being employed, other than in the isolated rationalist works of foreign

architects, like Muthesius, Dudok, Raymond, and Koenigsberger, unconnected with

the Indian architectural firms. It was the political independence of India that signalled

a desire to create a new world, much like the World War II did in Europe, and

international modernism started gaining ground as the architectural vocabulary for

the purpose.

The modified classicism of Claude Bately gradually gave way to early modernism.

Architectural firms like Ballardie, Thompson and Mathews sought simplification of

the art deco exuberance to meet modernist demands, and Walter George tried to

adapt the norms of modernism to the climatic nature and construction process of

India. The synthesis of these two approaches gave rise to the utilitarian modernism

that characterizes a major part of contemporary Indian architecture (Lang, 2002,

p.33).

Early modernism was also a result of the designs of the Public Works Departments:

notably, the CPWD in New Delhi, the Orissa PWD in Bhubaneswar, and the Mysore

State PWD. Architecture of this generation was characterized by modernist principles

in planning and construction, with a mixture of revivalist elements. Interestingly, the

Iconography of the chandrashala in the Vigyan Bhavan, by CPWD, New Delhi, is

not worked into the fabric of the structure like most revivalist elements, but stand out

as an iconic exclamation point, conforming to much later approaches of Venturian

of post-modernism (Brown, 2009, p.63).

What is noteworthy is the continual shift in attitudes experienced before the

international modern style gained a strong foothold as the predominant architectural

style. These early aspirations of achieving a relevant architectural vocabulary may

well be considered as a precursor to the post-modernist experience in India. This

quest received renewed impetus after the rise and fall of late modernism as discussed

in the following section.

3.2. Late Modernism in India Post-independence, the architecture of the British was politically unacceptable,

though its adaptation to Indian regional climates was grudgingly appreciated (Lang,

2002, p.58). Inspired by the Nehruvian vision, Indian architectural thought sought

inspiration from the United States and Europe. The influence of Frank Lloyd

Wrights empiricism and, more significantly, that of Gorpiuss Bauhaus paradigm of

rationalism is noteworthy in architecture of this era.

India witnessed individual works of a number of foreign architects like the Reserve

Bank of India, Kolkata, by John Ritchie, the Tata Centre, Kolkata, by Holabard &

Root, and the United States Embassy, New Delhi, by Edward Durrell Stone.

Moreover, several young foreign architects started practicing in conjunction with

Indian professionals, notable amongst them being Joseph Allen Stein, Benjamin

Polk, and Bernard Kohn, and there association proved instrumental in dissemination

of modernist paradigms. Also, a significant number of Indian architects received their

training abroad and started employing the new approaches learnt from their

international exposure. This new generation included Habib Rahman, Achyut

Kanvinde, and Charles Correa, to mention only a few.

Other architects and craftsmen soon picked up the patterns and forms of the first

generation of modernists. Reinforced concrete structures, with large glazing, flat

roofs, freestanding stairs, cantilevered porches, and cubistic massing soon became

the hallmark of the modern Indian building. However, it should be noted that several

modernist works went beyond the puritanism of modernity, and continued to display

a respect to the cultural context, like Steins India International Centre, New Delhi.

The second generation of modernism emerged with the coming of Le Corbusier and

the rise of the rationalist Chandigarh school on one hand, and on the other, the more

empiricist work of Louis I. Kahn. Functionality, pragmatism, and modernist

vocabulary were complimented with an expressionist vision, a concern for climatic

and social context, and a brutalist image. The influence of the masters was carried on

and evolved by Indian architects like B. V. Doshi, who is now considered a master in

his own right. The structural innovations of Pier Luigi Nervi and Felix Candela also

served as inspirations and gave rise to the architecture of structural dexterity as

illustrated by Raj Rewals exhibition halls in New Delhi.

It is interesting to note that within Corbusiers abstract sculptural forms, and

interplay of solids and voids, several Indian references are carefully woven in (e.g.

the Assembly Halls roof is curved like a cows horns), and Kahns use of brick

almost resonates with the post-modern neo-vernacularism of the west.

