Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge Vol. 2( I). January 2003. pp. 51 -6 1

A review on ginger (Zingiber officina/e): Pre-clinical and clinical trials

A C Suthar, M M Banava likar* & M K Biyani

Ajanta Pharma Ltd .. Research Centre,Ajanta House. 98. Govt. Industrial Area. Charkop. Kandi vali (West), Mumbai 400 067 , India

Fax No: 8683930. 8682845

E-mail: mani shab@ajantapharma.com. mbanava likar@hotmail .com

Receil'ed 7 Febmary 2002: rel'ised September 2002

Ginger (Zingiber officina/e) is used in folk medicine for re lie f from many ailments. espec iall y nausea. motion sickness. and other gastrointestinal disorders. T hi s paper rev iews va ri ous aspec ts of ginger. like chemical constituents. different pharmacological acti viti es. which have been proved in pre-clinical and clinical trial s along with its therapeutic uses and side e ffects.

Keywords: Zingiber officina/e . Ginger. Gingerols. Moti on sick ness

Ginger consists of the fresh or dried rhi zo mes of Zingiber officinale Rose. The Engli sh botanist Willi am Roscoe ( 1753-183 1) gave the plant the name Zingiber o.fjlcinale in an 1807 publication. The ginger family is a tropical group especially abundant in Indo-Malaysia, consisting of more 1200 species in 53 genera . The genus Zingiber includes about 85 species of aromatic herbs from East As ia and tropical Australia.

' Description Ginger is native to the coastal regions

of India and the name Zingiber is derived from a Sanskrit term used to describe a horn-shaped object. A perennial with a

*Corresponde nt author

thick tuberous rootstock, Z. o.fficinale has an annual shoot with simple. alternate, lanceolate leaves, and greenish-purpl e flowers. The rhizome is aromatic and is the source of the dried powder spice. Ginger is naturalized in Jamaica, China, Afri ca, and the West Indies, and is cultivated in these countries.

History and traditional uses Ginger has been used for millennia in

both China and India and reached the West at least two thousand years ago, and recorded as a subject of a Roman tax in the second century after being imported via the Red Sea to Alexandria. Tariff duties appear in the records of Marse ill es in 1228 and in Pari s by 1296. Ginger was known in England before the Norman

52 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE. VOL 2. No. I, JANUARY 2003

Conquest, as it is commonly found in the I I'" century Anglo-Saxon leech books. Ginger is detailed in a 13'" century work, "Physicians of Myddvai," a collection of rec ipes and prescriptions written by a physician, Rhiwallon, and his three sons, by mandate of Rhys Gryg, prince of South Wales (who died in 1233). By the 13'" and 14'" centuries it was familiar to English palates, and next to pepper, was the most popular spice. Ginger, as a product of the Far East, was indelibly imprinted on the taste buds of Westerners before potatoes, tomatoes, and corn were even known to Europeans. Ginger has been cultivated in India since well before written hi story , and the Chinese documented its use as early as 400 BC. Ginger is valued all over the world for its flavour and as a spice in food dishes . Traditionally, ginger has been used in folk medicine for indigestion, flatulence, diarrhoea, malaria and fever. In China, g inger is used to detoxify meat, applied externally to relieve inflamed joints, and taken for gastrointestinal distress 1•

Chemistry The most notable chemical constituents

in ginger are the so-called "pungent principles", the gingerols, which give ginger its characteristic aroma. Also present are volatile oils, other oleoresin compounds, and starches, proteins, and fats 1

·2

• The oleoresin contains the pungent principles as well as some non-pungent co mpounds. The pungent constituents comprise about 33% of the oleoresin and are called the gingerols, which are a series of ho mologo us phenols with 6-gingerol (5-Hydroxy-1-( 4'-hydroxy-3'-

methox ypheny 1)-3-decanone) being most common2

. Also pungent, but comprising a much smaller fraction of the oleores in , are the shogaols. These anhyclro­gingerols are formed during the drying of ginger. Other minor punge nt compounds are paradols, gingediols, g ingedi acetates, gingerdiones, and gingerenones. Oleoresin is about 25 % volatile o il 2

