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British Journal of Education
Vol. 4, No. 11, pp. 24-34, October 2016
Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.ejournals.org) __________________________________________________________________________________
Page | 24
ISSN 2054-6351 (print), ISSN 2054-636X (online)
A REVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT: RELIABILITY, VALIDITY
AND RELATIONSHIP WITH LEARNING—THE CASE OF NORTHERN
IRELAND (NI) TRANSFER TESTS POLICY AND PRACTICE
Md Shidur Rahman
A Doctoral Student at School of Social Sciences, Education and Social Work, Queen’s University Belfast, UK
ABSTRACT: Northern Ireland 11+ transfer tests policy is a long-standing debatable
issue. Presently, the transfer-tests are divided into two distinct test types and they are
colloquially known as the AQE (the Association of Quality Education) as well as the
GL (Granada Learning) tests which are non-statutory as the government removed the
NI transfer tests in 2008. But, previously these tests were called 11+ exams in which all
students took the same tests for grammar school admission. This study aims to evaluate
the current NI transfer test policy in light of its reliability, validity, and relationship
with learning. The analysis of NI transfer tests traces a number of complications and
dilemmas such as unfaithful scoring and grading systems as they contain a lack of
transparency. The tests policy also fosters a conflict between the sense of deprivation
and advantage. The policy also bewilders a group of pupils, and develops some
negative effects on learning. In a word, there are little positive outcomes of these testing
systems. Rather, a serious disastrous effect has been culminated in the absence of
government care. Henceforth, an alternative transfer testing procedure is essential to
be embedded in the NI education system which can fit well with all students in general.
KEYWORDS: validity, reliability, transfer test policy, learning
INTRODUCTION
Assessment is an influential aspect in education (Taras, 2008) though it is challenging
in a contemporary society (McDowell, 2010). Assessment is regarded as ‘of learning’,
‘for learning’ and ‘as learning’ (Black & Wiliam, 1998, 2009; Hume & Coll, 2009). Its
use is obvious in various forms, systems, and purposes at different levels and disciplines
of education. For example, an assessment process—termed as transfer test—exists in
Northern Ireland (NI) education system. Children take this test at the age of 11(Machin,
McNally & Wyness, 2013). The test is used in order to select the pupils who have ability
to study in grammar schools (Gallagher, 2015). This study wishes to evaluate the
current NI transfer test policy in light of its reliability, validity and relationship with
learning. The reasons lie in choosing to investigate these three imperative facets of the
NI transfer test policy are firstly that most of the researchers, such as Gallagher and
Smith (2000); Gardner and Cowan (2000, 2005); and Cowan (2007), studied validity
and reliability focusing on the context of old 11+ transfer test. However, a few
researchers, e.g. Elwood (2013), explored the current transfer tests’ validity and
reliability. Even, Elwood (2013) chiefly concentrated on the validity from an ethics
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Vol. 4, No. 11, pp. 24-34, October 2016
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ISSN 2054-6351 (print), ISSN 2054-636X (online)
viewpoint. Secondly, no study on the present NI transfer test system is so far conducted
in combination with validity, reliability and relationship with leaning. Therefore, there
exists a vacuum of research which is necessitated to address. Lastly, the study will yield
an understanding of the problems with the test system and possible solutions. The study
falls into two sections. The first section introduces the transfer test policy and its
context; and the second section presents the evaluation of the test system touching on
reliability, validity, and links and relationships with learning.
TRANSFER TEST POLICY AND ITS CONTEXT
Context
As already mentioned, this study focused on the transfer tests procedure (as an
assessment policy) in the context of NI education system. So, prior to presenting the
transfer test policy, there is a need to highlight the NI education system that has a
multiple features—particularly the primary, secondary and grammar school systems are
segregated on the basis of religion, sex, age, and pupils’ ability to be selected for the
grammar schools. Then, there are Catholic and Protestant schools. Along with these
religious schools, there are some integrated schools in which pupils of any religious
background can have access (Gallagher, Smith & Montgomery, 2003) and Irish
medium schools. The primary schools cater for pupils from Year 1 to Year 7, the
secondary schools from Year 8 to Year 12—although a minority takes pupils up to Year
14 (Gallagher & Smith, 2000), and the Grammar schools from Year 8 to Year 14
(Birrell & Heenan, 2013; Gallagher & Smith, 2000). The pupils from primary level are
actually selected for the grammar school level with an assessment system known as
transfer test.
Transfer Test Policy
The present NI transfer test seems to be a vexed issue. It was previously known as ‘11
plus exam’ in which all pupils took the same test in order to get admitted into the
grammar schools. But, the government eliminated this test system in 2008 with a view
to establishing a comprehensive education which was described as a “one size fits all
education system” (BBC, 2015; Elevenplusexams, 2015). However, there was a protest
against the government decision, and a new transfer procedure emerged in the NI
education system. Two different tests have been devised in the new system—the AQE
(Association of Quality Education) exams utilised by state/protestant schools; and the
GL (Granada Learning) assessment exams used by Catholic schools. The AQE test
resembles the old 11+ test though the science test is excluded. But, the GL test is
considerably different from the old 11+ system, particularly, with respect to test
construct and marking strategy. None of these testes are regulated by the government.
As a result, these tests are known as unofficial or unregulated AQE and GL test (Lloyd,
2013). In the AQE test, children sit three tests and the best two tests’ scores, out of
three, are aggregated, while children take two papers in GL test. The AQE test costs
£42, and marked by the experienced markers; by contrast, the GL test is free, and
machine-marked. The pupils in AQE test write their answers on the test booklets;
conversely, pupils in GL test store their answers on a mark-sheet. Then, the AQE test
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Vol. 4, No. 11, pp. 24-34, October 2016
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follows the scoring system (based on the number) for the result; on the other hand, the
GL test adheres to the grading system (based on letters such as A, B1, B2, C1, C2, and
D). The children wishing to go to a Protestant school sit the AQE test, and those who
desire to go to a Catholic school sit the GL test; on the contrary, children can also sit
the both tests as some schools, though few, accept one and the other tests (AQE, 2015;
AQUINAS, 2015). The analytical discussion up to this point clarifies that the current
transfer test system is full of complications and confusions. Hence, there is a need to
evaluate the tests for further understanding.
EVALUATION OF NORTHERN IRELAND (NI) TRANSFER TEST POLICY
AND PRACTICE
The term ‘assessment’ needs to be defined as it is central to this study. Taras (2005, p.
467) said that, “Assessment refers to a judgement which can be justified according to
specific weighted set goals, yielding either comparative or numerical ratings.” Then
Stobart (2008, p. 1) argued, “Assessment, in the form of tests and examinations, is a
powerful activity which shapes how societies, groups and individuals understand
themselves.” Gipps (1994, p.vii) glossed that assessment entails—, “a wide range of
methods for evaluating pupil performance and attainment including formal testing and
examinations, practical and oral assessment, classroom based assessment carried out by
teachers and portfolios.” Having taken all these definitions into account, it seems that
assessment incorporates a multiple perspectives: judgement, various methods such as
tests, examinations, practical and oral assessment and so on. Sebatane (1998 cited in
Medland, 2014) described assessment as an overarching concept that incorporates
almost every prospect of education. Similarly, Elwood and Lundy (2010, p. 335) stated
that, “Assessment is a powerful umbrella term that incorporates a diverse range of
actions and process.”
In order to elucidate the definition further, types and purposes of assessment are in need
of investigation. First, assessment is of different types. These are summative assessment
(Assessment of learning): for example, GCSE, A-LEVEL, high-stakes test, national
exam; formative assessment (Assessment for learning): classroom based-assessment;
and so on (Gipps, 1994; McDowell, Wakelin, Montgomery & King, 2011; Black,
1998). Second, assessment may have various purposes such as to support the learning,
to report the achievements of individuals, and to satisfy the demands for public
accountability (Black, 1998). Rowntree (1987) mentioned six reasons of assessment
from Brian Klug’s (1974) thirty-two reasons for formal assessment. These are selection
by assessment, maintaining standards, motivation of students, feedback to students,
feedback to the teacher, and preparation for life. The selection by assessment—out of
these six—is considerably pertinent to the NI Transfer Tests, because the tests chiefly
select those pupils who are capable to study in grammar schools. Some also attempted
to designate the tests as achievement tests or selection tests. For example, Lloyd,
Devine and Robinson (2011) mentioned the test as the selection procedure and as the
11+ test.
However, many argued that it is a high-stakes test. Gardner and Cowan (2000), for
instance, classified the test as high-stakes because of its serious consequences to the
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pupils who do not get a place at grammar school. Gardner and Cowan (2000) are
certainly right in characterising the test as high-stakes because the test results are
employed to qualify whether a pupil can get a place or not, and this decision to qualify
pupils is consequential due to its influences on students, teachers, schools,
communities, and so on (Madaus, 1988). Moreover, this test is likely to be considered,
from a wider viewpoint, as a summative assessment. That is to say, it is not a classroom
based test because it is not wholly related to what children do in the classrooms. The
study will next consider the reliability and validity of NI transfer test procedure.
Reliability and Validity of NI Transfer Test Policy
Reliability
The words such as score, mark, grade, and result are chiefly focused on when defining
and measuring reliability of assessment. William (1992, p.1) used the word ‘results’
while defining reliability as, “an assessment procedure would be reliable to the extent
that two identical students would get the same assessment results”; and Feldt and
Brennan (1989, p.106) claimed that, “It is almost impossible to deal with issues of
definition, quantification, and estimation of reliability without addressing the concept
of true score.” It seems from these definitions that reliability is basically about marking
or score or grade. This reliability issue merits further elaboration as other factors with
score or grade—such as errors in marking, variations in grading, inappropriate
interpretation of test results and scores, and wrong disclosure and fidelity of
assessment—can decline the reliability of assessment.
As in Northern Ireland transfer tests procedure, errors surrounding results are evident,
for example, thirty-four candidates received wrong results in 2014 (BBC, 2014), and
another student was given D grade unexpectedly with wrong marking in 2010 (Paddyq,
2010). Ricketts (2010) called it a false negative (those deemed to have failed when they
were actually qualified). This kind of error may generate negative public perceptions
about the test reliability, and seriously undermine their trust in the test system. QCA
(2003 cited in Gardner, 2013) took strong position against the error and declared that
grading error of any sort, for both the individual student and the system, is unacceptable.
Many writers, however, have challenged the QCA’s claim on the grounds that
assessment inaccuracy is inevitable—it is seldom possible to entirely eliminate the
error. No set of results ever be reliable (Newton, 2005a, 2005b), all assessment systems
are subject to error (Ricketts, 2010). Newton’s and Ricketts’s claims ring true when
Gardner (2013) indicated that educational assessment is a probabilistic process;
however, as the NI transfer test is a high takes test—so, errors in scoring are not
desirable. Haladyna and Downing (2004) stressed that a stronger assurance of score
accuracy is required in high stakes testing. Consequently, the test agencies (AQE and
GL) should be aware of the public’s unawareness of assessment inaccuracy, and should
expose the strengths and weaknesses of the assessment. In addition to this, the agencies
should take the culpability for the error and increase the transparency of grading system
in order that the public could trust the test (Newton, 2005b).
Unlike the overall assessment inaccuracy, some definite issues are necessitated to be
addressed. For example, the grading system does not seem to be reliable because the
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problems of grade allocation as well as misclassification and misinterpretation of
candidates’ grades are the matter of a great concern in NI transfer test procedure
(Gardner & Cowan, 2000; Harlen, 2006). Cole and Zieky (2001) stated that the testing
data present individual variation, not group variation, and this is the major fairness
concern. Similarly, Cowan (2007) pointed out that the lack of technical fidelity makes
the test unreliable to the stakeholders: parents and students. That is to say, total score
or sub-score, and standard measurement errors or test information functions are not
reported to the stakeholders. In a nutshell, the information on the reliability of the test
are not made available to the public (Gardner & Cowan, 2000). All these evidence draw
an issue of having no trust and transparency in the test grading system, and ultimately
the blame goes on to the test agencies: AQE and GL. However, Newton (2005b)
contended that tests and examinations are deemed to be blunt, and assessment results
are thought of as estimates; therefore, it would be naive to criticise test agency only.
In spite of believing that measurement inaccuracy is an inescapable feature of
measurement, there is an emphasis on grade descriptors, marking guides and exemplars
in order to increase the assessment transparency and to assist pupils’ understanding the
requirements and standards of assessment (Rust, Price & O’Donovan, 2003; Handley
& Williams, 2011). Otherwise, for example, the lack of certitude around grades may
fuel another debate among the public. For enhancing the reliability of the test, the AQE
and GL should arrange many more training programmes for the parents and the students
to clarify the test procedure. The study of Bell, Mladenovic and Price (2013) found that
developing students’ understanding of assessment practice means enhancing their
learning.
In addition, the above measurement errors, as threats to providing true or reliable score
to students (which is argued earlier in this section of study), appear from different
sources. Firstly, individual variation: one test taker’s health, anxiety, motivation level,
concentration, forgetfulness, mental efficiency, carelessness, and subjectivity may vary
from others. Secondly, situational factors such as working environment of examinees,
non-standardised administration, and classroom setting can narrow the reliability
(Gipps, 1994). Thirdly, there are unbalanced items in the test.