The Post-Nehru modernist generation saw the emergence of many important Indian

architects. Their works are rich in variety and ingenuity, and a discussion of these

would be beyond the scope of this paper. However, it is worthwhile to note that there

was a rising disillusionment with the utopian paradigms of modernity, and while

many Indian architects, and especially the PWD, continued with rationalism and

utilitarian modernism, there were important instances of departure. Treatment of

architecture as symbolic sculpture is observed in projects like the Lotus Temple, New

Delhi, by Fariburz Sahba, and the Matrimandir in Auroville, by Roger Anger. Again,

brutalism evolved from being a puritan aesthetic to a frugal ethic, and embodied a

search for Indianness, as in the works of Kanvinde and Raj Rewal. Also, vernacular

architecture regained ground as a valid inspiration, like in Uttam Jains design for

Jodhpur University, where traditional materials are presented in a modern expression.

All of these remain modern in their paucity of added decoration, avoidance of direct

or abstract elements for historical reference, and lack of flamboyance, but a nascent

quest for meaning, identity and context cannot be denied.

4.0 POST-MODERNISM IN INDIA

The search for a contemporary Indian identity existed from much before the rise of

international modernism in India, as discussed in section 3.1, and continued to

manifest itself right through the period of late modernism. With the global

disillusionment with modernism, and the international rise of post-modernism as the

architecture of meaning and context, the quest found new directions.

Jon Lang identifies three distinct tendencies which characterize the post-modern

experience in India. These are: (1) the use of past elements or form in an abstract

manner, (2) a drawing on the vernacular past to indigenize architecture, and (3) a

recognition of the variety of problems that exist in a society and an attempt to address

them directly (Lang, 2002, p.121). However, only the first two may be considered

as morphologically evident post-modern architecture, though the last is also a

response to the post-modern world.

The following sections illustrate evidences of the first two approaches, as well as

other traits of post-modernism (as reviewed in Sections 2.1 and 2.2), identifiable as

parallels to the International repertoire.

4.1. Abstractionism Historicism often found its expression in post-modern architecture through the use of

abstracted traditional forms. Stanley Tigermans use of Ionic silhouettes for the

Pensacola Place Apartments, Chicago, is a classic example of western

abstractionism. Similar use of abstracted historic forms as cultural references in

contemporary Indian architecture actually started long before the international post-

modernist debate, and this strain continues to thrive in agreement with the

international development.

Several instances of Indian abstractionism have religious associations. In the Mazhar

of President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, designed by Habib Rahman, the architect uses

an abstraction of the silhouette of the Taj Mahal. In the Dakshin Delhi Kalibari

Temple by Sumit Ghosh, we witness abstracted forms of a Bengal Roof in the

garbha griha, and a temple shikhara fused with a multiple conoid base which

represents the traditional Kalibaris. The Prarthana Mandir of the Ramkrishna

Mission Vidyapith in Purulia, West Bengal, by Sunil Pal and Ramananda

Bandopadhyay, employs a mushroom-like dome atop a tower, decorated with

abstracted leaf forms, to symbolize the Panchavati. By their very nature, religious

structures probably demand cultural references in order to convey continuity in

meaning to the lay-people. However, these references were not mere copying of

historic shapes and forms but a creative response through abstraction and

transformation which makes them post-modern, in contrast to the earlier Indo-

Saracenic works of British architects in India.

The use of abstractionism is also evident in some non-religious buildings. In the

School for Spastic Children in New Delhi by Romi Khosla, the form of rock-cut

caves of Ajanta symbolize protection and shelter. Again, in the Oberoi Hotel in

Bhubaneswar by Satish Grover, the plan form of the Hindu temple and the Buddhist

vihara evolve to create an interesting sequence of spaces.

4.2. Ornamentation Ornamentation re-emerged in postmodernism as a noticeable shift from the

modernist paradigm of minimalism. The employment of sculptures and murals was

an integral part of traditional Indian architecture, and understandably, it became one

of the key features adopted in the Indian experiments of post-modernity. The ISCON

Temple, New Delhi and the Lake Kalibari, Kolkata, designed by the first generation

modernist master Achyut Kanvinde, show elements of ornamentation which may

well be identified as post-modern. C. P. Kukrejas buildings at the IIM Lucknow

campus are notable examples of employing decorative elements in post-modern

Indian building faades. Several instances of graphic elements may be noted at

Charles Correas Jawahar Kala Kendra, which, though metaphorical, are also

decorations in their own right. The relief murals in concrete at the Mahindra College

Campus by Christopher Beninger, and the painted murals in the style of the Kalighat

Patachitra, employed by Charles Correa at The City Centre, Kolkata, also exemplify

the same trend, though they are rather understated and may also be paralleled to Le

Corbusiers use of murals in Chandigarh.