. The steam-disti lied oi I contains terpen oids, which usually include sesquiterpene hydrocarbons and monoterpene hydrocarbons . Other principal components include zingiberene. ar­curcumene, sesquiphellandrene, and bisaboene. When ginger is s tored. the amount of ar-curcumene increases and zingiberene and sesquiphellanclrene decrease3

. Ginger also contains starch , lec ithins and phosphatidic acid, sa turated fatty acids (lauric, palmitic, and stearic) , unsaturated acids (linoleic and oleic). and

. I protems .

Therapeutic applications Studies indicate that the rhizome of

ginger possesses the following act ivities: anti-emetic; promotes secretion of saliva and gastric juices; cholagogue; anti­inflammatory ; carminative; spasmo lytic: molluscicidal ; antischistosomal: peripheral circulatory stimulant ; and inc reases tone of and peri sta ls is in intes tines . Ginger is valued in trad itional medicine for other gastrointestinal disorders , though studies need to be performed to confirm these actions::.-+-(>.

Toxicity in animal models There is no reported LD50, because it

has been impossible to feed lab rodents a

SUTHAR e1 a/: A REVIEW 0 Gl GER (ZINC!Bf;R OFFICINAL£) 53

sufficient amount of crude ginger to induce death. Doses of 3.0 g/kg and 3.5 g/kg of an ethanolic extract of ginger rhi zome produced death by involuntary contractions of skeletal muscle in I 0-30% of laboratory mice within 72 hours of administration5

. The LD50 of the main active constituents is 250-680 mg/kg for 6-gingerol and 6-shogaol, which is 3,500 to 9,000 times the normal adult human dosec'.

PRE-CLINICAL STUDIES (Animal modeVin vivo study)

Digestive, hepatic, and gastrointestinal functions

Gastric jimctions Ginger has been shown in clinical trial s

to be effecti ve in minimizing the effects of motion sickness, with some indications that it may be more effective than dimenhydrinate (Dramamine®). In contrast to dimenhydrinate, which is central nervous system-acti ve, the effectiveness of ginger has been explained according to its ability to neutra li ze gastro intestinal tox ins and acids, thereby slowing feedback from the ston-.ach to nausea centers in the brain7

-\l.

The study carri ed out identified active anti -emetic constituents of a methanoli c ex tract of ginger in copper sulfate pentahydrate- induced nausea in leopard and randid frogs as [6]- , [8]-, and [101 -gingero ls and as [6]-. [8]-, and f I 0 1-shogaols; the latter prolonging emetic latency more than any other ( 146.8 o/c prolongation from 20 mg/kg p.o.)lo_

Cardiovascular functions

and

Cardiotonic; cardioprotection

circulatory

Studies investigating the role of gingero l in heart function have shown that gingerols increased cardiac activity7

·

Il -l' [8J c· ' ( . -. - 1ngero gJngerol), produced a concentration-dependent pos1 11 ve inotropic effect on guinea pig isolated left atria at concen trations of I X I o-6 to 3x l0-5 M. Gingerol also exhibited pos1 t1 ve inotropic and chronotropic effects on guinea pig ri ght atria 13

. The cardi otonic properties of ginger were evaluated on the iso lated atria of a sacrificed guinea pig. It was discovered that ginger had a positive inotropic effect on the atria 14

• Gingerol may provide a valuable chemical tool for studies aimed at clarifying the regulatory mechani sms of SR Ca2+-pumping systems and the causal relationship between the Ca2+­pumping activi ty of SR and musc le contract iii ty 15•

Thrombosis, hemostasis, and embolism Gingerol exhibits a concentration­

dependent (0.5 -20 !JM) inhibition of platelet aggregation in rabbit platelets against collagen and arachidonic ac id in vit ro, but not against platelet-act i va ting factor- or thrombin-induced aggregations. At the same concentrations, gingerol dose-dependently inhibited the release of prostaglandin D2 and thromboxane 82 formation elicited by arachidonic acid. In platelet-rich human plasma. primary aggregation was not inhibited by gi ngero l (5!JM), but aggregation secondary to adrenaline and adenosine 5' -diphosphate

54 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE. VOL 2, No. I. JANUA RY 2003

was prevented, and the release of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) induced by the latter agents was blocked. The authors concluded that the platelet aggregation­inhibitory activity of g ingerol is the result of arachidonate metabolism-inhibition and secondary inhibition of thromboxane formation 11

' .

