A SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF METAPHOR FOUND IN SELECTED LYRICS

OF “THE SCRIPT”, “KATY PERRY”, AND “MICHAEL BUBLÉ”

Submitted as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement

for Getting Bachelor Degree of Education

in English Department

by:

RIFKI MAULANA

A320130050

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH EDUCATION

SCHOOL OF TEACHER TRAINING AND EDUCATION

MUHAMMADIYAH UNIVERSITY OF SURAKARTA

2016

i

ii

iii

1

A SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF METAPHOR FOUND IN SELECTED LYRICS

OF “THE SCRIPT”, “KATY PERRY”, AND “MICHAEL BUBLÉ”

ABSTRAK

Semantik adalah kajian makna didalam bahasa. Semantik dapat

diimplementasikan untuk menganalisa karya sastra maupun non karya sastra. Untuk

memahami makna sebuah lirik lagu, penulis fokus pada ungkapan metafora didalam

lagu. Penelitian ini menganalisis tentang analisa semantic pada metafora yang

ditemukan didalam lirik lagu dari “The Script”, “Katy Perry”, dan “Michael Bublé”.

Itu akan dianalisa menggunakan teori dari Crystal, Beckson, dan Ganz tentang

klasifikasi metafora. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah (1) Mengindentifikasi tipe-tipe

metafora yang ditemukan dilirik “The Script”, “Katy Perry”, dan “Michael Bublé”,

(2) Mendeskripsikan unsur-unsur yang dibandingkan di dalam metafora pada lirik

“The Script”, “Katy Perry”, dan “Michael Bublé”, dan (3) Menjelaskan fungsi makna

metafora pada lirik “The Script”, “Katy Perry”, and “Michael Bublé”, dan untuk

mendeskripsikan implikasi dalam penggunaan majas metafora di dalam pendidikan.

Penelitian ini dianalisa dengan menggunakan metode deskriptif kualitatif

karena penulis menggunakan deskripsi berdasarkan kualitas pemahaman di analisis.

Di dalam menganalisa data, penulis menggunakan teori klasifikasi metafora dari

Crystal, Beckson & Ganz (1999) dan teori tenor dan vehicle dari Richards dan Leech

(1969). Kemudian penulis mendeskripsikan fungsi makna metafora dan implikasinya

untuk memahami keseluruhan makna secara kontekstual. Terdapat 30 lirik lagu dari

“The Script”, “Katy Perry”, dan “Michael Bublé” sebagai data di penelitian ini.

Berdasarkan klasifikasi metafora dari Crystal, Beckson, & Ganz (1999)

terdapat tiga tipe majas metafora, yaitu conceptual metaphor, mixed metaphor, dan

poetic metaphor. Di dalam penelitian ini, penulis menemukan 194 data conceptual

metaphor, 60 data mixed metaphor, dan 5 data poetic metaphor. Conceptual

metaphor adalah metafora yang paling dominan yang ditemukan didalam lirik lagu

sedangkan poetic metaphor adalah yang paling sedikit dan mixed metaphor hanya

seperempat dari semua persentase data. Penulis kemudian mendeskripsikan fungsi

makna metafora adalah untuk membuat ide pada lirik lebih bermakna sedangkan

implikasi metafora di dalam pendidikan adalah untuk memperkaya ide kreatif para

siswa dalam kemampuan menulis.

Kata kunci: Semantik, Metafora, Makna, Lirik Lagu

2

A SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF METAPHOR FOUND IN SELECTED LYRICS

OF “THE SCRIPT”, “KATY PERRY”, AND “MICHAEL BUBLÉ”

ABSTRACT

Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It can be implemented to

analyze the literary work or nonliterary work. To understand the meaning of lyric

songs, the writer focuses on the metaphor expression in the song. This research

analyzes about semantic analysis of metaphor found in selected lyrics of “The Script”, “Katy Perry”, and “Michael Bublé”. It will be analyzed by theory of Crystal,

Beckson and Ganz about metaphor classification. The purposes of this research are

(1) Identifying the types of metaphor which are found in selected lyrics of “The Script”, “Katy Perry”, and “Michael Bublé”, (2) Describing the elements which are being compared in such metaphors of selected lyrics from “The Script”, “Katy Perry”, and “Michael Bublé”, and (3) Explaining the functional meaning of the

metaphor in selected lyrics of “The Script”, “Katy Perry”, and “Michael Bublé”, and

to describe the implication in the use of metaphor in education.