The discussion about reliability so far indicates that reliability appears to be the
problematic issue of the test itself and its markers. Regardless the problems, the NI
transfer tests procedure leaves an opportunity for parents to dispute the grades and to
remark the test paper if they are unhappy with the test results (AQE, 2015a).
Validity
Another most important and debated concept in educational measurement is validity
(Goldstein, 2015) in which an assessment or a testing instrument is considered fit, to
what degree, for the purpose. According to Cole and Zieky (2001), “Validity is not
dichotomous; it is a matter of degree.” Stobart (2001) presented that validity is, “the
extent to which a test measures what it purports to measure.” This is a conventional
definition of validity. However, the NI transfer tests stated what is to be measured.
AQE (2015b), for example, specified that, “The Common Entrance Assessment (CEA)
has been developed to meet international test standards. It assesses pupils on their
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English and Mathematics ability.” This means a student with the score of 112 will
perform better in grammar school than a student with the score of 90. Measuring the
ability is perceived to be the pupil’s performance. Nevertheless, ability is used in the
sense of possibility for performance. Wallace (2008) illustrated that a student with
having high ability may perform poor, or a student with low ability may perform well.
She also argued that one’s innate ability is not evident or indeed whether it exists at all
till late in one’s school career. Therefore, agreeing with Wallace’s (2008) view, it could
be commented that it is not merely certain that NI transfer tests measure what they
purport to measure.
The current transfer tests’ ability measurement is found to be affected when we consider
the construct validity of the tests. But prior to moving forward to the construct validity,
there is a need to look at that a robust debate prevails between content validity (Cureton,
1951) and construct validity (Cronbach & Meehl, 1955). Lissitz and Samuelsen (2007)
argued very strongly that validity is about the test contents, not about the test constructs.
They claimed that content is relevant to validity as it is internal; whereas constructs are
external—so they can be addressed in other test development system. However,
Mesick’s (1989) suggestion is not to combine different constructs or paradigms into a
single measure albeit they are increasingly interlinked. Evidently, in the NI transfer
tests, the AQE (2015a) declared that there is an opportunity, for pupils, of sitting for
three tests. It is only mandatory to attend two of these tests. Each test is composed with
English and Maths (two separate constructs). There are 32 marks for English and 32
marks for Maths. The test, ostensibly, does not estimate the single construct—each
paper is a combination of scores in two subject areas. This is to say, test score is treated
as a single measure (Gardner & Cowan, 2005). As a consequence, it is difficult to
construe the ability with these combining scores, and the AQE did not provide any
statement for how they will infer the ability. By contrast, GL assessment assesses two
papers (English and Mathematics) separately—the first paper assesses English; the
second paper assesses Mathematics (NICCY, 2010). So, the evidence highlights that
the transfer tests are not generally valid concerning the test constructs.
However, Stobart (2001) disputed this conventional approach of test validity and
claimed that it is a backdated validity concept that considers validity as a property of a
test—but validity is not any more regarded as a fixed property of an assessment
(Stobart, 2006). Rather, validity is the property of a test score as the use of a test scores
needs to be validated, not the test itself (AERA, 2014 in Sireci & Faulkner-Bond, 2015).
This claim may not be entirely accepted because Newton (2012) suggested that validity
ought to be evaluated by the interpretation of those who use the test as well as those
who publish it. This is not to say that validity is not linked to the test scores at all. As
such one-third of grammar schools in 2011 admitted the pupils who achieved even the
lowest grade (The Belfast Telegraph, 2011, 23).
Recently, the validity has been viewed more broadly. According to Messick (1989,
p.19), “For a fully unified view of validity, it must also be recognised that the
appropriateness, meaningfulness, and usefulness of score-based inferences depend as
well on the social consequences of the testing. Therefore, social values and social
consequences cannot be ignored in considerations of validity.” This new approach to
validity has given a new understanding of consequential validity.
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Many subscribe to Messick’s (1989: 19) unitary position to validity of this kind—for
instance: Elwood and Murphy (2002, P. 395):, “The social consequences of assessment
also impact substantially on the validity of assessment”; Linn (1997); Shaperd (1997):
construct validity; crook, et al, (1996); Gipps (1994); and William (1993). By contrast,
Popham (1997) and Mehrens (1997) differed with Messick’s framework by arguing that
social consequences cannot be amalgamated with validity issues. In addition,
Borsboom, Mellenbergh and van Heerden (2004) opposed Messick’s (1989) position
stating that the unified validity concept is not needed as we believe there is nothing to
unify. All this leads to comment that the researchers are profoundly divided, and the
validity paradigms are seen to have shifted from one to other. But it should be kept in
mind that validity is a fluid and relative issue. Any unfamiliar point in question may
arise in a new test situation. Gorin (2007) contended that making validation and validity
is a continuous process – “Validity is not a box to be checked yes or no.”
Messick (1989) is true to say that social values and consequences should not be ignored
in respect with test validity. If we take a look back at the transfer test policy section in
this study, some equality and ethical issues of NI transfer test may come out which have
significant social consequences. For example, the AQE test is mostly aligned with the
old 11+ test and the practice booklets are available, so the AQE test takers are familiar
with the test procedure, while the GL test procedure is unfamiliar to the pupils. Then,
the parents have to pay for the AQE test, but the GL test is free of cost. These sorts of
uneven arrangements provoke fairness concerns among people. Furthermore, the study
of Elwood (2013) highlighted some potential social impacts, for example, the form of
these tests indicates that one group of pupils may be more benefited than others such as
boys may do well in GL test rather than their counterpart because boys do better on
multiple choice questions. Again in relation to the AQE test, girls may be more
advantaged than their counterpart as they are good at long responses. Another important
aspect is that the GL test may be easier than the AQE’s. Additionally, as is noted both
tests are non-statutory, it seems the tests are vulnerable and unstable. Therefore, these
situations may form a concept that the tests may not sustain longer. This test procedure
also influences the children as well as parents when they observe the lack of
transparency about how the decisions are taken; become confused of what test to sit;
come accross the difficulties of taking the both tests, and so on. All this evidence
suggests that the existing NI test procedure has an adverse effect on the students and
other stakeholders because the social and cultural experience the students and teachers
bring to the test situation is a part of the tapestry of the assessment tasks and outcomes
(Elwood & Murphy, 2015). Gardner and Cowan (2005), for instance, stated that the
students who do not get a place in grammar school, a sense of failure adds them to a
personal disappointment. However, it could be argued that the current test system is
rather valid comparing to the old 11+ transfer test because the decision-making of
pupils’ place allocation in the current test system is conducted based on the two tests
scores (yet the GL test is different), but as in the 11+ transfer test the single test score
was used to decide the place. It has been suggested, however, that the predecessor was
more stable than the present system, and the children prefer a new common test, not
necessarily as the old version (Elwood, 2013).
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Links between reliability and validity
A nexus is noticed between validity and reliability if we take a closer look at the validity
definition of Messick (1989:19) that subsumes reliability (test scores and
consequences). Furthermore, evidently reliability and validity overlap; assessment
result confidence depends upon both validity and reliability; reliability is a part of
validity, not a separate issue—it is subsumed into validity (Black & William, 2006;
Black, 1998; Storbat, 2008; Feldt & Brennan, 1989; and Wiliam & Black, 1996). All
these arguments indicate that many agree that a strong link exists between validity and
reliability. On the other hand, others are not aligned with the view that there is a link
between validity and reliability, for example, Hogan (2007) argued that a test
performance may have reliability—nevertheless it may not be valid or may have limited
validity. Reliability is objective – validity is subjective. However, reliability is linked
to validity as Messick’s (1989) unitary concepts of validity incorporate reliability such
as highlighting appropriateness of scores. Beyond this, reliability issue may affect the
validity issue for instance publishing wrong grades or the lack of clarity of the test
process can hamper the purpose of the test. The NI transfer test procedure is an example
of this kind. The NI transfer test agencies such as AQE (2015) just contended that they
are maintaining the validity and reliability of the test. But, so far, neither the AQE nor
the GL has published any study, as a response to the public, specifying the issues of
validity and reliability and outcomes of the tests.
NI transfer test and learning: links and relationships
Having outlined the two key concepts, reliability and validity, of educational testing
and assessment—the NI Transfer Tests, this section underscores the links between the
tests and learning. Many researchers have conceded that educational assessment has a
strong link with learning. Medland (2014), for example, stated that assessment is a key
to student learning and achievement as the primary beneficiary of assessment should be
students (Hatzipanagos & Rochon, 2010). Dann (2014) expressed that assessment and
learning become inextricably intertwine. Like Dann (2014), Brown, Bull & Pendlebury
(2013) said, “Assessment is the cash nexus of learning.” Furthermore, the categories
of assessment at the very outset of this study have showed that the assessment has links
with learning such as formative assessment or assessment for learning, and summative
assessment or assessment of learning. Among these assessments, classroom based
assessments, in other words formative assessments, are more effective (Hargreaves,
Earl & Schmidt, 2002) as they prompt student learning (Stiggins, 1991). But, Elwood
(2006) argued that formative assessment is confused theoretically and conceptually. In
order to prepare the children for the NI Transfer Test, for instance, extra teaching time
and preparation are usually provided by the schools, and it was in a greater extent with
the old transfer test (11+) though (Gallagher & Smith, 2000). However, since the current
test is unofficial, the Department of education has warned the primary schools not to
prepare the children (Black, 2015). Moreover, many parents send their children to the
coaching centres for extra lessons (Smith, Birthistle & Farrell, 2000). This means the
schools and parents drive the students for learning from the classroom in order to cut a
good figure in the tests. Besides, during the preparation at school or private coaching
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centre, the children can learn from the feedback given by the teachers as the teacher’s
feedback to students provides a stronger link with learning (Gipps, 1999).
In looking to the NI Transfer Tests in connection with learning, the tests seem to serve
as triggers for learning when the students realise that to be placed in a grammar school
gives them a sense of social standing rather than to be placed in a general secondary
school (Remedios, Ritchie & Lieberman, 2005). To summarise, the NI transfer tests are
deemed to be involved in learning as students are highly engaged with the tests. Black,
Harrison, Hodgen, Marshall and Serret (2010) also pointed out that summative
assessment should be a positive part of learning process because students’ intense
involvement in the test procedure can help them to be benefited rather than to be
cheated.
Despite the links above, some researchers found that assessment limits the learning
opportunities instead of supporting it, for example—High-stakes tests narrow the
curricular content to the tested subject; disintegrate subject knowledge into test oriented
parts; and drive teaching to be teacher-centred (Au, 2007). High-stakes tests focus on
basic skills rather than on extended tasks (Linn, 1993). For the NI transfer tests, the
items in English and Mathematics taught by the teachers in respective schools are
specific. The teachers employ different techniques to maximise the learning of facts
essential for the pupils to secure the place at grammar schools (Johnston & McClune,
2000). That is, the current transfer tests procedure narrow the learning items down from
wide to test-specific.
Then, this test procedure has a serious negative effect on learning of students who fail
to achieve a place at a grammar school or even those who cannot enter the test or those
who opt out of the test. These students are to struggle to build up the self-esteem in the
society (Osborne, 2006). Furthermore, the study of Remedios, Ritchie and Lieberman
(2005) found that the external pressures such as pressures from the parents can decline
the pupils’ interests in the subjects. It is also noted that many students lose their interests
for learning after passing the transfer test.
Afterwards, the purpose of the tests as presented earlier is to select or to qualify the
children for grammar schools. So the purpose indicates that the tests are not concerned
with the pupil learning, but with the pupil selection. Accompanying with the purpose,
the test structure, too, affects student’s learning. As already identified, the NI Transfer
Procedure consists of two distinct tests with two separate formats. The AQE is a written
test; while the GL is a multiple-choice test. The former is open, though not entirely; but
the later is closed. The pupils, who wish to take both tests, are in dilemma to preparing
for the tests.
Following the consequences of the tests purpose and structure, the political stalemate
surrounding the tests also impinges upon students’ learning. Both the tests are
administered unofficially, and therein lies anxiety among the teachers and parents who
consider the current tests system as chaotic (Birrell & Heenan, 2013). This sort of unrest
atmosphere problematizes the student’s learning. Lastly, the discussion around the
learning, test links and relationships suggests that the NI transfer test policy seems not
to sit well alongside learning although many researchers illustrated the links between
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testing and learning. Nevertheless, at the one extreme, the overall discussion so far tells
us that the tests do not sit well with the NI education system. At the other extreme, it
may be better to have these tests in existence rather than to have no test at all because
the political deadlock left the test procedure vacuum. This is not to suggest, however,
that the existing NI transfer tests policy is outstanding.
The analysis of NI transfer tests reliability, validity, and relationship with learning
renders a number of complications and dilemmas such as unfaithful scoring and grading
systems as they contain a lack of transparency. The tests policy also fosters a conflict
between the sense of deprivation and advantage. The policy also bewilders a group of
pupils, and develops some negative effects on learning. In a word, there are little
positive outcomes of this testing system. Rather, a serious disastrous effect has been
culminated in the absence of government care. Henceforth, an alternative transfer
testing procedure is essential to be embedded in the NI education system which can fit
well with all students in general. In order to make it happen, all political parties should
come forward to take effective measures for negotiations with parents, educators, and
community leaders.