Immune functions; inflammation and disease

Cancer

Chemotherapy adjunct treatments Si nee the cancer chemotherapy agent

cisplatin inhibits the gastric emptying rate and causes vo miting and nausea, ginger jui ce. an acetone extract of ginger, and a SO Cff ethanolie extract were used to test ror anti-emetic activity against cisplatin­induced gastric emptyi ng rates in rats. The delay in gastric emptying induced by cisplatin (I 0 mg/kg i.p.) was significantly reversed by 30 min. pre- administration or the acetone extract (200 and 500 mg/kg p.o.). at a rate similar to that of ondansetron ( I 0 mg/kg p.o.), a 5-HT 3 receptor antagonist, compared to the control. The cisplatin-induced delay in gastric emptying was more significantly ameliorated by pre-administration of ginger juice (4 mL!kg p.o., p< 0.00 I) than ondansetron (3 mg/kg p.o., p< 0.0 1 ). The 50% ethanol extract was comparatively less effective at reversing the delay in gas tric emptying induced by cisplat in than either the acetone extract or the juice (significant on ly at 500 mg/kg p.o.). Based on studies propostng the involvemen t of free radical-induced release of serotonin and an

antisero tonergic effect of ginger acetone ex tract, the study summarized that either a free radical scavengtng or an antiserotonergic mechanism may account ror the reversal activities of ginger seen in h

. d 17 ~ ~ t etr own stu y .

Chemopreventive activity The carci nogenesi~- i nh i biting ( chemopre­ventive) activity of a methanol extract or ginger was studied in a "k in tumorigenesis model in mice. Topical application of the extract on the "k in or mice subsequently exposed to the tumour inducer TPA ( 12- 0-tetradccanoy 1-phorbol-13-acetate) resulted in signi fic ant inhibition of tumour development and mu ltiplication. TPA-induced tumorige­nests was significantly inhibited (p<0.0005) by the ginger ex tract (2 mg/mouse; 56% inhibition). The same dose signiricantly inhibited TPA-induced cyclooxygenase (p<0.0005) and lipoxy­genase activi ty (38-72% inhibition )1x.

Inflammatory response J ana et a! demonstrated that ginger

(I 00 mg/kg) was as ef'fecti ve as acetylsalicylic acid ( 100 mg/kg) in reducing carrageenin induced oedema in rats. However th is close of ginger also reduced inflammation, it was not as effective as pheny lbutazone 19

. Similar results for the an ti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of ginger were reported by Mascolo et a/5

. It is th ought that these anti-inflammatory actions are a result of inhibition of prostagl andin release. and hence ginger may ac t in a similar fashion to other non-s teroidal anti-inflammatory dru gs, which int erfere

SUTI-IAR e1 a /: A REVIEW 0 Gl GER (ZINCIBER OFFICIN!ILE) 55

with pros taglandin release or biosy nthesis.