This research is analyzed by using descriptive qualitative method because the

writer uses description based on the quality comprehensive in the analysis. In

analyzing data, the writer uses the theory of metaphor classification by Crystal,

Beckson & Ganz (1999) and the theory of tenor and vehicle from Richards and

Leech (1969). Then the writer describes the functional meaning of metaphor and its

implication to comprehend the whole meaning contextually. There are 30 selected

lyrics from “The Script”, “Katy Perry”, and “Michael Bublé” as the data in this

research.

Based on metaphor classification by Crystal, Beckson & Ganz (1999) there are

three types of metaphor, namely conceptual metaphor, mixed metaphor, and poetic

metaphor. In this research, the writer found 194 data of conceptual metaphor, 60 data

of mixed metaphor, and 5 data of poetic metaphor. Conceptual metaphor is the

dominant metaphor which is used in the song lyrics while poetic metaphor is the

least and mixed metaphor is just one fourth of the whole percentage of the findings.

The writer then describes the functional meaning of metaphor is to make the ideas of

the lyrics more meaningful while the implication of metaphor in education is to

enrich students’ creative idea in writing skills.

Keywords: Semantic, Metaphor, Meaning, Song Lyric

3

1. INTRODUCTION

The meaning of word, phrase and sentence is very important to be

analyzed because it can make something more understandable to be

communicated to the others. According to Yule (2006: 112) semantics is the

study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences. The study of meaning

is in the work of semantic analysis. The definition above highlights that

meaning being investigated is in the scope of linguistics. For example, one

might make a description of sadness or happiness by using word or sentence,

so it needs to be analysed semantically for more understanding.

The writer and the singer of the song try to tell the story of the song by

writing a good lyric which is combined by nice music to make a great art.

Oxford (2008: 423) defined song as “short piece of music with words that

you sing”. Lyric is word of a song (Oxford, 2008: 264). Every single song has

different meaning and the writer usually uses an implicit meaning or explicit

meaning in the lyric. Understanding the meaning of the song lyric can be

grammatically, but sometimes the hearer of the song found lyric that has

implicit meaning. Understanding the meaning of metaphor in song lyrics

needs to be studied further. For example in the lyric 'Cause baby, you're a

firework, literally firework is a device containing chemicals that can burn or

explode with colored flames (Oxford, 2008), we can’t say that the person

who is purposed in the lyric is a firework, but the meaning of firework is to

represent the characteristic of unique person who is capable of doing great

things. It is the concept of meaning as related to metaphor.

In this case, meaning is the most significant thing that can be studied

for more understanding. This research concerns with the semantic analysis of

metaphor. The researcher focuses only on selected lyrics from “The Script”,

“Katy Perry”, and “Michael Bublé” which are containing metaphor and will

be analyzed by major principle of the theory of Crystal, Beckson & Ganz

who classify the types of metaphor, theory of tenor and vehicle by Richards

and Leech. The meaning can be studied through Linguistics. Linguistics is the

study of language scientifically. The subdivision of Linguistics which is

4

dealing with meaning is Semantics. According to Riemer in his book entitled

Introducing Semantics (Ibid), semantics is one of the richest and most

fascinating parts of linguistics. Semantics is the study of meaning and this is

the definition that we will provisionally adopt (Lyons, 1977: 01). Semantics

is one of the richest and most fascinating parts of linguistics. There are some

ways in expressing ideas, which deviate from the semantic conventions with

figurative language and idiom. Figurative language is used to create a special

effect or feeling. It is characterized by figures of speech—language that

compares, exaggerates, or means something other than what it first appears to

mean (Perrine, 1977: 61). Metaphor is one of figurative language which is the

most common and widely used. According to Ortony (1979 :03) says that

metaphor as an essential characteristic of the creativity of language; and

metaphor as deviant and parasitic upon normal usage – to more a

fundamental and pervasive difference of opinion about the relationship

between language and the world. Regarding the way metaphor works, there

are three constitutes of a metaphor: topic (tenor), vehicle and ground. Topic

(tenor) is the subject of metaphor or the intended idea to be expressed;