CONCLUSION
This study wished to judge the ongoing NI transfer tests procedure in regard to
reliability, validity and relationship with learning. The study has been able to uncover
the pros and cons of this tests procedure in relation to the three influential aspects of
assessment. A wider range of limitations of the tests policy emerged: obscurity in
marking and scoring, and a sense of uncertainty works associated with the tests due to
be unregulated by the government. Most important positive side is that the children are
engaged in learning process. However, the strength of this study is that it has underlined
the problems and attracted the attentions of the stakeholders. It has also located the
dangerous effects of the tests process on the learning. So, this study has apprised the
concerned authority to construct a new test policy or to amend the existing policy of
transfer tests. Concurrently, some limitations of this study are noticeable. Since it is a
small-scale research, the issues of three areas have not been possible to focus
extensively. Additionally, this is a secondary research. So, further research needs to be
undertaken in the future.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: A big thank you to Professor Jannette Elwood (School of
Social Sciences, Education and Social Work, Queens University Belfast, UK) for her
useful support, guidance and feedback
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ORAL LITERATURE AS A SPRING-BOARD FOR VALUE INCULCATION TO
CHILDREN
Dr. (Mrs) Nwigwe Nwakaego
Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education
Ebonyi State University
Abakaliki.
ABSTRACT: It has been observed that societal ills and vices abound in every nooks and crannies
of this country and all over the world. The rate at which the youths are involved in immoral
behaviour is a thing of concern to everyone. Many people are of the opinion that the disregard for
and loss of our rich indigenous cultural values that encourage morality and good behaviour which
the children and youths of the past were known for are responsible for these ugly situations in the
country today. Many children and youths do not speak their indigenous language (mother tongue)
neither do they understand the culture and traditions of their people. This is not surprising as
culture and tradition go hand in hand with language. This paper supports that the only way out is
for us to return to our cultural tradition which the people of the past used in entertaining and
educating their children and youths. The paper is of the view that oral literature (folktale), when
used to lay solid foundation in upbringing and education of the youths, will go a long way in
inculcating moral values to them. The paper also advises that parents and teachers should serve
as the mirror or model through which the children imitate and imbibe the societal values and aid
in curbing immoral behaviour in the society. It also aims proffering a teaching model by which
Igbo folktale can serve as a tool for inculcating core values to children and youths.
KEYWORDS: Oral literature, folktales, value inculcation, culture, tradition, children
INTRODUCTION
Oral literature means oral works of high merit which are products of the creative use of imagination
by the artist of the spoken words in pre-literate communities. Such works are composed mentally
by the illiterate raconteur; Stored in the memory and then spoken, recited, chanted or sung on
specific occasions (Ikwubuzo, 1993). It consists of both prose, verse, narratives, poems, songs,
myths, rituals and dramas, proverbs, folktales and riddles.Values on the other hand is the collection
of guiding principles; what one deems to be correct and desirable in life, especially regarding
personal conduct. They are beliefs about what is right and wrong and what is important in life
(Hornby, 2005). Ogunbameru and Rotimi (2006) observed that "values are all inclusive, deeply
internalized personal feeling that direct actions". Thus, values may not be seen, but are recognized
in the behaviour of the child. As leaders of tomorrow, the young ones are given the basic spiritual
and cultural training to enable them take over the adult responsibilities in order to maintain and
sustain the societal development. The use of Igbo oral literature (Folktale) as a tool for value
inculcation to children and youths is the concern of this paper. The emphasis is on Igbo folktales.
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Historical Background to Value Inculcation to Children and Youths
Prior to the introduction of modern education, it was the oral tradition that parents in the past used
to express their ideas, values, norms, beliefs and culture and to pass them unto their children orally
using their native language (mother tongue), and through the active participation in and passive
observation of both formal and customary socio- religious, cultural and political institutions and
events (Fafunwa, 1991). A family supplements for any deficiency that any elder family members
discover in children's values and characters through the use of folktales, folksongs, proverbs and
riddles as pedagogic tools. Parents, especially the mothers in the traditional families could be seen
in their use of folktales, folksongs and riddles. Children sometimes stay with their parents
especially in the night to hear folktales, proverbs and riddles centering on some of the legendary
animals, for instance, tortoise, elephant or ants and the grasshoppers. These folktales, folksongs,
proverbs and riddles and their interpretations are based on how the people perceive and construe
their world. This may enhance the teaching of values which enable children to perceive and think
of how to behave at any given time and situation. "This may create fertile ground for the children
to develop the ability to understand the do’s and don’t’s in the society and may enhance peace and
harmony in the society" (Fiakpa, 2004).
In oral tradition, parental influence starts from the day a child is born. Mothers starts the training
of the child in Igbo core values through folksongs (Lullaby). From then, the child begin to imbibe
the values which are embedded in the song. Oral literature transmit important cultural and societal
values, knowledge and behaviours. Most children grow up hearing folktales from their
grandparents or parents and this rich oral tradition is instrumental in shaping their personality in
their formative stages of life. It has the role of creating value-based, socially responsible and civil
individuals. Similarly, oral literature have played a big role in preserving our culture and in doing
so people do not make concerted efforts; they do it by merely living their daily life. Any action,
work or participation in daily life is equivalent to living the culture and more so the transmission
of the culture and values to the younger generations. Thus, parents, grandparents and elders are
the mirror or models through which the children imitate the right moral values. This is corroborated
by Oladele (1991) when he says that a child's behaviour is often a reflection of his home training
and emulation of both parents and teachers, hence these adults should be alive to their
responsibilities and practise what they preach. This is also in line with Onwuka (1991) as he noted
that one of the best ways to teach anything is to present a concrete example of it because young
people of today are quick to spot adults who say one thing and do another. This advice is for
parents and teachers in their dealings with children and youths whether in their families (homes)
or in the classes (school).
Brief Survey of the Present Situations:
With the present status of Nigeria families, there seems to be a cultural evolution which has
influenced parent-child interactions. Most parents appear not to have the continuous contact with
their children because of their absence in search of means of livelihood (Mgboro, 2003). A
situation whereby some parents leave for work in the early hour of the day only to come back late
at night when the children must have gone to sleep is not healthy for proper development of the
child in terms of character formation which traditional system of education emphasized. Many
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children and youths do not speak or understand their mother tongue (Igbo) forgetting that mother
tongue is a value by itself. Since language is a means of transmitting the cultural traditions of
ethnic groups, it then means that their inability to speak and understand their local language has
also denied them the opportunity of understanding their culture and traditions. This is because
culture and traditions essentially go hand in hand with language. It was observed that in some
schools teachers use English in teaching Igbo folktales. This is absolutely wrong as Igbo
cultural values cannot be properly explained using a foreign language.
In the same vein Ibli (2000) observes that in the modern societies, literature has become distanced
from the daily life of most people. Many Nigerian youths and children have lost touch with their
ethnic folklore. These days it is not common-place to find people gathered around a raconteur
eagerly listening to fables, folktales, proverbs and riddles and other form of traditional literature
which are reeled out by his sonorous voice". These days too, traditional festivals and ceremonies
which created avenues for the enactment of the histrionics and renditions of songs associated with
dramatic forms of traditional literature are becoming rare. Even when they are organized, one
easily observes intrusions of varied manifestations of western culture.
Villages (the habitat and bedrock of African cultures and civilizations) are gradually all becoming
urban layouts in which people do not choose their neighbours and children do not mix freely. There
is no time for moonlight plays, games, and storytelling through which children learn the right
attitude to life. The resultant effect is that children and youths are fast losing the values of Igbo
culture and traditions. Little wonder, there are rising cases of juvenile delinquency, disruptive or
anti-social behaviour, disobedience, dishonesty, stealing and other defiant behaviour that are
generally associated with anti-social vices among youths. This ravaging phenomenon is the cause
of some of the major problems faced by the Igbo (African) child today.
Ojukwu and Esimone (2014) observed that even "the power of religion is beginning to seem
ineffective in fighting moral decadence in the society as the religious institutions themselves have
indulged more in the pursuance of materialistic gains". The question then is, what is the way out?
Where do we go from here? It is the position of this paper that one way to get rid of these societal
vices is to return to the good old days core values of our ancestors, which must be used to lay the
basic foundation for the education of our children. As mentioned earlier, these core values are
embedded in our oral literature (folktales/folksongs). Since our fore fathers used them to educate
their young ones and it worked for them, there is no reason why we cannot use it again today in
our various families (homes) and in the classes (school system), to educate and entertain our
children and youths so as to inculcate traditional values in them. This inculcation can be achieved
through the performance and teaching of Igbo oral literature (folktales) at home and in the
classroom so that the rich Igbo cultural heritage will not go into extinction. Parents and teachers
should wake up to their responsibilities and act while the sun shines.
Using Igbo Folktales in Home Environment (Family)
Hornby defines folktales as a very old traditional story from a particular place that was originally
passed on to people in a spoken form. The term however is usually extended to include stories by
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known authors which after they were printed, were adopted and transmitted orally by the people.
As mentioned earlier, the Igbo nuclear or extended family functions as a school where
grandparents,. Parents, elders and other family member educate and prepare children for their adult
life through folktales. One notable writer and a poet Schiller wrote "Deeper meaning reside in the
fairy tales told to me in my childhood than in any truth that is taught in life".
Story telling is a very important way of spending leisure and pastime among the Igbos both young
and old. The .practice of storytelling has drastically changed and many children and young people
are ignorant of the folktales their people used to instruct and entertain children in the past. Many
of these folktales are accompanied with melodious songs or refrains which children find interesting
and entertaining. They can be taught the songs and they can' participate in the performance by
singing along or by simply repeating the chorus as the mother, father or grandparent tells the story.
The choruses are intended to make everybody take part in the story and also for keeping
children/people awake when stories are told around the house hold fires. As they enjoy the story,
they also imbibe the core values of the Igbo people which are embedded in the story. Stories should
be told and performed in the children's ethnic language (Igbo) so that they can learn to appreciate
and speak the language. The beauty, rhythms, sounds and tonal inflections of the language will
create permanent impressions in the minds of the young ones. By so doing, the cultural traditions
of the Igbos are being transmitted to the younger, generations through the language in storytelling.
This is line with the advice by Natasha Post that "the great and the most powerful gift a parent can
give their children is to pass their language and culture to him/her". This can be achieved through
story telling in Igbo language.
Igbo folktales, apart from the amusement they give, are very useful for they are mostly didactic.
Stories used to educate and entertain younger children must be carefully selected and must be
appropriate for their age and level of understanding in terms of subject matter. The aim is to choose
stories that inculcate in children such core values as love, courage, obedience, kindness, patience,
sincerity, hard work, tolerance and forgiveness. As Okoye (2000) rightly observes that the
"didactic purpose of oral literature (folktales) is achieved through a careful selection of themes
(mainly involving an exhibition of some vices or wickedness) and manipulation of the story or
songs in such a way as to result in the punishment of vice or the reward of virtue". For example, a
typical character in most Igbo folktales is the tortoise (Mbe). He is usually presented as a crafty,
greedy and unfaithful character who suffers at the end of his mischief. Several tales are told of this
crafty animal. At one time he stole his in-law's pottage, and ended up losing the hair on his head.
He also craftily took the elephant captive by pretending to be leading the elephant to his (the
elephants's) installation as king. The elephant later fell into a hole concealed under the kings
throne. Tortoise (Mbe) also tricked the dog into running a race
against him, which he won through his craftiness, etc. Anyone listening to such stories are expected
to learn to change one's negative attitude and character in the society.
The stories (Folktales) told to children have the following advantages according to Abatan (2014):
a. They sensitize children to their immediate environment.
b. They help the children to develop self-confidence.
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c. They also sharpen the children's survival instinct.
d. Folktales increase the children's patriotism.
e. They enhance moral development.
Below are some examples of Igbo folktales/folksongs for value inculcation and their English
translation, and moral implications. This story is taken from Omalinze a Book of Igbo folktale.
Title: Anụ Tụrụ Agwa ga-alụ Ọnalụ (only the spotted animal will marry Ọnalụ)
Once upon a time, there lived a rich pregnant woman. Although she was very rich, the only thing
she desired so much to eat was the caterpillar that usually fell from the tree near her house. All the
animals including tortoise, leopard, goat etc use to gather there in search of the caterpillar. Because
of the woman's pregnancy, she could not struggle with the animals in picking the caterpillar. She
pleaded with them to allow her pick caterpillar. All of them refused except the animal called Ọgịnị
that had compassion on the woman, gave her caterpillar and from that day promised to be
supplying the woman with caterpillar until she delivers her baby. This woman was very pleased
with the kindness shown to her by Ọgịnị. That explains why when she deliver her baby called
Ọnalụ, she gave her in marriage to Ọgịnị instead of the other animals that were very rude to her in
time of need.
This story is accompanied with a melodious song. The first animal to knock at the woman's door
to ask for Ọnalụ hand in marriage was the goat.
Kpam! Kpaml Kpam! - kparanụma
Ole anụ na-akụ n’ụzọ? - kparanụma
Ole anụ na-akụ n’ụzọ? - kparanụma
O bu ewu na-akụ n’ụzọ - kparanụma
Wụwụrụ gị chighaa azụ - kparanụma
I nyere m egu ọna? - kparanụma
Oge m di ime Ọnalụ - kparanụma
Ọnalụ akụ ego e e - kparanụma
Anụ tụrụ agwa ga-alụ Ọnalụ - kparanụma
Through this chorus, goat's request was turned down. Other animals, leopard,
monkey, tortoise etc, took their turn to knock at the woman's door to ask for Ọnalụ’s
hand in marriage but their requests were rejected one after the other.