Infectious diseases

Parasitic infections The effect of gi nger constituents

16]-shogaol and [6]-gingerol were examined on the pathogenic parasite Anisakis, the larvae of whi ch are found in raw tuna, cutt le fish, halibut, mackerel, cod and other fish. The authors suggested that the popularity of Japanese cuis ine in the West in which raw fish is a main dish would lead to a corresponding increased incidence or infection by the parasite. Therefore, garnishes such as ginger, whi ch are traditional ly eaten with raw fish in Japanese cuisine. need to be examined for potential anti-A nisakis activity. Following their finding that an extract of ginger could kill the larvae of Anisakis. fractions of a methano lic ex tract of ginger were tested to determine the most active constituents involved. Since the pungent fraction was most effective ( l 00% lethality at l % concentration), they tested the pungent principles 161-shogaol and [61-gingerol. With l 00°/(1 lethality to Anisakis larvae, [6]-shogaol (62 .5 !Jg/mL) showed 4 times the potentcy of [6]-gingerol. While the amount of [6]-gingerol in the methanoli c ext ract or ginger was not suffic ient to be lethal to the larvae, close to th at amount (50 f.!g/mL) with the add ition of a small amount of [61-shogaol (2.5 f.lg/mL) appeared to act synergistically: 23.8% of the larvae were killed and spontaneous movements were halted in l 00%20

. The residues from a 50% ethanol/water

extract of the rhi zome were used to treat dogs naturall y infected with filariasi s from Dirofilaria inunitis. The micro­filarial count was reduced by 98% arter the last treatment phase and rose slowly there after. At 55 clays post-treatment ( l 00 mg/kg s.c., l x/day for 4 claysx3 with 7-clay gaps), the microfilari al count was st ill red uced by 83%21

.

CLINICAL STUDIES Digestive, hepatic, and gastJ·ointestinal disorders

Gastric disorders

Ginger as an anlinauseanl and antiemetic

In a randomized double blind study, Riebenfeld and Borzone examined the comparative efficacy and tolerabi I i ty of a standardized !!inger root powder extrac t (Zintona®, ~an~clarclized to pungent pheno li c compounds) and dimenhydrinate in identica l marked capsules. Effectiveness of the ginger extract was rated very good (n=2 1) or good (n=7) in most cases. A similar result was shown in the dimenhydrinate group (n= 15 and n= 12, respectively). Total motion sickness mean scores revealed that dimenhydrinate was sli ghtly more effective compared to the ginger group. although the difference was not statisti~a ll y s i gnificant~2 .

A doub le blind comparative study of ginger root powder extract (Zintona(l<J ) and dimenhydrinate was conduc ted in 10 girls and 18 boys aged 4-8, al l sensitive to motion sickness. There was an underl ying sign ificant difference between the two groups in terms of general sensi ti vity to

56 INDIAN J TRADIT IONAL KNOWLEDGE. VOL 2. No. I , JA UARY 2003

nausea and vom1t1ng; the ginger group having had a greater tendency in the past to experience motion sickness, whether on a bus, train , airplane, or merry-go­round. In thi s, the first test of ginger agai nst motion sickness in children, Caredd u pointed out th at total relief of symptoms by any motion sickness agent is unheard of, and that owing to the study design he "may we ll have missed partial successes". In short, he concluded that the study offered some indication that ginger is effective in ameliorating symptoms of moti on sickness in childrenn.

Phillips and team had pointed ou t that the incidence of side effects from anti­emetic med ications is signi ficant, and reported the results of a placebo­contro lled, double blind, randomi zed crossover tria l of powdered ginger root in 16 volun teers aged 18 years plus, all in good health . The ginger powder was admin istered in 500 mg capsules and the placebo was indistinguishable in appearance. smell , and taste. While no adverse effects were reported of any kind, one gram of ginger ingested at the same time as paracetamol had no effect on the gastric absorption rate compared to placebo}4

. In a blinded fashion, placebo. ginger, or metoclopramide ( I 0 mg) was administered in the form of two capsu les per subject in each of 3 respect ive groups prior to anesthesia (atracurium fo llowing propofol and fentanyl) . Al though no assessment was made of nausea severity, the researchers found gi nger significantly superior to placebo (p 0.006) in reducing nausea, whereas the anti-nausea effect of mctoclopramicle compared to ginger was insignificant. The supenor benefit of

g1nger was apparent in the number of patients who required anti-emetics: placebo, 38 %; metoclopramide. 32%: and ginger, 15%. Adverse effects were of very low incidence and showed no eli ffe rence in occurrence between the study groups25