vehicle is another idea by which the tenor is being described; and ground is

the similarities and/or analogies involved, or the basis on which topic and

vehicle could be thus put together (Goatly, 1997: 09). There are four types of

metaphor, namely, decorative metaphor, mixed metaphor, structural

metaphor, and dead metaphor (Beckson & Ganz, 1975: 141-142) in Lukman

(2009: 02) and also (Crystal, 1999: 215-216) in Lukman (Ibid) categorized

metaphor into four types: conceptual metaphor, mixed metaphor, poetic

metaphor, and conventional metaphor. Conceptual metaphor (decorative

metaphor) is the simplest case of metaphor which normally takes the form:

‘The first subject is a second subject’. Mixed metaphor is a combination of

more than one metaphor in which the qualities which are intended to suggest

is illogical or incongruous (Beckson & Ganz, 1975: 142), (Holman, 2004:

196) in Lukman (2009: 28). Poetic metaphor (extended, functional, organic,

structural metaphor) is a sequence of metaphors which forms an extremely

5

far-fetched parallel among totally dissimilar thins or objects (Beckson &

Ganz, 1975: 142), (Boulton, 1970: 259) in Lukman (ibid). Both Beckson &

Ganz and Crystal defined the same understanding, but they are used different

terms of types of metaphor.

Song lyrics are from a band named The Script – a famous Irish-based

rock boy band. While Katy Perry and Michael Bublé are the famous singer

and their songs have been hearing by people in the world. Some of their

songs were used in some text book of senior high school to be a material in

listening skill. The writer chooses some lyrics from their songs because the

composers of their songs make the lyrics more complicated and colorful by

combining some metaphor expressions. Metaphor analysis has been analyzed

by some researcher, such as Sholichati (2013), Rahayu (2006), Nordensvard

(2013), Qiang (2011), Abbasi and Iravani (2012), Abdel (2015), and

Hochmair and Luttich (2010). They found that metaphor analysis has

function to give more understanding in the text of literary work and non-

literary work, etc.

Contrasting from all the researchers’ work and introduction above, the

writer presents that the data source are different from the previous

researchers. The researcher uses some selected lyrics from “The Script”,

“Katy Perry”, and “Michael Bublé” in this research. Different from the

researchers above, in this research the researcher uses semantic analysis to

find the metaphor meaning, the types of metaphor based on theory from

Crystal, Beckson & Ganz about metaphor classification, and topic & vehicle

term of metaphor.

Based on the backgrounds and the definition above the researcher is

going to analyze the meaning of the lyric song by using semantic analysis

entitled A SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF METAPHOR FOUND IN SELECTED

LYRICS OF “THE SCRIPT”, “KATY PERRY”, AND “MICHAEL BUBLÉ”.

2. RESEARCH METHOD

The type of this study is descriptive qualitative study because in this

study the researcher is going to describe the meaning and to classify the

6

types of metaphor. In this research, the object is the analysis of

metaphorical expressions found in selected lyrics of “The Script”, “Katy

Perry”, and “Michael Bublé”. The data of this research are phrases and

sentences which are containing metaphorical expressions. The data are

taken from the lyrics of “The Script”, “Katy Perry”, and “Michael Bublé”.

There are 30 songs which are selected by the writer. In this research, the

method of collecting data is observation and documentation. The researcher

collects the data through technique of: downloading the lyrics on the

internet, reading all lyrics that have downloaded, selecting the lyrics which

are containing metaphor by underline the lyrics and classifying the

metaphorical expressions have found in the lyrics. The systematic

techniques in conducting the analysis are as follows: identifying the types

of metaphor which are found in selected lyrics of “The Script”, “Katy

Perry”, and “Michael Bublé”, the writer uses the theory of metaphor

classification from Crystal, Beckson & Ganz, describing the elements

which are being compared in such metaphors of selected lyrics from “The

Script”, “Katy Perry”, and “Michael Bublé”, the writer uses the theory of

tenor and vehicle from Richards and Leech, and explaining the functional

meaning of the metaphor in selected lyrics of “The Script”, “Katy Perry”,

and “Michael Bublé”, the writer refers to context in the use of metaphor in

education.

3. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

After analyzing the data, there are 259 metaphorical expressions found

in selected lyrics of “The Script”, “Katy Perry”, and “Michael Bublé”.

Below are the number and the percentage of each type of metaphor:

No. Types of Metaphor Data Amount Percentage

1. Conceptual Metaphor 194 74, 9%

2. Mixed Metaphor 60 23, 2%

3. Poetic Metaphor 5 1, 9%

Here is the way to count the percentage of each metaphor:

1. Conceptual Metaphor

7

Conceptual = 194259

x 100 = 74, 9%

2. Mixed Metaphor

Mixed = 60259

x 100 = 23, 2%

3. Poetic Metaphor

Poetic = 5

259 x 100 = 1, 9%

3.1. Conceptual Metaphor

Datum 5

Love is from above

(Song: This = Love, Singer: The Script, Line: 27)

Elements Topic, Vehicle, and Explanation:

Types of Metaphor: Conceptual Metaphor

The concept of Love is the topic-term, the concept of from above is the

vehicle-term, and the concept of the ground-term is to believe that the feeling

of love comes from God, the one who creates the feeling. The context of the

song is all the things, which people face in doing relationship. The pain will

be a part of their love story and make their love stronger. The functional

meaning of metaphor “Love is from above” is that people who fall in love

with someone else is the destiny from the God.

Datum 76

I was June

(Song: The One That Got Away, Singer: Katy Perry, Line: 12)

Elements Topic, Vehicle, and Explanation:

Types of Metaphor: Conceptual Metaphor

The concept of I is the topic-term, the concept of June is the vehicle-term,

and the concept of the ground-term is being the man’s partner in life. The

context of the song is about the memories of someone who had passed away.

The functional meaning of metaphor “I was June” is that the girl is someone

special for the man in life.

8

3.2. Mixed Metaphor

Datum 16

I pray to God you don't see the silent hell in I wish you well

(Song: No Good In Goodbye, Singer: The Script, Line: 22)

Elements Topic, Vehicle, and Explanation:

Types of Metaphor: Mixed Metaphor

The concept of I is the topic-term, the concept of the silent hell and wish you

well is the vehicle-term, and the concept of the ground-term is the man prays

all the best for the girl. The context of the song is being apart from someone

they love. It is about farewell. The functional meaning of metaphor “I pray to

God you don't see the silent hell in I wish you well” is that even though the

man is in pain, he still does a good thing for the girl like praying.

Datum 17

If I could turn back time then I would re-write those lines

(Song: No Good In Goodbye, Singer: The Script, Line: 36)

Elements Topic, Vehicle, and Explanation:

Types of Metaphor: Mixed Metaphor

The concept of I is the topic-term, the concept of turn back time and re-write

those lines is the vehicle-term, and the concept of the ground-term is the man

wishes can be the girl’s boyfriend again. The context of the song is being

apart from someone they love. It is about farewell. The functional meaning of

metaphor “If I could turn back time then I would re-write those lines” is that

people sometimes wish to fix what they have broken in the past.

3.3. Poetic Metaphor

Datum 1

When you've been fighting for it all your life

You've been struggling to make things right

That’s how a superhero learns to fly

9

(Every day, every hour

Turn the pain into power)

(Song: Superheroes, Singer: The Script, Line: 13-17)

Elements Topic, Vehicle, and Explanation:

Types of Metaphor: Poetic Metaphor

The concept of superhero is the topic-term, the concept of all your life,

things, fly, the pain, and power is the vehicle term, and the concept of the

ground-term is an analogy of people’s struggle. The context of the song is

about the struggle of people’s life. The functional meaning of metaphor

“When you've been fighting for it all your life You've been struggling to

make things right That’s how a superhero learns to fly (Every day, every hour

Turn the pain into power)” is that people have to make life better like

superhero for example father and mother, they will do anything for the

family.

Datum 5

Call me irresponsible

Yes, I'm unreliable

But it's undeniably true

That I'm irresponsibly mad for you

Do my foolish alibis bore you?