Translation 1 Refrain
Knock! Knock! Knock! - kparanụma
Which animal is knocking at the door? - kparanụma
Which animal is knocking at the door? - kparanụma
Goat is knocking at the door - kparanụma
You goatee go back - kparanụma
Did you give me caterpillar? - kparanụma
When I was pregnant of Ọnalụ - kparanụma
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Ọnalụ is for wealth - kparanụma
Only the spotted animal will marry Ọnalụ - kparanụma
When it was the turn of Ọgịnị to knock at the door. The song was different:-
(2) Kpam! Kpam! Kpam! kparanụma
Ole anụ na-akụ n’ụzọ? - kparanụma
Ole anụ na-akụ n’ụzọ? - kparanụma
Ọ bụ gịnị na-akụ n’ụzọ - kparanụma
Gịgịrị gị batawa o o - kparanụma
I nyere m egu ọna o o - kparanụma
Oge m di ime . Ọnalụ o o - kparanụma
Ọ nalụ akụ nwa - kparanụma
Ọ bu gị ga-alụ Ọnalụ - kparanụma
Translation 2 Refrain
Knock! Knock! Knock! Knock! - kparanụma
Which animal is knocking at the door? - kparanụma
Which animal is knocking at the door? - kparanụma
Ọgịnị is knocking at the door - kparanụma
Gịgịrị you come inside 0 0 - kparanụma
You gave me caterpillar to eat - kparanụma
When I was pregnant of Ọnalụ - kparanụma
Ọnalụ is a child for wealth 0 - kparanụma
You are the one to marry Ọnalụ 0 - kparanụma
And they lived happily ever
Moral lesson from the story: devotion to kindness. Children will imbibe the virtue of being kind
to their parents, siblings, elderly ones and to everyone in the society.
It pays to do good. Other Igbo folktale/folksongs include:
(2) Omaraugo
Theme: Pride goes before a fall. Moral lesson: This story teaches humility, obedience, respect for
elders, diligent to duty and that there is always retribution for every evil act.
(3). Nwa Enwe Nne na Ukwu Udara (The motherless child and the Apple Tree):
Theme:- Perseverance and hard work are virtues.
Moral lessonr- The story teaches that hard work does not kill, instead there is reward for hard
work. The story condemns wickedness injustice and laziness.
Using Igbo folktales in our School System
Value inculcation to our children using folktales should also be extended to our youths in schools.
The story telling techniques should be worked into the school curricula at all level of education
sector especially at the primary and secondary school levels. The stories told at this level may also
be more complex and touch on every subject relevant to the Igbo philosophy, world view and
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tradition. Ghost stories, fantasy, the supernatural and stories emanating from myths, legend and
history are suitable for the up bringing of the youths. Proverbs and riddles should be made available
to the youth. The art of conversation and the application of proverbs and riddles should be taught
as well.
However, it has been observed that during the period of literature in Igbo language in the school-
time table for example, the teachers sees it as a "time to rest" due to their lack of understanding of
the important role of literature to the lives of the children and youths. Teachers usually tell the
students to go outside and tell stories which the teacher will not even be there to supervise. The
problem is that the teachers cannot give what they don't have. They were teaching the same way
they were taught.
Oral literature especially folktales, proverbs, riddles supposed to be handled by a competent
teacher who has the knowledge of story-telling art/techniques. The teachers must use Igbo
language in teaching and she/he should desist from using English Language in telling Igbo stories.
As mentioned earlier, Igbo culture and traditions which are embedded in the folktales cannot be
properly explained using a foreign language.
The work of moulding and re moulding the minds of the youths with the core values abundantly
found in our folklore is the primary duty of every parent and teachers in our school today. And
teachers are advised to use the model suggested below for effective teaching of folktale that will
result in the inculcation of our core values to our children and youths in order to have a crime
free and better society.
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Below is a suggested teaching model for teachers of folklore (folktale) for value inculcation
to children and youths
A diagrammatical representation of the teaching model for inculcating values to children
and youths.
(1) For oral tales, students should be made to narrate home-learnt folktales in their classes, and
they should be lectured less. Teacher or a class volunteer who knows the story could then narrate
it, while the rest of the class joins in singing any accompanying songs or refrains. The story should
not be taught, rather, students should be rather made to enjoy, focusing on value inculcation
through entertainment, not on examination. This is corroborated by Ohiri- Aniche (1991) where
she advised that "no matter the genre that is being dealt with, discussion and critical analysis should
be kept at a low ebb". As the students enjoy the story, they also imbibe the core values of Igbo
people which are embedded in the form and. content of the story. Stories should be told and
performed in Igbo language so that children/students could learn to appreciate and speak Igbo.
Teachers must ensure that only Igbo language is used in narrating Igbo folktales.
(2) For written stories as contained in, perhaps, class reader, teacher could give students time to
read silently before discussion takes place. After reading, or narration, the next step is to ensure
Folktale/Story-Telling
Oral tales
Narrating stories
(Student or teacher)
repeating, singing and
clapping the
refrains/choruses
Written Tales
Teacher or student read
the story
Questions/answers
Lesson learnt and
value inculcation
Questions/answers
Lesson learnt and
value inculcation
Activities
Dramatization, role
play, miming,
mimicry, clapping
and dancing
Collection of
artifacts,
costumes and
moulded objects
Debating,
discussions and
sharing thoughts
Lesson learnt and
value inculcation
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that everybody has understood the story.
(3) The teacher tried to find out if they understood the lesson through questioning technique -
who did or said what and to whom? Where and when did such and such take place? The teacher
also explains the meaning of words and structures, while culturally significant details and moral
values are pointed out.
(4) Using some higher order questions, the teacher could lead the students to go beyond literal
comprehension and gain useful insight about themselves, other people and the entire society. The
teacher could ask the students on the elements they found interesting in the story and why? He
could ask them their opinion on certain events and characters and the moral lessons they learnt
from the story.
(5) Teacher should also introduce these other activities that makes for an interesting
literature class:
(a) Dramatization, role- play, mimicry or mime. In these activities, students will learn to
put themselves in the position of those characters they read in the stories. Teacher should create
situation in the classroom that provide opportunities for students to take the role of any of the
characters in the story.
(b) Students should be involved in collecting or creating relevant artifacts, costumes and
moulded objects.
(c) Debating, discussing and sharing thoughts and feelings on issues raised in the story.
(d) Students should sing and dance the folksongs. As they learn the traditional lyrics and
tunes, as they dance the traditional steps, they are participating in the Igbo cultural heritage.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The paper therefore recommends the following:
(a) Parents should endeavour to expose their children to the folktales of their community
from their early stages even after they have been exposed to formal education (schooling).
(b) The teacher training programme should prepare teachers to cope effectively with the
use of folktales/story/telling in the classroom situations.
CONCLUSION
In this paper, effort has been made to show how we can teach our children and youths the core
values embedded in Igbo oral literature (folktales) in the families (home environment) and in the
classes (schools). Parents and teachers are advised to wake up to their responsibilities of
inculcating moral values to their children and youths so as to curb immoral behaviour that are
prevalent in the society. Finally, a story-telling teaching model for inculcating values to children
and youths is suggested for teachers. Finally, Igbos (Africans) themselves must cease to regard our
oral literature as primitive.
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REFERENCES
Abatan O.L. (2013). The Folklorist as Teacher. Towards the use of Story- Telling Pedagogy.
Depart of Language College of Humanities, Tai Solarin University of Education.
Omalinze: A Book oflgbo Folktales (1977). In E.N Emenanjo (Edtj.Ibadan.Oxford University
Press.
Fafunwa, A.B (1991) History of Education in Nigeria. NPS Educational Publishers Limited
Onitsha.
Fiakpa, S. (2004). School Discipline and Value re- orientation. Journal of Society for Educational
Psychologists,S (5) 120-127.
Hornby, A.S (2005). Oxford Advanced learner's University Press. Dictionary of Current English.
Oxford University Press.
Ibli, E.U (2000). Literature and National Development: In Bisong J.O (Edt) Obudu Journal of
Languages. Vol. 2 (1).
Ikwubuzo, I. (1993). "Towards A Classification of Igbo Riddles". In Ihafa, Journal of African
Studies Department of African Language and Literature University of Lagos.
Mgboro C.U (2003). Parental acceptance/rejection as correlates of creativity among Primary
School Pupils. An Unpublished Ph. D Thesis University of Nigeria. Nsukka.
Ogunbameru, K.A and Rotimi, W.R (2006). Man and his social environment: a textbook of
sociology. Ibadan. Spectrum Books Ltd. Pp 120-132.
Ojukwu, E.V and Esimone, C.C (2014. Inculcating morals in Adolescents through the
Igbo Folk music. The West East Institute 2014.
ladele, J. 0 (1991) Fundamentals of Psychological Foundation of Education John' s- Lad Publishers
Ltd. Lagos.
Onwuka, U. (1991). Curriculum Developmentfor Africa. Onitsha: Africana-Fep Publishers Ltd pp.
19.
Okoye, H.C. (2000). "Aspect of Igbo culture and National Development". In Bisong J.O (Edt.)
Obudu Journal of Languages. Vol2 (1).
Ohiri-Aniche, C. (1991). Teaching Igbo Mother Tongue in the Secondary School. In Theory and
Practice of Educational Adeyoyin (edt.) Joja Educational Research and Publishers Ltd.
Ugonna, N. (1980). Abu na egwuregwu Odinaala Igbo. Longman Nigeria Ltd. Ikeja
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ADULT LEARNERS’ PREFERENCES IN INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER LEARNING: A
CASE OF AFRICA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY (AIU), KENYA
Francisca Wavinya Ngala
Quality Assurance Officer/Assistant Lecturer, Education Department
Africa International University
Box 24686 - 00502, Karen, Nairobi
ABSTRACT: The adult learner emerges in the education system as a new breed of learner that
the traditional education system had not anticipated. This poses challenges to the traditional
education system as student preferences of various learning styles may shift depending on the
learning situation. This paper is a call for lecturers in institutions of higher learning to develop
teaching strategies that match the learning preferences of post-graduate students for enhanced
learning. Descriptive survey design which used the cross-sectional approach to data collection
was adopted. The population constituted all the 397 post-graduate students at Africa
International University out of which a sample of 199 participants from the post-graduate
Diploma, Masters’ level and Doctoral programmes was obtained. Data collection was done
using a questionnaire guide and analysed by Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). A
modified version of the Grasha-Riechmann Student Learning Style Scales (GRSLSS) was used to
measure the learning preferences. The findings revealed that majority of the students preferred
participant, both independent and dependent and collaborative learning. Learning preferences
vary according to the learning situation and the teachers’ style. The paper recommends exposure
to various learning strategies by lecturers.
KEYWORDS: Adult Learning, Post-graduate, Learner Preferences, GRSLSS.
INTRODUCTION
The training experience of teachers has not prepared them as may require for one to engage in
teaching of post-graduate students. Vella (1995) asserted that most educators recognize that they
teach in the same way as they were taught. Unless their training provides them with a new
experience of education, as teachers they will revert to their known framework, their familiar
model. The implication is that lecturers need to be specifically trained to handle adult learners, as
their earlier training had not considered adult learners as unique and in need of different
pedagogical strategies. In most cases, if the lecturers were not treated as adults by their trainers
they may also not treat their students as adults.
This inquiry was birthed by Brookfield’s (1986) observation that we should be careful about
generalization of studies on adult learning derived from white Americans when we know so little
about learning styles of other races such as Asians and Africans and bearing in mindthat learning
takes place in context. The study also expounded on the findings by Bowen (1984) and
Buconyori (1991) on the learning styles of African students.
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LITERATURE UNDERPINNING
Learning Preferences
Keefe (1979) defines learning styles as characteristic cognitive, affective and physiological
behaviours that serve as the relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with
and respond to the environment. This definition suggests that the learning style is a broader
concept which not only includes cognitive styles but also includes affective and physiological
styles. It is therefore a major misconception to use cognitive style as a synonym for learning
styles since it covers only one aspect of learning style. Messick (1979) defines cognitive style as
information processing habits presenting the learner’s typical mode of perceiving, thinking,
problem solving and remembering. This definition excludes other aspects of learning style
namely affective and physiological which are crucial as the three domains are necessary in any
learning process. From the above definitions, cognitive styles and learning styles are not
synonymous and should not be used as such.
Interest in learning preferences “grew out of humanistic psychology and learning theory which
places greatest emphasis on leaner as a person” (Yount, 1999, p.176). This is in recognition of
individual differences in the learners which is a very important aspect in learning. It should be
acknowledged that the learners are unique and this influences the ways they prefer to learn. An
understanding of how learners prefer to learn in turn may influence how the instructors design
courses and instructional methods to match the preferences of their learners. Research has shown
that matching student’s learning preferences with the teaching preferences improves
performance. Learning preferences of students come to mind whenever there is a discussion on
individual differences among students. To realize that students are unique even in the ways they
prefer to learn is a major step towards improving instructional practice. Learning preferences of
university students need to be identified so as to provide teaching strategies that match those
preferences for improved performance (Claxton & Murrel, 1987).