. Ginger was compared to metoclopramide and a placebo for anti­emetic activity in 60 women who had undergone major gynecologica l surgery. The study was randomized and double blinded. The incidence of nausea in the two groups given either £11Wer or metoclopramide was sim il ar, although there were sign i fica ntly fewer recorded instances of nausea in the groups that received ginger compared to the placebo group26

. In another controll ed double blind study, Holtman et o/ found that g1 nger root had no in fluence on artifi cia ll y induced nystagmus in test subjects, which is consis tent with its reported lack of action on the central

"7 nervous system- .

In a double blind study, a group of 80 naval cadets were recruited. each of who was given either I gram of powdered g1nger or a placebo while at sea. Symptoms of nausea were recorded once an hour during 4 hours foll ow ing treatment admi nistrati on. Symptoms in the ginger group were 38 % less than in the placebo group2

. A study was conducted with 36 patients with hi stori es o f severe motion sickness. Each received either a placebo, 100 mg of dimenhydrinate, or 940 mg of powdered ginger. A half-hour later they were blindfolded and spun in a mechanical chair until the individual asked to stop. or vomited. On an average, the ginger group .

SUTHAR eta/: A REV IEW 0 Gl GER (ZINCIBER OFFICINAL£) 57

remained in the chair for 5.5 minutes, versus 3.5 minutes for those who received dimenhydrinate, and 1.5 minutes for the placebo group 1 ~ .

A double-blind randomized clinical trial was conducted to inves ti gate the effect of ginger on the nausea and vomiting fo llow ing gynaecological laparoscopic surgery. Both 0.5 and 1.0 g ginger were effective in reducing nausea. with only the higher dose being effecti ve at reducing vomiting"". In contrast, one study found that 2 g ginger was ineffecti ve in preventing the post­operati ve nausea and vomiting associated with diagnostic gynaeco logical laparoscop/0

. Si nce it is we ll known that different anesthetics have varying potential to produce post-operative nausea and vom iting it is possible th at these varying responses are a resu lt of the vary ing mechanisms by which different anaesthetics produce nausea and

. . II VOmi ll ng· .

Suekawa and group reported that 6-gingerol and 6-shogao l suppressed gastri c contraction but increased gastrointestinal motility and spontaneous peristaltic activity in laboratory animals. Ginger has been suggested as suitab le for relieving the gastrointestinal effects of cancer chem~therapy-'2 . Sharma and his colleague. found that only acetone and ethanolic. but not aqueous, extract or ginger were effective agai nst cisplatin induced emesis but not emes i. clue to :tpomorphine. However 1n the former case gtnger was less effective than 5-hydroxy tryp_tamine-3 (5-HT_, ) antagonists ".

As apomorphine acts primarily by direct sti mulation of the cen tral chemoreceptive tri gger zone whi lc cisplatin acts directly in the gastrointest inal tract it is thought that ginger may act by tncreas tng gastrointes tinal motility reducing the feedback from the gastrointestinal tract to the central chemoreceptors. Further support for thi s noti on comes from studies investi gating the effectiveness or gi nger on nausea associated with motion. When ginger was compared to scopolamine (0.6 mg), neither powdered (500 mg and I g) or fresh ginger ( I g) proved useful in preventing motion sick ness'~. Other studies have also failed to show an effect on either motion or seasickness. It wou ld then seem likely that although gi nger is effective when the symptoms of nausea and vomiting are gastrointestinal in ori gin, it is of little benefit when the symptoms are either ves tibular in ori gin, as in motion sickness. or when they are central in ong111. as In

. . . · .,~ 1S optotd 1 nducecl emes is- · · .