Girl, I'm not too clever, I

I just adore you

(Song: Call Me Irresponsible, Singer: Michael Bublé, Line: 10-16)

Elements Topic, Vehicle, and Explanation:

Types of Metaphor: Poetic Metaphor

The concept of I is the topic-term, the concept of unreliable, undeniable true,

irresponsibly mad, and my foolish is the vehicle-term, and the concept of the

ground-term is all characteristics of being a secret admirer. The context of

the song is the kinds of the man’s characteristics when he likes a girl. The

functional meaning of metaphor “Call me irresponsible Yes, I'm unreliable

10

But it's undeniably true That I'm irresponsibly mad for you Do my foolish

alibis bore you? Girl, I'm not too clever, I I just adore you” is that what the

man does is just because he loves the girl so much and he just wants to prove

that he truly loves her.

The result of findings above shows that data amount for conceptual

metaphor is 194. The frequency of using conceptual metaphor is dominant

used by composers of the songs of “The Script”, “Katy Perry”, and “Michael

Bublé”. It means that they prefer to describe the emotion of song by using

conceptual metaphor. Based on the result above, conceptual metaphor is the

most dominant type while poetic metaphor is the least in selected lyrics of

“The Script”, “Katy Perry”, and “Michael Bublé”. Conceptual metaphor turns

out to be the most dominant type because theoretically based on metaphor

classification by Crystal, Beckson & Ganz it is the simplest case of metaphor.

For example from the data analysis: boy, you’re an alien as the conceptual

metaphor, here a man is compared with an alien, and it means that the man is

someone who the girl meets for the first time as a stranger. In this type, there

is only one idea being compared with another idea. Most metaphors which

appear in everyday conversation are conceptual metaphor. It also appears in

selected lyrics of “The Script”, “Katy Perry”, and “Michael Bublé” to

describe the object being compared more complicated and colorful. In

previous study, Sholichati (2013) who studied metaphorical expressions on

everlasting love songs just found six categories of human perceptual system

by Haley’s theory. She just focuses on things, which are being compared on

metaphor expressions. The similarities of this research with previous research

which was studied by Sholichati (2013) is metaphorical expression on songs

while the difference of this research is that there are three types of metaphor

which the writer found and it can be divided to give more understanding

about kinds of metaphor which used in the songs. The writer of this research

explains the functional of each metaphor to give clear definition of metaphor

that used in the songs of “The Script”, “Katy Perry”, and “Michael Bublé”.

The writer also explains the implication of metaphor in education by

11

comparing the material in the learning process using song and just using a

textbook.

Mixed metaphor is ranking second. It constitutes one fourth of the

overall percentage. It means that mixed metaphor a little bit difficult to be

understood in the songs when the listeners read the lyric of the songs.

According to theory of metaphor classification by Crystal, Beckson & Ganz,

mixed metaphor is more complicated than conceptual metaphor which just

compared one idea. Mixed metaphor mixed metaphor applies more than one

metaphor to describe one thing. For example from the data analysis: love is

why we fall down and get back up again. In the example, love is being

compared with why we fall down and get back up again. However many of it

appears in selected lyrics of “The Script”, “Katy Perry”, and “Michael

Bublé”, comparing such phenomena of life as love, analogy, and struggle.

Comparing with previous researchers, this research is more understandable

because in Sholichati (2013) who studied metaphorical expressions just found

several things being compared without knowing the types of metaphor itself

and giving the explanation about the functional meaning of each metaphor.

Poetic metaphor appears as the least type. It means that the use of

poetic metaphor in the songs of “The Script”, “Katy Perry”, and “Michael

Bublé” is very low because it is the most complicated one of metaphor

classification by Crystal, Beckson & Ganz. The researcher found that the idea

of poetic metaphor must be studied more frequently to get more

understanding. The listeners cannot understand the concept of poetic

metaphor if they just read one time. It consists of a series of metaphors with

one principal subject and one or more subsidiary subjects. There is more than

one comparison in a poetic metaphor to describe one thing; each comparison

may be either conceptual or mixed metaphor. For example from the data

analysis: When you've been fighting for it all your life, You've been

struggling to make things right, That’s how a superhero learns to fly,

(Every day, every hour, turn the pain into power). In the example, one

thing is being compared with some ideas of metaphor to make the lyrics more

12

dramatic and meaningful in describing the idea of the lyric. In the othr hand,

poetic metaphor is established from one or more conceptual or mixed

metaphor. Comparing with previous study by Rahayu (2006) who analyzed

metaphorical meaning in the lyrics of Josh Groban’s songs, she just found

poetic words in the songs. The similarities of this research are metaphorical

expressions and the concept of poetic metaphor while the differences are the

types of metaphor which have found by the writer in the songs of “The

Script”, “Katy Perry”, and “Michael Bublé” richer than previous study. The

writer found three types of metaphor such as conceptual, mixed, and poetic

metaphor.