The Grasha -Riechmann learning style which uses the Grasha-Riechmann Student Learning
Styles Scale (GRSLSS) to determine learning preferences was used. This instrument is more
appropriate as it was specifically developed for adult learners though in a different context and
culture from the present study context. What determines how adult students prefer to learn is the
question, thus this paper establishes some of the factors that influence the student preferences of
the style of learning.
METHODOLOGY
Africa International University was the institution of focus. All 397 post-graduate students
enrolled in three post-graduate level (Doctoral, Masters and Post-graduate Diploma)
programmes. The students were enrolled in two broad academic disciplines classified as
Humanities and Social Sciences and Professional and Applied Sciences. The population entailed
both male and female students in their young and middle adulthood. Samples of students from all
post-graduate programmes at the university were drawn using stratified and systematic random
sampling.
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Nachmias and Nachmias (1996, p. 188) and Mugenda and Mugenda (2003, p. 49) observe that
stratified sampling produces more inclusive samples as they incorporate subgroups of small
populations which would have been completely left out if other sampling methods were used.
Within each stratum, systematic random sampling was done to obtain a random sample. A
random sample implies that each person in the target population had an equal chance of being
selected. Systematic random sampling was done by first dividing the total population of each
programme by the sample sizes obtained for the programmes. A sample size of 50 percent of the
target population was used. Questionnaires were used to collect data. .
The factors which formed the independent variables included: age, gender and the academic
discipline of the learners. The learning preferences were the dependent variables and they
included: dependent/independent, avoidant/participant, and competitive/collaborative learning
preferences. The Likert scale which asks for the extent of agreement with an item was used in the
questionnaire. The scales were planned on a 5-point scale with responses ranging from strongly
disagree to strongly agree (Gall et al., 2003, p. 229; Nachmias & Nachmias 1996, P. 114). On the
five-point Likert scale provided, participants were expected to choose from five attitude
responses ranging from extremely negative (strongly disagree) to extremely positive (strongly
agree). In three dimensions, the first set of questions investigated the dependent/independent
mode of the GRSLSS, the second section was designed to investigate the avoidant/participant
dimensions of the GRSLSS and the third was designed to investigate the
competitive/collaborative dimensions of the GRSLSS. The benchmarks for deciding the learning
preferences of the respondents were set on these three dimensions. This was because the
questionnaire was designed in such a way that a very strong independent, participant and
collaborative respondent was likely to choose strongly agree which was rated 5.The Likert scale
was appropriate for this study as it was measuring attitude in terms of learning preferences.
The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze the data and regression
techniques were used for correlation to establish relationships and the magnitude of those
relationships.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The Academic Programmes
To identify the academic disciplines of the student participants, table 1 below depicts the
responses. Majority (73.5%) of the respondents belonged to the Humanities and Social Sciences.
This was probably due to the fact that the majority of post-graduate students in the university
take religion-related courses. Professional and Applied Sciences category was represented by
26.5% of the respondents. The Natural and Formal Science category was unsurprisingly not
represented because such courses were not offered at the university. Table 1 gives a summary of
the academic discipline representation.
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Table 1: Respondents’ academic discipline
Academic discipline Frequency Percent Valid
Percent
Humanities and Social
Sciences
122 72.2 73.5
Professional and Applied
Sciences
44 26.0 26.5
Natural and Formal Sciences 0 0 0
Total 166 98.2 100.0
No response 3 1.8
Total 169 100.0
The Humanities and Social Sciences academic discipline is the most popular programme among
the post-graduate students. Further multivariate analysis was done on different factors to
establish the students’ preferences based on dependent/independent, avoidant/participant, and
competitive/collaborative learning style preferences. The key below is for the various
abbreviations adopted by the author.
Key YAMH&S-Young adult males of Humanities and Social Sciences
YAFH&S- Young adult females of Humanities and Social Sciences
MAMH&S- Middle-aged males of Humanities and Social Sciences
MAFH&S- Middle-aged females of Humanities and Social Sciences
YAMP&A-Young adult males of Professional and Applied Sciences
YAFP&A- Young adult females of Professional and Applied Sciences
MAMP&A-Middle-aged males of Professional and Applied Sciences
MAFP&A- Middle-aged females of Professional and Applied Sciences
Independent/ dependent Dimension
Preference to work alone
Table 2: Multiple variables and preference to work alone Disagree Undecided Agree Total
Count Count Count Count
YAMH&S 20 25.4% - 0% 59 74.6% 79 100%
YAFH&S 15 36.6% - 0% 26 63.4% 41 100%
MAMH&S 1 50% - 0% 1 50% 2 100%
MAFH&S - 0% - 0% - 0% - -
YAMP&A 6 30% 1 5% 13 65% 20 100%
YAFP&A 3 18.8% 0 0% 13 81.2% 16 100%
MAMP&A 0 0% - 0% 5 100% 5 100%
MAFP&A 0 0% - 0% 1 100% 1 100%
Discarded 5
Total 45 1 118 169
R=.125 R2=.016 critical value =.497 df =14 Confidence level = 0.05
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Table 2 is a multivariate analysis on preferences of work alone out of which, majority of young
adult males and females were likely to prefer independent learning, in doing assignments. Young
adult males of Humanities and Social Sciences represented 74.6% while 63.4% represented
females of the same category who agreed with the assertion that they prefer to work alone. The
middle-aged males of Humanities and Social Sciences were likely to be distributed equally
between independent and dependent learning preferences in doing assignments. They were
represented by 50% agreement and 50% disagreement with the assertion.
Majority (65%) males and (81.2%) females of the young adults in the Professional and Applied
Sciences discipline were likely to prefer independent learning, in doing assignments. The
middle-aged adults (100%) males and 100%, for the only female respectively in this discipline
most likely preferred independent learning. In testing the hypothesis, the statistical analysis
revealed an R value of .125, which was smaller than the critical value of .497 at 14 df required to
reject the hypotheses of no relationship. The analysis also gave an R2 value of .016, which
implies that all the variables combined can explain only 1.6% of the variance in preference to
work alone, which is a negligible relationship. The hypotheses were not rejected but rather
affirmed that there is no difference, statistically between the combined variables and preference
to study alone.
Confidence to learn without assistance
Table 3: Multiple variables and confidence to learn without assistance Variable Disagree Undecided Agree Total
Count Count Count Count
YAMH&S 26 33.4% 1 1.3% 51 65.4% 78 100%
YAFH&S 15 36.6% 0 - 26 63.4% 41 100%
MAMH&S 1 50% - - 1 50% 2 100%
MAFH&S - - - - - - - -
YAMP&A 4 19% - - 17 81% 21 100%
YAFP&A 3 18.7% - - 13 81.3% 16 100%
MAMP&A - - - - 5 100% 5 100%
MAFP&A - - - - 1 100% 1 100%
Discarded 5
Total 49 1 84 169
R=.209 R2=.044 critical value =.497 df =14 Confidence level = 0.05
Table 3 indicates that majority (65.4% and 63.4%) of young adult males and females
respectively in the Humanities and Social Sciences were likely to prefer independent learning, in
relation to confidence in learning. They showed confidence about their ability to learn on their
own. The middle-aged males of Humanities and Social Sciences were likely to be distributed
equally between dependent and independent learning preferences, in relation to confidence in
learning. They were represented by 50% disagreement and 50% agreement with the assertion.
In the Professional and Applied Sciences, majority (81% and 81.3%) of young adult males and
females respectively were likely to prefer independent learning, in relation to confidence in
learning. The middle-aged adults in the Professional and Applied Sciences were found to prefer
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independent learning, in relation to confidence in learning. They were represented by 100%
agreement with the assertion for all the males and the only female.
The statistical analysis revealed an R value of .209, which was smaller than the critical value of
.497 at 14 df required to reject the hypotheses of no relationship. The analysis also gave an R2
value of .044, which implies that all the variables combined can explain only 4.4% of the
variance in confidence in learning alone, which is a negligible relationship. The author therefore
did not reject all the hypotheses but rather affirmed that there was no difference, statistically,
between the combined variables and confidence in learning.
Developing own ideas about course content
Table 4: Multiple variables and developing own ideas about course content Variable Disagree Undecided Agree Total
Count Count Count Count
YAMH&S 27 35% 4 5.2% 46 59.8% 77 100%
YAFH&S 15 36.6% 6 14.6% 20 48.8% 41 100%
MAMH&S 1 50% - - 1 50% 2 100%
MAFH&S - - - - - - - 100%
YAMP&A 6 28.5% 0 0% 15 71.5% 21 100%
YAFP&A 1 6.3% 2 12.5% 3 81.2% 16 100%
MAMP&A - - - - 5 100% 5 100%
MAFP&A - - - - 1 100% 1 100%
Discarded 6
Total 50 12 101 169
R=.279 R2=.078 critical value =.497 df =14 Confidence level = 0.05
Table 4 reveals that in the Humanities and Social Sciences, 59.8% of young adult males were
likely to prefer independent learning, in relation to developing own ideas about a course, as they
affirmed the assertion that they like to develop their own ideas about course content. The middle
-aged males of Humanities and Social Sciences were likely to be distributed equally between
dependent and independent learning preferences, in relation to developing own ideas about a
course. They were represented by 50% disagreement and 50% agreement with the assertion.
In the Professional and Applied Sciences 71.5% of young adult males and 81.2% of young adult
females were likely to prefer independent learning, in relation to developing own ideas about a
course. This was shown by their agreement with the statement that they like to develop own
ideas about course content. The middle-aged adults in this discipline were all likely to prefer
independent learning, in relation to developing own ideas about a course, as demonstrated by
100% agreement with the assertion that they like to develop own ideas about course content for
all the males and the only female.
The statistical analysis revealed an R value of .279, which was smaller than the critical value of
.497 at 14 df required to reject the hypotheses of no relationship. The analysis also gave an R2
value of .078, which implies that all the variables combined can explain only 7.8 % of the
variance in developing own ideas about course content, which is a negligible relationship. The
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author therefore did not reject all the hypotheses but rather affirmed that there was no difference,
statistically, between the combined variables and developing own ideas about course content.
Non-reliance on teachers to tell what is important
Table 5: Multiple variables and non-reliance on teachers to tell me what is important to learn Variable Disagree Undecided Agree Total
Count Count Count Count
YAMH&S 43 54.5% 2 2.5% 34 43% 79 100%
YAFH&S 20 48.8% 1 2.4% 20 48.8% 41 100%
MAMH&S 1 50% - - 1 50% 2 100%
MAFH&S - - - - - - - 100%
YAMP&A 11 52.3% - - 10 47.6% 21 100%
YAFP&A 5 31.2% - - 11 68.7% 16 100%
MAMP&A - - - - 5 100% - 100%
MAFP&A 1 100% - - - - 1 100%
Discarded 4
Total 81 3 81 165
R=.202 R2=.041 critical value =.497 df =14 Confidence level = 0.05
Table 5 indicates that young adult males of Humanities and Social Sciences were likely to prefer
dependent learning, with reference to non-reliance on teachers to tell what is important. This is
depicted by 54.5% disagreement with the assertion that they did not rely on teachers to tell them
what is important for them to learn. The middle age males of Humanities and Social Sciences
were likely to be distributed equally between dependent and independent learning preferences,
with reference to non-reliance on teachers to tell what is important. They were represented by
50% disagreement and 50% agreement with the assertion.
In the Professional and Applied Sciences the young adult males were likely to prefer dependent
learning as shown by shown by 52.3% disagreement with the assertion. 68.7% of females in this
category agreed with the assertion, which suggested likely independent preferences. All the
middle-aged males in Professional and Applied Sciences were likely to prefer independent
learning, with reference to non-reliance on teachers to tell what is important, as demonstrated by
100% agreement with the assertion. On the other hand the only middle-aged female was likely to
prefer dependent learning, with reference to non-reliance on teachers to tell what is important, as
shown by 100% disagreement with the assertion.
The statistical analysis revealed an R value of .202, which was smaller than the critical value of
.497 at 14 df required to reject the hypotheses of no relationship. The analysis also gave an R2
value of .041, which implies that all the variables combined can explain only 4.1% of the
variance in non-reliance on teachers to tell them what is important, which is a negligible
relationship. The author therefore did not reject all the hypotheses but rather affirmed that there
was no difference, statistically, between the combined variables and non-reliance on teachers to
tell what is important.
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Participant/ Avoidant Dimension
Participation in all aspects of the course
Table 6Multivariate analysis: Multiple variables and participating in all aspects of a course Variables Disagree Undecided Agree Total
Count Count Count Count
YAMH&S 3 3.8% 1 1.3% 75 94.9% 79 100%
YAFH&S 4 9.7% - - 37 90.5% 41 100%
MAMH&S - - - - 1 100% 1 100%
MAFH&S - - - - - - - -
YAMP&A 2 9.6% - - 19 90.4% 21 100%
YAFP&A 3 18.7% 1 6.3% 12 75% 16 100%
MAMP&A - - - - 5 100% 5 100%
MAFP&A - - - - 1 100% 1 100%
Discarded
5
Total 12
2 150 169
R=.138 R2=.019 critical value =.497 df =14 Confidence level = 0.05
The multivariate analysis in relation to participating in all aspects of a course as seen in Table 6
revealed no significant differences between the young adult males and females of Humanities
and Social Sciences. Majority (94.9% and 90.3%) of males and females respectively were likely
to prefer participant learning, in relation to participating in all aspects of a course. This was
suggested by males and females in this category, who responded favourably with the assertion
that they participate in all aspects of a course.