Another use for ginger's antinausean t properties has been in the treatment o f morntng sickness. Double-blind randomized cross-over trial found that I g/day ginger was effecti ve in reducing the symptoms of morning sickness and did not appear to have any side effect s or adverse effects on pregnancy outcome. Never the less, of the alternative therapies cited ginger did appear to have the mo,st promise as a safe, effective trcatment"6

Jewell and Young found similar result s in their Cochrane report on "Treatments for nausea and vomiting in earl y pregnancy " . These authors also concluded that

58 INDIAN J T RADIT IONAL KNOWLEDGE. VOL 2. No. I. JANUAR Y 2003

although there may be some benefit from ginger. the evidence thus far is weak37

.

While ginger does appear to be an effect ive antinauseant in these instances there is so me doubt as to its safety . Backon has suggested that ginger may affect binding or tes tosterone to its receptor and. when this occurs in utero, may alter stero id dependent differentiation. As yet no supporting evidence for thi s has been published38

.

Several sources including the American Herbal Products Associati on advise aga inst the use or therapeu tic doses of gi nger during pregnancy unless advi sed to do so by a health care professional 39

. It should also be noted that in general non­medical/scienti fie information sources were found to be contradictory and information, and therapeutic recommendations. unsupported by original research fi nclings.

It would seem then that while ginger is effective for postoperative, chemotherapy and other gastrointestinal induced nausea !here is sti ll further research required to determine whether ginger is safe to use in pregnancy.

ll~flammatory response In Indian Ayurveclic medicine ginger is

used as an anti-inflammatory compound and it has been suggested that ginger may be usefu l as a treatment for arthritis and a number of commercial preparations are available for this use. For example Bio­Organics Arthri-Eze Forte (Bu lli vants. Aust.) and Extralife Artri-Care (Felton Grimwaclc & Bickford Pty Ltd, Aust. ) are marketed as arthritis treatmen ts and con tain 500 mg dried , powered ginger

rhi zome. Srivastava and Mustafa found that more than 75% of pat ien ts receiv in g 3-7 g powered ginger daily for 56 clays had a significant reducti on in pain and swelling associated with either rheumatoid or osteoarthriti s. No adverse effects were reported from these chronic uses of relatively high doses of ginge r. These res ults are also supported by research investi gati ng the ant i-. fl . ~ f ~. ~() 111 ammatory actions o g1nger .

Dosage Approximately one gram or powdered

dried root per clay has been used and recommended as an ani-emetic. Thi s seems to be an effective and safe close~ 1

•

Other studies have used extracts or the fresh root, although the powdered root 1s

. , ~ ~, cons1dered more potent-· · -.

Safety pt·ofile

Pregnancy and lactation In Chinese medicine. g111gcr 1s

recommended at low closes (about one gram/day) for morn1ng sickness. However, in Germany it 1s contraindicated in pregnancy because of the hypothes is that g inger may inhibit tec;tosterone binding. This is an untes ted hypothesis, and there is no ev idence from any study to support it. Furthermore. there are no reports of miscarriage or birth defects from ginger. but caution shou ld be exercised. A recent clinica l study of women hospitalized for severe morning sickness (Hvperell/es is gra t,idarwn ) found ginger to be useful in 70% of the women, and no side effects were repo rt ed ·~-~_ The use or ginger during

SUTHAR el a/: A REV IEW ON GINGER (ZINGIBER OFFICINAL/C..:) 59

pregnancy is probably safe, but if symptoms develop a physician should be consulted. The safety of ginger use during lactation is unknown.

Sid e effects In a double blind study of a

standardized ginger ext ract (Zintona, 500 mg every 4 hours for two days) in adults known to have sensitiv ity to motion sickness, side effects were reported by 13 .3% of participants in the ginger group. These were somnolence in 3 and headache in one, both of which could have occurred from motion sickness rather than the g inger extract21

• No side effects were reported in a double blind study of motion sickness sensitive children (ages 4-8) taking 250 mg of a standardized ginger root extract every 4 hours or as needed over two clays22

.

Overdosage could potentially appear 111

central nervous system problems or card iac arrhythmias6

.

Special precautions Although studies thus far have shown

ginger to be relatively safe, it is a strong thromboxanc synthetase inhibitor and prostacyc li n agonist; therefore, post­operative patients taking ginger as an anti-emetic shou lei be monitored

~~ closely · .