Hafeez contractors design of Hiranandani Gardens, like many of his other works,

employs a profusion of decorative elements inspired by western classical

architecture, and is reminiscent of the works of Ricardo Bofill. A number of

commercial developments all over India follow this trend of decorative pastiche

faades fixed on to utilitarian modernist plans, in line with Robert Venturis concept

of a decorated shed.

4.3. Neo-Traditional and Modern Indian Vernacular The use of pitched roofs, chunky detailing, picturesque massing and brick was the

hallmark of a neo-vernacular post-modernism in the western world (Jencks, 1991,

p.81). But the inspiration from traditional Indian building practices came in various

forms: materials, building technology, shilpaic canons, settlement patterns, and

aesthetic values. While some of the resultant architecture is visually identifiable as

having vernacular inspiration, some appear rather modernist despite being rooted in

traditional empirical knowledge. The fuzziness between modern and post-modern is

most pronounced while examining this trait.

Nari Gandhis residences, Gerard da Cunhas Nrityagram, and Laurie Bakers works,

like St. Johns Cathedral, Tiruvalla, display the use of traditional building forms,

vernacular technology, and materials like stone, bamboo, brick, mud and thatch.

Appukuttam Nair and Narayan Raos Kalakshetra Theatre in Chennai, and Charles

Correas Crafts Museum in New Delhi are excellent examples of interpretation of

vernacular architecture in a modern typology. While The Craft Museum draws

inspiration from the Indian village, the historic cities of North India serve as models

for a large number of housing developments like Raj Rewals Asiad Village, and

Charles Correas Tara Housing. In these designs, the streets, chowks, and the

courtyards regain their importance as important living spaces. The Hotel Mughal

Sheraton, Agra, by Arvind Gupta and Associates, employs patterns derived of

Mughal architecture, while B. V. Doshi draws his inspiration from Fatehpur Sikri in

his layout of IIM Bangalore. Darshan Kumar Bubbars Methodist Centre in Mumbai

is based on the Chandita Mandala, and is articulated through an indigenous system

of proportions, yet remaining utilitarian and modernist in appearance.

4.4. Humour Tigermans Hot Dog House is said to find justification in its attempt to make his

client laugh (Jencks, 1991, p.94). Though it would be difficult to cite such striking

examples of humour in contemporary Indian architecture, it has been well employed

in the designing of interior spaces. Charles Correas use of Mario Mirandas cartoons

of theatre-goers in the Kala Akademi, Goa, reflect an underplayed wit, while the

graphics and installations at the MTV Office, Bangalore, by Khosla Associates, are

examples of the frivolous and kitsch. Correas use of trompe loeil and stage set

decorations in Hotel Cidade de Goa, Panjim, creates an interesting and humorous

interplay of the real and unreal.

A very different variety of humour, albeit unintended, is aroused by the pastiche

faade decorations, which Gautam Bhatia sarcastically refers to as Punjabi Baroque,

Bania Gothic, Marwari Mannerism, Anglo-Indian Rococo, etc (Bhatia, 1994).

Though the grotesque may not always qualify as humour in architecture, it is

important to note these as valid post-modern tendencies. Also, these may well have

been the architects attempts to humour their clients, just like Tigerman.

4.5. Juxtaposition and Layering Post-modernism, by its inherent eclecticism, fosters the concurrent use of culturally

dissimilar elements. The two opposing approaches to this would be in seeking

harmony in the variety, and in the celebration of the juxtaposition through

highlighting the contrast. Hafeez Contractors design for the Global Training Centre

at Infosys campus, Mysore, is a particularly stunning example of juxtaposition where

a Parthenon-like classical faade is flanked by wings of minimalist modern blocks on

either side. A similar juxtaposition is evidenced in the utilitarian block and the fort-

like entrance structure of the Radisson Ffort Resort by Prabir Mitra, where the latter

forms an outer layer to the interior modern space, and is somewhat comparable to

Frank Gehrys own house. The richly decorative faades attached to the otherwise

utilitarian commercial blocks, as already discussed in section 4.3, are also valid

instances of post-modern layering.

4.6. Metaphor & Symbolism Symbols and metaphors become increasingly important elements when architecture

intends to convey meaning. As already noted, in the School for Spastic Children,

New Delhi, by Romi Khosla, the metaphor of the cave is interpreted as a symbol of

protection. This is reminiscent of the Hillington Civic Centre by Andrew Derbyshire,

where the pitched roofs coming down almost to the ground are a symbol of

protection overpowering the walls, which are symbolically defensive and hostile.