The middle-aged adult males (100%) in Humanities and Social Sciences were likely to prefer
participant learning in relation to participating in all aspects of a course. In the Professional and
Applied Sciences, majority (90.4% and 75%) of young adult males and females respectively
were likely to prefer participant learning, in relation to participating in all aspects of a course.
The middle-aged (100%) adults in the Professional and Applied Science discipline were
overwhelmingly likely to prefer participant learning, in relation to participating in all aspects of a
course.
The statistical analysis revealed an R value of .138, which was smaller than the critical value of
.497 at 14 df required to reject the hypotheses of no relationship. The analysis also gave an R2
value of .019, which implies that all the variables combined can explain only 1.9% of the
variance in participating in all aspects of a course, which is a negligible relationship. There was
no significant difference, statistically, between the combined variables and participating in all
aspects of a course.
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Table 7 Multivariate analysis: Multiple variables and positive attitude to attendance of class
sessions
Variable
Disagree Undecided Agree Total
Count Count Count Count
YAMH&S 5 6.3% 0 0% 74 93.7% 79 100%
YAFH&S 4 9.8% 1 2.4% 36 87.8% 41 100%
MAMH&S 1 50% - - 1 50% 2 100%
MAFH&S - - - - - - - -
YAMP&A 3 14.3% - - 18 85.7% 21 100%
YAFP&A 5 31.3% - - 11 68.7% 16 100%
MAMP&A - - - - 5 100% 5 100%
MAFP&A - - - - 1 100% 1 100%
Discarded
4
Total 18
1 146 169
R=.185 R2=.034 critical value =.497 df =14 Confidence level = 0.05
In relation to positive attitude to attendance of class sessions, it was found out thattheyoung adult
males and females were likely to prefer participant learning. This is demonstrated by 93.2% and
87.8% of young adult males and females respectively who agreed with the assertion that class
sessions are worth attending. The middle-aged adult males were likely to be equally distributed
between participant and avoidant learning preferences depicting a 50% agreement and 50%
disagreement. In Professional and Applied Sciences the young adult males and females showing
85.7% and 68.7% respectively were likely to prefer participant learning. All (100%) middle-age
adults in the Professional and Applied Sciences were in agreement with the assertion.
The statistical analysis revealed an R value of .185, which was smaller than the critical value of
.497 at 14 df required to reject the hypotheses of no relationship. The analysis also gave an R2
value of .034, which implies that all the variables combined can explain only 3.4% of the
variance in positive attitude to attendance of class sessions, which is a negligible relationship.
Table 8: Multivariate analysis: Multiple variables and preference to study for tests with other
students
Variable Disagree Undecided Agree Total
Count Count Count Count
YAMH&S 19 24.1% 2 2.5% 58 73.4% 79 100%
YAFH&S 6 15.8% 2 5.3% 30 78.9% 38 100%
MAMH&S 1 50% - - 1 50% 2 100%
MAFH&S - - - - - - - -
YAMP&A 4 19% 1 4.8% 16 76.2% 21 100%
YAFP&A 8 50% - - 8 50% 16 100%
MAMP&A 3 60% - - 2 40% 5 100 %
MAFP&A
- - - 1 100% 1 100%
Discarded
7
Total 41
5 116 169
R=.219 R2=.048 critical value =.497 df =14 Confidence level = 0.05
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Table 8 shows that majority (73.4% and 78.9%) of young adult males and females respectively
in the Humanities and Social Sciences were likely to prefer participant learning with reference to
studying for tests with other students. The middle-aged adult males were likely to be equally
distributed between participant and avoidant learning preferences, with reference to studying for
tests with other students. 50% of the respondents in this category agreed and 50% disagreed with
the statement. In Professional and Applied Sciences the young adult males were likely to prefer
participant learning, with reference to studying for tests with other students. 76.2% of young
adult males agreed with the assertion. The middle-aged adult males of Professional and Applied
Sciences were likely to prefer avoidant learning, as 60% did not affirm the assertion. The only
middle-aged adult female of Professional and Applied Sciences was likely to prefer participant
learning with reference to studying for tests with other students, as she affirmed the assertion.
The statistical analysis revealed an R value of .219, which was smaller than the critical value of
.497 at 14 df required to reject the hypotheses of no relationship. The analysis also gave an R2
value of .048, which implies that all the variables combined can explain only 4.8% of the
variance in studying for tests with other students, which is a negligible relationship. It was thus
affirmed that there was no difference, statistically, between the combined variables and studying
for tests with other students.
Table 9: Multivariate analysis: Multiple variables and not finding it difficult to pay attention Variable Disagree Undecided Agree Total
Count Count Count Count
YAMH&S 5 6.3% 2 2.5% 72 91.2% 79 100%
YAFH&S 4 9.8% 3 7.3% 34 82.9% 41 100%
MAMH&S 1 50% - - 1 50% 2 100%
MAFH&S - - - - - - - -
YAMP&A 3 14.3% - - 18 85.7% 21 100%
YAFP&A 4 25% - - 12 75% 16 100%
MAMP&A - - - - 5 100% 5 100%
MAFP&A - - - - 1 100% 1 100%
Discarded
4
Total 17
5 143 169
R=.161 R2=.026 critical value =.497 df =14 Confidence level = 0.05
The multivariate analysis in relation to not finding it difficult to pay attention, as reported in
Table9, revealed that the majority of young adult males and females in Humanities and Social
Sciences were likely to prefer participant learning, with reference to not finding it difficult to pay
attention as represented by 91.2% and 82.9% males and females respectively. The middle-aged
adult males were likely to be equally distributed between participant and avoidant learning
preferences, with reference to not finding it difficult to pay attention. 50% of the respondents in
this category agreed and 50% disagreed with the statement.
In the Professional and Applied Sciences, the young adult most (85.7% and 75%) males and
females were likely to prefer participant learning with reference to not finding it difficult to pay
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attention. All (100%) middle-age adults in the Professional and Applied Sciences were likely to
prefer participant learning, with reference to not finding it difficult to pay attention.
The statistical analysis revealed an R value of .161, which was smaller than the critical value of
.497 at 14 df required to reject the hypotheses of no relationship. The analysis also gave an R2
value of .026, which implies that all the variables combined can explain only 2.6% of the
variance in not finding it difficult to pay attention, which is a negligible relationship.
Collaborative/ Competitive Dimension
Table 10:Multivariate analysis: Multiple variables and willingness to help other students Variable Disagree Undecided Agree Total
Count Count Count Count
YAMH&S 3 4.1% - - 70 95.9% 73 100%
YAFH&S 2 4.9% - - 39 95.1% 41 100%
MAMH&S 1 50% - - 1 50% 2 100%
MAFH&S - - - - - - - -
YAMP&A 1 4.8% - - 20 95.2% 21 100%
YAFP&A 2 12.5% - - 14 87.4% 16 100%
MAMP&S - - - - 5 100% 5 100%
MAFP&S - - - - 1 100% 1 100%
Discarded
10
Total 9
150 169
R=.066 R2=.004 critical value =.497 df =14 Confidence level = 0.05
According to Table 10it was found that majority (95.9% and 95.1%) of young adult males and
females respectively in Humanities and Social Sciences were likely to prefer collaborative
learning, with reference willingness to help other students. The middle-aged males were equally
distributed between likely collaborative and likely competitive learning preferences, with
reference willingness to help other students showing 50% agreement and 50% disagreement with
the assertion.
In Professional and Applied Sciences, the majority (95.2% and 87.4%) of young adult males and
females respectively were likely to prefer collaborative learning. All (100%) middle-aged males
and the only female in Professional and Applied Sciences were likely to prefer collaborative
learning, with reference willingness to help other students.
The analysis revealed an R value of .066, which was smaller than the critical value of .497 at 14
df required to reject the hypotheses of no relationship. The analysis also gave an R2 value of
.004, which implies that all the variables combined can explain only 0.4% of the variance in
willingness to help other students, which is a negligible relationship.
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Table 11: Multivariate analysis: Discipline and team learning in class sessions Variable Disagree Undecided Agree Total
Count Count Count Count
YAMH&S 4 5.1% - - 74 94.9% 78 100%
YAFH&S 4 9.7% - - 37 90.3% 41 100%
MAMH&S 1 50% - - 1 50% 2 100%
MAFH&S - - - - - - - -
YAMP&S - - - - 21 100% 21 100%
YAFP&S 2 12.4% 1 6.2% 14 87.4% 16 100%
MAMP&A - - - - 5 100% 5 100%
MAFP&A - - - - 1 100% 1 100%
Discarded
5
Total 11
153 169
R=.062 R2=.004 critical value =.497 df =14 Confidence level = 0.05
Table 11 in relation to team learning in class sessions, shows majority (94.9% and 90.3%) of
young adult males and females respectively in Humanities and Social Sciences being likely to
prefer collaborative learning, with reference to team learning. of young adult males and females,
respectively agreed with the assertion that class sessions help them feel like part of a team, where
people help each other to learn. The middle-aged males were equally distributed between likely
collaborative and likely competitive learning preferences, with reference to team learning. 50%
of the respondents agreed and 50% disagreed with the assertion.
In the Professional and Applied Sciences, majority (100% and 87.4%) of the males and females
respectively were likely to prefer collaborative learning, with reference to team learning. All
(100%) the middle-aged males and the only female in the Professional and Applied Sciences
were likely to prefer collaborative learning, with reference to team learning.
The statistical analysis revealed an R value of .062, which was smaller than the critical value of
.497 at 14 df required to reject the hypotheses of no relationship. The analysis also gave an R2
value of .004, which implies that all the variables combined can explain only 0.4% of the
variance in team learning in class sessions, which is a negligible relationship.
Table 12: Multivariate analysis: Multiple variables and sharing ideas with each other Variable Disagree Undecided Agree Total
Count Count Count Count
YAMH&S 2 2.6% - - 76 97.4% 78 100%
YAFH&S 3 7.5% - - 37 93.5% 40 100%
MAMH&S 1 50% - - 1 50% 2 100%
MAFH&S - - - - - - - -
YAMP&A 0 - - - 21 100% 21 100%
YAFP&S 2 12.5% - - 14 87.5% 16 100%
MAMP&A - - - - 5 100% 5 100%
MAFP&S - - - - 1 100% 1 100%
Discarded
6
Total 8
155 169
R=.158 R2=.025 critical value =.497 df =14 Confidence level = 0.05
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According to Table12, which reports on multiple variables and sharing ideas with each other, it
was found that majority (97.4% and 93.5%) of young adult males and females in Humanities and
Social Sciences were likely to prefer collaborative learning, with reference to sharing ideas with
each other. of young adult males and females, respectively agreed with the assertion that students
should be encouraged to share their ideas with each other.
The middle-aged males were equally distributed between likely collaborative and likely
competitive learning preferences, with reference to sharing ideas with each other. 50% of the
respondents agreed and 50% disagreed with the assertion. In the Professional and Applied
Sciences the majority (100% and 87.5%) of the young adult males and females respectively were
likely to prefer collaborative learning. All (100%) middle-aged adults of Professional and
Applied Sciences were likely to prefer collaborative learning, with reference to sharing ideas
with each other.
The statistical analysis revealed an R value of .158, which was smaller than the critical value of
.497 at 14 df required to reject the hypotheses of no relationship. The analysis also gave an R2
value of .025, which implies that all the variables combined can explain only 2.5 % of the
variance in sharing ideas with each other, which is a negligible relationship.
Table13: .Multivariate analysis: Multiple variables and dislike for competition with other
students Variable Disagree Undecided Agree Total
Count Count Count Coun
t
YAMH&S 39 50% 2 2.6% 37 47.4% 78 100%
YAFH&S 27 69.2% 2 5.1% 10 25.7% 39 100%
MAMH&S 1 50% - - 1 50% 2 100%
MAFH&S - - - - - - - 100%
YAMP&A 7 35% 1 5% 12 60% 20 100%
YAFP&A 5 33.4% 1 6.6% 9 60% 15 100%
MAMP&A - - - - 5 100% 5 100%
MAFP&A - - - - 1 100% 1 100%
Discarded
9
Total 79
6 75 169
R=.350 R2=.122 critical value =.497 df =14 Confidence level = 0.05
Table 13, in relation to multiple variables and dislike for competition with other students,
revealed that majority of young adult females in Humanities and Social Sciences were likely to
prefer competitive learning, with reference to dislike for competition. 69.2% of the females
disagreed with the assertion that they did not like competing with other students for good grades.
The middle-aged males were likely to be equally distributed between likely collaborative and
likely competitive learning preferences with reference to dislike for competition depicting a
50% agreement and 50% disagreement.
In Professional and Applied Sciences the majority of young adult males and females were likely
to prefer collaborative learning, with reference to dislike for competition. 60% of both young
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adult males and females agreed with the assertion. The middle-age males and female in
Professional and Applied Sciences were likely to prefer collaborative learning, with reference to
dislike for competition, as demonstrated by 100% agreement with the assertion.