According to major principal of Haley’s theory about Human

Perceptual System, there are nine things which usually being compared in

metaphor cases. They are abstract concept (such as truth and love), cosmos

(such as sun and star), energy (such as thunder and light), substance (such as

gas), terrestrial (such as river and mountain), things (such as poison and

chair), life (such as flora and fauna), animate (the grass shaking and the stone

breaking), and man (such as a hero). Some of them appear in selected lyrics

of “The Script”, “Katy Perry”, and “Michael Bublé”.

As some previous researchers who have found metaphor in literary

work just focused on one thing that being compared in metaphor expression

cases using Haley’s theory, and some researcher focused on metaphor

expression in non-literary work. In this research the writer is not only

focusing on one thing that being compared but also the classification of

metaphor based on the theory of metaphor classification by Crystal, Beckson

& Ganz.

4. CONCLUSION

Based on the results above, the writer found that conceptual metaphor

is the easiest type in the selected lyrics of “The Script”, “Katy Perry”, and

“Michael Bublé” while poetic lyrics is the most complicated and mixed

metaphor is in the middle level of difficulties in metaphor classification to be

analyzed. In selected lyrics of “The Script”, “Katy Perry”, and “Michael

13

Bublé” are dominated by metaphor expression. A conclusion can be drawn

that metaphor plays its role in these lyrics, not only to deliver and beautify the

ideas of the lyrics, but also to arouse listeners’ emotional feelings in listening

those song. The writer would like to suggest those who are interested in

communication skill to apply metaphor as one of their way to get their ideas

over to the audience, because metaphor has been part of daily conversation to

help delivering messages. Using metaphor, ideas can be expressed clearly in

efficient use of words. The writer also hopes that this research is going to be

useful for linguistic students. The readers and the other researchers can also

use this research as a reference to another research especially for Semantic

and metaphor research.

14

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Apaza, Kevin. 2014. The Script - "No Sound Without Silence" [Album Lyrics].

http://www.directlyrics.com/the-script-no-sound-without-silence-album-lyrics-

news.html (Accessed on Thursday 07 April 2016 at 15.16 PM).

AZLyrics. “Katy Perry Lyrics. http://www.azlyrics.com/

http://www.azlyrics.com/k/katyperry.html (Accessed on Thursday November

06, 2016).

AZLyrics. “Michael Bublé Lyrics. http://www.azlyrics.com/

http://www.azlyrics.com/b/buble.html#44035/ (Accessed on Thursday

November 06, 2016).

Beckson, K & Ganz, A. 1975. Literary Terms: A Dictionary. Toronto: McGraw-Hill

Ryerson Ltd.

Crystal, D. 1999. The Penguin Dictionary of Language (Second Edition). London:

Penguin.

Gerot, Linda & Wignell, Peter. 1994. Making Sense of Functional Grammar.

Australia: Gerd Stabler.

Goatly, Andrew. 1997. The Language of Metaphors. London: Routledge.

Hauser, G. A. 1986. Introduction to Rhetorical Theory. New York: Harper & Row,

Publishers, Inc.

Leech, Geoffrey. 1981. Semantics: Second Edition. Great Britain: Penguin Books.

Ortony, Andrew. 1979. Metaphor and Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

Oxford. 2008. Learner’s Pocket Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Perrine, Lawrence. 1977. Sound and Sense “An Introduction to Poetry”. New York:

Hartcout Brace Jovanovich Inc.

Qiang, Huang. 2011. A Study on the Metaphor of “Red” in Chinese Culture.

American International Journal of Contemporary Research. Vol. 1 No. 3;

November 2011. www.aijcrnet.com.

Riemer, Nick. 2010. Introducing Semantics. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Yule, George. 2006. The Study of Language. New York: Cambridge University

Press.