In Hafeez Contractors design for the Russy Modi Centre for Excellence,

Jamshedpur, free standing columns and pyramidal forms become symbols of

classical civilizations, eliciting comparisons for the achievements of the house of

Tatas.

The employment of metaphors may time and again be observed in the works of

Charles Correa. In the British Council Library, Delhi, the abstract imagery of the

giant tree in the faade becomes a symbol of India, and may well be interpreted as a

metaphor: the tree of knowledge. An axial progression through three nodes with

elements representing the Hindu axis mundi, the Muslim Charbagh, and the

European inlay depicting the age of reason, symbolizes historic interface between

cultures. The cosmological references for Jawahar Kala Kendra, Jaipur, and the Inter-

university Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Pune, also rely on the use of

metaphors and symbols.

4.7. Narrative The post-modern sense of concept, context and continuity is reflected in the building

up of narratives, real or concocted, through architectural spaces. Charles Correa

designed Cidade de Goa as a city with virtual imagery and real dwellings, narrating

the life and culture of an Indo-Portuguese town. The layout of dwellings along a

street is reminiscent of Kresge College. In the Radisson Ffort Resort, Raichak, Prabir

Mitra recreates a British naval fort which relays a fictitious narrative as to its

antecedents. The Belgian Embassy complex, by Satish Gujral, depicts a colonial

vision of India as a ruin and relates a reconstructed Indian history of disparate

temporalities Harappan, Mauryan, Gupta, and even the Kahn-influenced modern

(Brown, 2009, p.90).

4.8. Cosmology Historically, architecture of various cultures has attempted to present a model for the

cosmos. The Indian Vaastu-shilpa tradition was intrinsically linked to Hindu

cosmology, astrology, and mythology, and was considered superstitious and

retrogressive by the modern architectural fraternity, until post-modernism rendered it

with a patina of avant-garde and intellectualism. The layout of the Vidhan Bhavan,

Bhopal, and the Jawahar Kala Kendra, Jaipur, by Correa, were inspired by the

Navagraha Mandal: the archaic Indian notion of the cosmos. At IUCAA, Pune,

Correas attempt is to express more contemporary notions of the Cosmos with

metaphors of expanding universe and centrifugal energy. The layout of the Mahindra

United World College Campus, by Christopher Beninger, again draws parallels with

the Jambudweepa in a Mandala, and the () rings of sacred islands spread out in

the oceans of salt-water, ghee, milk and honey. (Naidu, 2004)

4.9. Deconstruction Charles Correas Hindustan Lever Pavilion is an early example displaying a striking

fragmentation of space, and the Tillany Museum, Bangalore, by Inform Architects,

may be cited as a conscious effort at deconstruction, but otherwise, built examples of

deconstructivist architecture in India are rare. Building technology and skill available

in India is probably not favourable to such architecture; indeed, very few designs

have been realized even in the affluent western world. Also, it may be conjectured,

the absence indicates that fragmentation, disorientation, and alienation are yet to

become predominant realities of Indian society. Some of the gravity-defying

structures by Hafeez Contractor at Infosys Mysore may indicate that deconstruction

has finally arrived, but how much of the styling arises out of the theoretical paradigm

is questionable. However, several un-built design competition entries and students

projects do reveal the contemporary Indian architects fancy for this strain of post-

modernism. It is also witnessed in the design of interior spaces, like that of the

AVLC Building, Lonavala, by Sanjay Puri.

4.10. Multi-valence Undoubtedly, the most important paradigm of post-modernism is meaning, and

especially, multiple coding. Jawahar Kala Kendra may be taken as a suitable attempt

at multi-valence, where Correa presents parallel references to ancient Indian

cosmology and shilpaic traditions, Indian visual culture, the context of the city of

Jaipur, as well as to Jai Singh and Jawaharlal Nehru as individuals who were both

traditional and modern. Again, B. V. Doshis Hussain-Doshi Gufa reveals multiple

references: the cave, the forest, the circle, the mountain, the breast, and the Buddhist

stupa. It is as much architecture as an object of art in itself, much like Gehrys

Guggenheim Museum at Bilbao.

5.0 Conclusion In the preceding sections, several traits have been identified in contemporary Indian

architecture, which can be identified as post-modern when compared to the

international repertoire. However, two important questions arise, which may be

discussed as follows.

5.1. What Happens post Post-Modernism? Brown points out: It is not that the question of how to be both modern

[contemporary] and Indian has been resolved (Brown, 2009, p.162); the search for

an Indian identity continues. A small group of critics has put forth a range of theories

that aim to describe culture and/or society in the alleged aftermath of postmodernism,

which include performatism, hypermodernity, altermodernism, and digimodernism

(Bulley, 2010). None of these new theories and labels has so far gained widespread

acceptance, and post-modernism remains the most relevant paradigm for the

continual quest.