The analysis revealed an R value of .350, which was smaller than the critical value of .497 at 14
df required to reject the hypotheses of no relationship. The analysis also gave an R2 value of
.122, which implies that all the variables combined can explain 12.2% of the variance in dislike
for competition with other students, which is not a strong relationship.
IMPLICATION TO RESEARCH AND PRACTICE
The unique learning requirements for adult learners are essentially a policy issue for colleges and
universities. As institutions of higher learning modify their existing programs and services
geared for adult learners, they must also develop strategies that will advance understanding in
regard to the adult learner by the administrative and instructional staff. This paper identifies the
adult learner preferences in institutions of higher learning. Therefore, institutions of higher
learning will consider based on these findings to develop a critically reflective staff and
instructors who show a willingness to modify existing programs and develop new practices
geared to their adult populations.
CONCLUSION
The respondents predominantly preferred participative learning in the participant /avoidant
category with a few cases of preference for avoidant learning for this category. In the
independent/dependent category, the students showed preference for both independent and
dependent learning in an equal proportion. The classroom is treasured by most students as that is
where they interact with the authorities and colleagues, to enjoy teamwork and group activities.
Although not by a big margin, the collaborative preference recorded majority responses in the
collaborative/competitive category. The inability to decide on learning preferences by some of
the respondents was noted. This indicated that the respondents either did not find the questions
clear enough or may have lacked self-awareness in relation to learning preferences. Preferences
for particular styles show that people are different and that different learning situations may call
for particular styles necessitating a switch in style, depending on the structure of the lesson, the
method or content. This does not suggest in any way that that some styles are better than others.
Results displayed a lot of switching between styles for the independent /dependent and
collaborative/competitive learning preferences among the post-graduate students.
Post-graduate students in institutions of higher learning (Africa International University) were
likely to prefer participant, both independent and dependent and collaborative learning. It was
found out that there was switching between the styles, and inferences were made that this
depended on the learning situation for independence/dependent and the collaborative/competitive
dimensions. This indicates that learning preferences’ are not permanent but may change
according to the learning situation. This is supported by Grasha’s (1972) assertion that students
prefer all the six styles to some degree, but the styles are not adopted exclusively but they vary in
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strengths of preference for the styles. He also found out that the preferred styles vary according
to how a teacher has structured the class. That is to say that the teaching methods, content and
assignments influence the learning preference.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Post-graduate students may be inclined to participative, both independent and dependent
and collaborative learning preferences and therefore teaching strategies, such as group
discussion, class participation, class assignments, class presentations, individual
assignments, guided projects and lectures may be encouraged.
2. The number of respondents who preferred participant learning shows the value attached
to the traditional classroom. As the world moves to newer modes of learning such as E-
learning, a lot of effort will be required to change the mind-set of the learners who are
more comfortable in the classroom.
3. There is need to sensitize learners about developing self-awareness as far as learning
strategies are concerned. This follows evidence of a small fraction of learners who either
did not understand some questions or were totally unaware of their learning preferences,
4. Since learning styles are not permanent predispositions, learners should not be labelled
or stereotyped but should be exposed to various learning strategies as their preferences
will shift based on the particular learning situation.
Future Research This paper identifies various learner preferences. Future studies should be done to investigate the
design and development of instructional strategies to meet the diverse learning styles and needs
of adult learners.
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Buconyori, E. (1991). Cognitive styles and the development of reasoning among younger African students in
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Claxton, C.S., & Murrel, P.H. (1987). Learning styles: Implications for improving education practices. ASHE-ERIC
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Joyce, P. G. & Walter, R. B. (2003). Educational research: An introduction. Boston: Pearson.
Grasha, A. F. (1972). Observation on reading teaching goals to student response styles and classroom methods.
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Keefe, J. W. (1979). Student learning styles: Diagnosing and prescribing programmes. InStudent learning styles and
brain behaviour. Reston, Virginia: National Association of secondary Principals.
Messick, S. (ed.) (1979). Individuality in learning. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Mugenda, O. M. &Mugenda, A. G. (2003). Research methods: Quantitative and qualitative approaches. Nairobi:
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Nachmias, C. F. &Nachmias, D. (1996).Research methods in the social sciences 5th
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Vella, J. (1995) Training through dialogue: Promoting effective learning and change with adults. San Francisco:
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Yount, W. (1999). Called to teach. An introduction to the ministry of teaching. Nashville Tennessee: Broadman and
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RURAL SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS MOTIVATION AND ITS EFFECT ON
THEIR RETENTION
Akwasi Yeboah and Dickson Adom
Department of General Art Studies, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,
Kumasi, Ghana
ABSTRACT: This paper presents both qualitative and quantitative studies on the motivation for
teachers teaching in Senior High School located in rural areas and its effects on their
willingness to continue staying in those areas in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. Two public Senior
High Schools in the rural areas of Afigya-Kwabre West district comprising two Headmasters
and 120 teachers was selected by the use of purposive and simple random sampling techniques
for the study. The study focused on primary data through interview, questionnaire and
observation. It was revealed that the significant retention factors are the provision and
administration of financial bonuses which include retention/professional allowance and Parents
and Teachers Association motivational allowance. On the other hand, the teachers were very
unsatisfied with their accommodation, means of transport and criteria for selecting award
winners during speech and prize giving days. Therefore, governments and policy makers need to
put in place strategies and also implement policies that will serve to improve the working
conditions of teachers teaching in rural areas in order to serve as motivation for their retention.
KEYWORDS: Motivation, Rural Area, Teacher Motivation, Retention, Administration
INTRODUCTION
The sole aim of every organization, whether private or public, is to be able to achieve its goals or
to maximize profit (Riley, 2012). However, this cannot be possible without the help of very
hardworking, skilled, dedicated and highly motivated workers who are willing to support the
management in the attainment of those objectives. As a result, one major concern of employers is
to attract and retain qualified and dedicated workforce that is willing to release its latent energy
and creativity in the service of the enterprise (Cole as cited in Lamptey, Boateng & Antwi,
2013). However, this cannot be possible unless the management of every organization provide a
conducive and an enabling environment for employees to perform their duties. Employers‟
responsibility in creating the enabling environment is to meet the needs of the employees to
serve as motivation for productivity. However, in spite of the numerous investments and
attempts by educational stakeholders to help in the development of education all over the world,
teachers are still refusing rural postings due to concerns about the quality of accommodation,
classroom facilities, school resources, access to leisure activities and health facilities
(Akyeampong & Stephens, 2002). Other concerns include the perception that living in rural areas
involves a greater risk of disease and less access to health care (Towse, Kent, Osaki, Funja,
Kirua & Noah, 2002). The problem is further exacerbated with the majority of student teachers
coming from different backgrounds. Teachers in Ghana tend to come from a higher socio-
economic background than average for the country as a whole (Akyeampong & Stephens, 2002).
Their reluctance to accept rural posting stems from a profound fear among newly trained
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teachers with a modern individualistic outlook that if you spend too much time in an isolated
village without access to further education, you become „a village man‟ (Hedges, 2002). Those
who even accept seldom stay there longer than 2-3 years (Dankwa, 2011).
Nevertheless, the absolute level of weekly or monthly earnings determines the standard of living
of the recipient, and will therefore be the most important consideration for most employees
(Wabu as cited in Donkoh, 2011). As such employees are very particular and would always want
to see an increase in their earnings. Unfortunately, in spite of the introduction of the single spine
salary structure which was intended to help upgrade the standard of living of public sector
workers, the monthly earnings of teachers is nothing good to write home about as compared to
that of other professionals coupled with the current economic hardship and frequent increase in
prices without a corresponding increase in teacher‟s salary. However, prior studies which used
equity theory as a measure to assess teacher retention in developed economies shows that if
employees see a discrepancy between the outcome they receive from their input as compared to
other employees; those employees would be motivated to do more or less work (or leave work).
An employee's view of fair monetary and non-monetary compensation is obviously subjective,
yet it is a critical factor in determining his or her behaviour.
There is also the proposed 20 per cent allowance for teachers in rural and deprived areas which is
yet to be implemented (Adu-Gyamerah, 2011).Unfortunately, allowances that have been paid to
teacher trainees in Ghana since the 1960s (Opoku-Asare, 2000) with the aim of attracting more
youth into the teaching profession has recently been withdrawn with the justification by
President Mahama that Ghana does not have the financial capacity to maintain the allowance
(The Chronicle report, 2013). This creates suspicion as to when the 20% allowance promised for
teachers will start operating to motivate teachers to stay in rural areas.
Rural Areas
According to Adedeji and Olaniyan (2011), there is no universally accepted definition of a rural
area, however; there may be a common understanding. Nevertheless, the UN Food and
Agricultural Organization, FAO, as cited in Atchoarena and Sedel, (2003) indicates that, rural
areas are generally open areas, with low settled population densities, and a high proportion of the
unsettled land area used for primary production such as agriculture, livestock, forestry, and
fisheries. Kashaa (2012) also describes rural areas as being deprived of facilities such as potable
water, electricity, good roads, school infrastructure, toilet facilities and social services like
internet, telecommunication, TV transmissions and others which deny the people access to
valuable information. Lack of housing, lack of health care and lack of schools for children is
quoted internationally as reasons why many professionals fail to accept rural postings, although
rural settings have the ability of providing family-oriented settings, lower crime rates,
recreational access, fresh air, and an enhanced quality of life (Amoako, 2011).
According to the National Statistical Service of Ghana (2000), a rural area in Ghana is a locality
which is either far or not too far from an urban area, has a pastoral landscape, unique
demographic structures and settlement patterns, isolation, extractive economic activities and a
population less than 5,000 people. In this regard, Amoako cites the two most commonly
mentioned disadvantages of rural settings as professional isolation and lack of opportunity for
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professional development. However, recent advancements in telecommunications and interactive
networking through the Internet may decrease feelings of isolation and improve rural job
satisfaction levels in the future. In spite of these, enrollment has increased more rapidly in urban
areas than in rural areas, and increasingly, the majority of African children out of school are rural
children. This has come about as a result of the disparities between rural areas and urban centres.
Teaching in Rural Areas
Rural populations in Africa are expected to increase by 147 million and keep rising until 2040
(United Nations Development Planning, 2009). The report further indicates that by 2050, Africa
will have 0.8 billion rural inhabitants while Rurality in the developed world is reduced as a
consequence of urbanization. The UNDP‟s 2009 Africa Rural Population Report indicates that
the demand for rural education and teachers will increase with the growing rural population.
However, a number of teachers are refusing rural postings due to concerns about the quality of
accommodation, classroom facilities, school resources, access to leisure activities and health
facilities (Akyeampong& Stephens, 2002). Moreover, their reluctance to accept rural posting
stems from a profound fear among newly trained teachers with a modern individualistic outlook
that if you spend too much time in an isolated village without access to further education, you
become, a village man (Hedges, 2002).In addition, the absence of female teachers in a school is a
missed opportunity to provide meaningful professional female role models to young women and
men on a daily basis (Rihani, 2009).Besides, pupils in urban areas are very lucky to be exposed
to social life and can easily grasp what their teachers impart and simply pass their exams unlike
pupils in deprived communities. As a result, many countries report that teachers express a strong
preference for urban postings all because students‟ performance is measured largely by their
students‟ achievements and not the facilities available, the teaching and learning materials or the
location of the school (Ankomah, 2005).
Teacher Motivation
Teachers are always regarded as a powerful resource in any educational system; however,
teacher job satisfaction is rarely considered (Garrett, 1999). Incentives, which bring about job
satisfaction, are a key factor in teachers‟ quality and the commitment to the teaching
organization (Klecker & Loadman, 1996). In addition, teacher job satisfaction contributes not
only to teachers‟ motivation and improvement but also to students‟ learning and development
(Perie, Baker & Whitener, 1997). In any human resource management policy, employee
incentive and recognition schemes have become very significant elements (Yeboah, 2012).
One‟s choice to enroll and remain in the teaching profession can be highly influenced by a
change in teacher motivation, as well as performance in the classroom. Glewwe, Ilias and
Kremer (2003) opine that teachers in developing countries respond more positively to incentives.
The authors cite a study that evaluated the effect of a randomized teacher incentive programme
in Kenya in which financial bonus was offered to teachers whose students achieved higher scores
on a standardized examination. The results revealed that the teachers in the study increased their
effort to raise student test scores by offering more test-preparation sessions but once the
application of the financial bonus ended and the teachers had no chance of earning additional
money, their effort dwindled and the performance of the students also dropped. Adedeji and
Olaniyan (2011) have argued that a major incentive for teachers to be located in rural areas is the
provision of housing. Where teachers cannot live near the school, they are likely to spend a lot of
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time travelling, often to the detriment of their school work. Mulkeen (2005) says that in 2005 in
Uganda, 15 percent of the school facilities grant was allocated to the construction of houses for
teachers. This helped by providing accommodation for many teachers and eventually motivated
them to stay in rural areas.
Teacher Retention
People will always join and leave organizations either voluntarily or against their wishes. As
such, what may motivate one to act in a particular way may not do same for another. No wonder
there is a rather large and growing body of research dedicated to exploring factors that predict
teacher retention. Collectively, the findings on teacher retention demonstrate the power of wage,
opportunity costs, non-wage attributes, and teacher characteristics in predicting teacher retention
no wonder individuals will become or remain teachers if teaching represents the one of the most
attractive activity to pursue among all activities available to them.