Toxicology

Mutagenicity Surh and team had reviewed the

mutage ni c studies of ginger and ginger consti tuents. They noted that in one study an et hanoli c extrac t of the rhizome

showed mutagenic activity (in Sallllonella typhi111uritllll TA 102 and TA98) withou t metabolic activation: another found no mutagenic activity from ginger extract and a third found that genotoxicity elicited by several carcinogens was . uppressecl by ginger extract In mammalian and bacterial cells44

.

Yamamoto eta/ ( 1982), using a modified Ames test with S. tvpllilllllriltlll TA I 00 and T A 98, found no mutagenicity from a water and methanol extract of Zingi!Jer. but did from an extract of Zingiher siccalttlll rhiz.onw~5 . The former name refers to the fresh rhizome while that of the latter is given to the dried rhizome4

('.

The difference may owe to the presence of contaminants or to the balance or mutagenic and anti-mutagenic constituents of the two rhizome samples: shogao l and gingerol have shown mutagenic activity in the Ames test. whereas zingcrone has been shown to dose-dependently suppress their

. . . .j.j mutagenic activity .

Conclusion The efficacy of ginger has been

estab li shed by results of various pre­clin ical and clinical trials in different conditions carried out in different centres. Proper cloublt> blind cl ini cal trial s with standardi zed ex tract containing gingerols and other act ive ingredients present in extract need to be undertaken to confirm its efficacy in various condit ions. These studi es wou ld give a spec ial place for ginger product as a digest ive. anti-emetic. an ti -arthriti c/anti -inflammatory, anti­platelet aggregati on and 111 parasit ic infection in future.

60 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL 2. No. I. JANUARY 2003

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-1 A clewunmi C 0. Oguntimein 13 0 & Furu P. 1ollusc iciclal and anti schistosomal acti viti es

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12 Tanabe M. Chen Y . Saito K & Kano Y. Cholestero l biosynthesis inhibitory component fro m Zingiber r4fic inale. Chem Plwnna Bull. 4 1 ( 1993) 7 10.

13 Kobayashi M . Ishida Y. Shoji N & Oh izumi Y. Cardi otonic action of (8)-g ingerol. an activator of the Ca++ pumping adenosine 1riphosphatase of ~a rcopla s mic reti cul um in

guinea pig atrial musc le . .I Plw mwcol E.rp Th er. 246 ( 1988) 667.

14 Shoji . lwasa A , Takemato T . Ishida Y & Ohi zumi Y. Cardiotonic Principals o f Cl inger. .I Phamw Sci. 7 1 ( 1982 ) I 17-1.

15 Kobayashi M. Shoji N & Ohi zumi Y. Gingerol. a nove l cardiotonic agent. act ivate;, the Ca2+-pumping ATPasc in skeletal and cardiac sarcopl asmic reticulum. Biocltent Biophvs Acta. 903 ( 1987) 96.

16 Guh J H. Ko F N, Jong T T & Tcng C M . Antipl atelet effect of gingcrol isolated from Zi11giber ojjici11ale. J Plwmtacr Phamw,·o/. 47 ( 1995) 329.

17 Sharma S S & Gupta Y K . Reversal of cisplatin-induced delay in gastric empty ing rate in rat s by ginger (Zi11giber officilla!e). J Eth11ophan/lacol. 62 ( 1998) 49.

18 Kati yar S K. Agarwal R & Mul-.htar H. Inhibition of tumor formati on in SENCAR mouse skin by ethanol ex tract of Zingiber officillale rhi zome. Ca11cer Res. 56 ( 1996) 1023.

19 Jana U. Chattopaclhyay R N & Shaw B P. Preliminary studi es on anti - innam matory acti vit y of Zi11giber oflicilla!e Rose.. llile.r 11 egu111/o Linn. and Tinospom cordif(,fia (Wild .) Miers in albino rats. Indian .I Phan11acol. 3 1 ( 1999) 232.

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