5.2. How Post-Modern is Indian Post-Modern Architecture? Richard Bernstein states: "There are moments in history when, because of all sorts of

historical accidents a new set of metaphors, distinctions, and problems is invented

and captures the imagination of followers" (Bernstein, 1992, as cited in Bloland,

2005, p.124). Did India witness such a moment which may give rise to a new set of

architectural aesthetic? Advanced capitalism, which has been often identified as a

major stimulus for post-modernism (Allan & Turner, 2000), is only nascent in India.

Might this mean post-modern architecture does not have the necessary catalyst to

emerge as a critique of socio-economic realities, and is experienced only because of

formal influence of international trends?

Also, Indian modernism itself was often a modified expression: a regional third

world modernism, at times bordering on some of the very attitudes of post-

modernism. For example, neo-traditionalism emerges as the most predominant post-

modern tendency in India, whereas the traditional had continued to influence Indian

modernism throughout its growth and development. Thus, can Indian post-modern

architecture be interpreted as a revolution in reaction to the modernist practice or a

progressive evolution of it? Further studies may confirm the suggestion of a

possibility of arriving at the same solutions through two very different paths.

References

Allan, K. & Turner, J. H. (2000, Autumn). A formalization of postmodern theory.

Sociological Perspectives, 43 (3), 363-385.

Bhatia, G. (1994). Punjabi baroque and other memories of architecture. New Delhi: Penguin.

Bloland, H. G. (2005, March-April). Whatever happened to postmodernism in higher

education? No requiem in the new millennium. The Journal of Higher Education, 76

(2), 121-150.

Brown, R. M. (2009). Art for a modern India, 1947-1980. Durham, NC: Duke University

Press.

Bulley, M. (2010, May 27). Successor states to an empire in free fall. Retrieved from

http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storycode=411731

Curtis, W. J. R. (1987). Modern architecture since 1900 (2nd ed.). Oxford: Phaidon Press

Limited.

Frampton, K. (2002). Towards a critical regionalism: Six points for an architecture of

resistance. In H. Foster (Ed.), The anti-aesthetic: Essays on postmodern culture

(pp.17-34). New York, NY: The New Press. (Original edition published 1983).

Jacob, J. (1961). The death and life of great American cities. London: Jonathan Cape.

Jencks, C. (1991). The language of post-modern architecture (6th ed.). London: Academy

Editions.

Jencks, C. (2006a). 13 propositions of post-modern architecture. In C. Jenks & K. Kropf

(Eds.), Theories and Manifestoes of contemporary architecture (2nd ed.) (pp.131-132).

Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Academy. (Original work published 1996).

Jencks, C. (2006b). Introduction: The volcano and the tablet. In C. Jenks & K. Kropf (Eds.),

Theories and Manifestoes of contemporary architecture (2nd ed.) (pp.2-11).

Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Academy.

Johnson, P. (2006). The seven crutches of modern architecture. In C. Jenks & K. Kropf



Lang, J. (2002). A concise history of modern architecture in India. Ranikhet: Permanent

Black.

McLeod, M. (1998). Architecture and politics in the Reagan era: From postmodernism to

deconstructivism. In K. Michel Hays (Ed.), Architecture Theory since 1968 (pp.680-

702). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. (Original work published 1989).

Naidu, A. R. (2004, December). Language and pattern. Architecture + Design, XXI (12), 114-

119.

Norberg-Schulz, C. (2006). Intensions in architecture. In C. Jenks & K. Kropf (Eds.),

Theories and Manifestoes of contemporary architecture (2nd ed.) (pp.33-35).


Portoghesi, P. (2006). The end of prohibitionism. In C. Jenks & K. Kropf (Eds.), Theories

and Manifestoes of contemporary architecture (2nd ed.) (pp.88-89). Chichester, West

Sussex: Wiley-Academy. (Original work published 1980).

Venturi, R. (2006). Complexity and contradiction in architecture. In C. Jenks & K. Kropf



Venturi, R., Brown, D. S., Izenour, S. (2006). Learning from Las Vegas. In C. Jenks & K.

Kropf (Eds.), Theories and Manifestoes of contemporary architecture (2nd ed.) (pp.52-

56). Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Academy. (Original work published 1972).

Documents

A Search for Post-Modernism in Indian Ar