Today, most institutions, especially the private sector educational institutions are becoming
aware that they must become increasingly creative and innovative when it comes to retaining and
satisfying their teachers however, this is not the same in public schools. Most private sector
schools are offering several incentives packages to keep their members and to also perform
higher compared to government institutions. These include free transportation, mortgage
facilities, and free medical care as well as free teachers‟ child education (Acheampong and Ofei,
2003) no wonder their students normally perform better academically.
METHODOLOGY
A mixed method research design was employed in the study. The primary data were obtained
through interviews (one-on-one), questionnaire administration and observation from a purposive
sample of two public Senior High Schools located in rural areas in one district in Ashanti
Region, Ghana. Purposive sampling was also adopted to obtain a fair representation of student
respondents who have had enough experience and contact with their teachers, one Deputy
District Director in charge of Planning and Statistics, the two Headmasters and teachers of the
selected schools. 60% (120 teachers) from the two public Senior High Schools were deemed as
the accessible population to solicit relevant data. For reasons of anonymity and in line with much
qualitative inquiry, the sampled schools are only identified in this article as Schools A and B.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The demographic characteristics of the respondents were used because they could have some
influence on a person‟s behavior and their role in increasing teacher retention in rural areas. The
demographic characteristics considered for the study were sex, age and marital status.
Gender of respondents
Out of the 120 teacher respondents, only 19 (representing 15.8%) were females with 101 (or
84.2%) being males. Males clearly dominate the teacher population in the study schools. This
shows a clear gender imbalance in favour of male teachers. The dominance of male teachers in
the rural Senior High Schools, is a missed opportunity to provide meaningful professional female
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role models for female students on a daily basis (Rihani, 2006).Again, the presence of female
teachers in a school can help make the school environment a safer place for girls. However, this
might have arisen because, posting unmarried women to isolated rural areas may be seen to limit
marriage prospects, as such women are normally not posted to rural areas as a matter of policy in
Ghana and other African countries (Hedges, 2002).In addition, Gaynor (1998) opines that in the
case of married women, a rural posting may mean separation from her family, as the husband
will not be willing to move for cultural or economic reasons.
Age of respondents
Age influences every aspect of human life. It helps to determine output in terms of employment,
fertility rates, retirement and benefit. The determination of the teacher‟s age was useful to
ascertain the nature of active working force and their relative economic contributions.
Table 3.1 Ages of Respondents
AGE FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
20 -29 15 12.5
30 – 39 64 53.3
40 – 49 32 26.7
50 – 59 9 7.5
TOTAL 120 100
Table 3.1indicates that 15(12.5%) respondents were within the age range of 20-29 years, 64
(53.3%) were within 30-39 years, 32 (26.7) were within 40-49 whilst 9 (7.5%) of them belonged
to the age category of 50-59 years. Translating this into cumulative percentage terms, it is
inferred that the majority of the teachers (92.5%) were within the age range of 20-49 years. This
clearly exhibit a good and healthy blend of most experienced and long serving personnel and a
majority of young personnel who would take over the minority sample of teachers who will soon
go on retirement. Moreover, because rural settings have the ability of providing family-oriented
settings, lower crime rates, recreational access (Amoako, 2011), the marital variable was
important for the study in identifying teachers' willingness to stay in the rural area.
Table 3.2 Marital Status
Marital Status Frequency Percentage
Single 51 42.5
Married 68 56.7
Divorced 1 0.8
Total 120 100
From table 3.2, the study identified that (51) 42.5%of the respondents were single,(68) 56.7%
married, (1) 0.8% were divorced. The trend is indicative of the fact that about 56.7% of them
have an extra duty of taking care of their families which provides the opportunity for developing
their quality of love for children, honesty, compassion and fairness. These qualities according to
Strong et al (2011) are very vital in the determination of teacher quality.
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Available motivational incentives and teachers' level of satisfaction
The motivational incentives considered for the study were the additional available service
benefits in the rural areas which teachers were enjoying apart from their salary. These benefits
could attract andmake these teachers stay in spite of the attractions of urban areas which attract
others to leave. However, the term “Satisfied” been used in this contest means the feeling of
equity after comparing how an incentive is administered in their school with others and
“Unsatisfied” means the feeling of inequity or unfairness.
Table 3.3 Incentives and levels of satisfaction
Incentives
Satisfied
Percentage
of teacher
population
Unsatisfied
Percentage
of teacher
population
Free accommodation 36 30 97 80.8
Transportation by school 54 45 84 70
Free meals 63 52.5 36 30
PTA motivational allowance 84 70 57 47.5
Criterial for awards during speech and
prize giving days
38 31.7 82 68.3
Car maintenance allowance 23 19.2 66 55
Retention/professional allowance 105 87.5 15 12.5
Out of the seven incentive packages identified in table 3.3, it is evident that teachers were more
satisfied with the provision and administration of the financial bonuses which include
retention/professional allowance (87.5%) and Parents and Teachers Association motivational
allowance (84%). This revelation confirms Glewwe, Ilias and Kremer (2003) assertion that
teachers in developing countries respond more positively to monetary incentives. This also pre-
supposes that if the20 per cent allowance for teachers in rural and deprived areas which is yet to
be implemented (Adu-Gyamerah, 2011) becomes a reality, majority of teachers will be attracted
to rural areas and those who are already there will not be willing to leave. On the other hand, the
teachers were very unsatisfied with their accommodation, means of transport and criteria for
awards during speech and prize giving days since they had to find their own accommodation and
also foot the bill, had to struggle with native over public transport coupled with the long distance
and favoritism, respectively.
Willingness to remain in school
To identify the teacher‟s willingness to remain at post when they compare their working
environment and conditions of service with their colleagues in urban Senior High Schools, 47
(constituting 39.2%) of the 120 teacher respondents said they would continue to work in the rural
area. On the other hand, 73 respondents (representing 60.8%) were not willing to continue
working in the rural area. From this response, it is clear that the majority of teachers sampled for
the study was not satisfied with their current location because of the differences in motivation
they perceive exist between their circumstances and their colleagues in the urban schools. This
finding confirms Adams (1962) Equity Theory, which states that “if workers perceive a level of
inequity or unfairness when they compare their work situations to that of others such as peers
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and co-workers, they have the motivation to change the situation, in order to generate at least in
their mind a much better or more accurate sense of fairness”.
CONCLUSION
The study has focused primarily on rural Senior High School teacher‟s motivation and its effect
on their retention in the rural area. Although the study was done on a small scale, the evidence
provided indicates that majority of the teachers in both schools were males whilst females
formed the minority proving that female teachers are less willing to accept a rural posting. In
addition, out of the seven incentive packages been enjoyed by the rural SHS teachers as revealed
by the study, it is evident that teachers were more satisfied with the provision and administration
of the financial bonuses which include retention/professional allowance and Parents and
Teachers Association motivational allowance. On the other hand, the teachers were very
unsatisfied with their accommodation, means of transport and criteria for selecting award
winners during speech and prize giving days.
Therefore, governments and policy makers need to put in place strategies and also implement
policies (such as the 20 per cent allowance for teachers in rural and deprived areas) that will
serve to improve the working conditions of teachers teaching in rural areas. This will ultimately
help motivate them.If such measures are implemented for them to meet their expectations, they
can be retained and developed to constitute competitive assets for the Ghana Education Service
(GES). Therefore, there is the need for a spirit and philosophy of realism and optimism for all
stakeholders interested in rural education development to provide rural Senior High School
teachers with good quality motivational policies based on informed dialogue with the teachers.
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COUNSELLING IMPLICATIONS OF CONFLICT AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN EBONYI STATE
Dr. Stella Ngozi Nduka-Ozo
Department of Educational Foundations, Ebonyi State University, PMB 053, Abakaliki, Nigeria
ABSTRACT: The study investigated the counselling implications of conflict and conflict resolution in secondary schools in Ebonyi State. Specifically the study assessed the extent to which school principals adopt dialogue, arbitration, third party and sanction in conflict resolution in their schools. The population for this study consisted of all the principals of public Secondary Schools numbering one hundred and fourty-seven (147), and the entire population was used. Four research questions and one null hypothesis guided the study. The instrument for data collection was a four point modified likert-type questionnaire – conflict resolution assessment scale (CRAS), while the data collected were analyzed using mean and standard deviation for the research questions and t-test for the hypothesis. The findings showed that while sanction was used to a great extent, dialogue, arbitration and third party were used to a low extent. Again, gender of principals does not significantly influence the type of conflict resolution method used. The counselling implications of the findings were outlined including: the fact that people have problems which should not be taken for granted or sub-summed in their conflict. Recommendations were also made for example that Government officials who relate with the school authority should also be involved in dialogue, arbitration and third party methods of conflict resolution instead of just using sanction as the only option.
KEYWORDS: Conflict, resolution, counselling, dialogue, arbitration, third party and sanction
INTRODUCTION
Conflict has been defined by Ezegbe (1997) as mutual hostility in inter-human relationships. Okoro (1998) identified intra-personal conflict – where an individual has two competing desires which he is unable to resolve, and inter-personal conflict – where two or more individuals or group of people are incompatible. He further observed that conflict is an obstacle in achieving desired goals, and if unresolved degenerate to enmity, clashes and wars. Conflict resolution as explained by Alu (2002) entails the use of various methods like dialogue, arbitration, third party and sanction to bring about peace among organizations and between individuals. In sanction various bodies are made to impose sanctions on the conflicting parties unlike dialogue where the people in conflict are brought together to expose them to the issues of conflict with a view to helping them to understand the matters clearer.
Again in arbitration an arbitrator is invited to settle the conflict by appealing to the conscience of those concerned, this is similar to the third party where the conflicting groups are invited by a third party who urges them to open up and speak out their grievances. The problem of role conflict in the school system and strike actions by teachers; in addition to other problems like indiscipline, examination malpractice, drug abuse and cultism amongst students need proper approach in conflict resolution which in turn has counselling implication for effective school management.
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Counselling as Mallum (1990) saw it is “an interpersonal relationship, usually between two individuals, a Counsellor and a Client, in which the principal objectives are the development of the client, the improvement of his welfare and the amelioration of his problems.” (Pg 14). School teachers and students need to resolve their intra-personal problems which could affect their self concept and perception with its concomitant interpersonal relationship with others. A counsellor could be that arbitrator or third party needed in conflict resolution or even the person dialoguing with the warring parties in conflicts.
THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK
The Gestalt theory of Perls (1894-1970) works on the assumption that human beings always work as a whole. Each person is not a summation of parts, but a coordination of all parts. The idea of wholeness or gestalt controls the health of a person as an appropriate balance of the coordination of all of what we are. The ego boundary is the differentiation between self and others. A person is able to identity with his friends, colleagues and family members; which results in cohesion, co-operations and love. Alienation, on the other hand results in strangeness, unlikeness and conflict. Conflict has already been defined by Ezegbe (1997) as mutual hostility in inter-human relationships, and inter-personal conflict. This means that two or more individuals or group of people are incompatible. This incompatibility may arise as a result of compartmentalization of an individual instead of seeing the „gestalt‟ or wholeness that he embodies. Fundamental in the concept of gestalt therapy is the clash between social and biological existence. May people try to actualize what they „should‟ be like rather than actualize themselves as they are? Conflict arises due to this false self.
Purpose of the Study
The study sought to assess the extent to which school principals adopt dialogue, arbitration, third party and sanction in conflict resolution in their schools, and the counselling implication of neglecting these methods of conflict resolution.
Research Questions
Four research questions guided the study and they include, to what extent:
1. sanction is used by school principals in Ebonyi State to achieve conflict resolution;
2. dialogue is used by school principals in Ebonyi State to achieve conflict resolution;
3. arbitration is used by school principals in Ebonyi State to achieve conflict resolution, and
4. third party is used by school principals in Ebonyi State to achieve conflict resolution.
Hypothesis
Ho: There is no significant difference in the mean rating of the conflict resolution methods adopted by the male and the female principals in secondary schools in Ebonyi State.
METHODS
A descriptive survey research design was adopted to collect data from all the principals in the government owned secondary schools in Ebonyi State, and since their number is manageable the entire population of 147 was used. (Source: Planning and Research Statistics Unit of Secondary Education Board Ebonyi State - 2011). The instrument for data collection was a researcher made instrument named conflict resolution assessment scale (CRAS) which is a
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four – point modified likert scale with four clusters (A - D) and 20 items. The instrument was subjected to face, content and construct validation by experts in the field. The reliability of the instrument was established for internal consistency using the Crombach Alpha which yielded reliability co-efficient of 0.69 after a test-retest carried out on some selected teachers in the state. The supervisor related factor variable was controlled by the pre-survey workshop for all research assistants
RESULTS
The results of the study were presented in tables 1 – 5 based on the research questions and hypothesis raised.
RESEARCH QUESTION ONE
To what extent is sanction used by school principals in Ebonyi State to achieve conflict resolution?
Table 1: Mean rating of the extent to which sanction method is adopted for conflict resolution is secondary schools in Ebonyi State
Items Methods related to sanction x
SD
1 Withholding the salary of principals and teachers by the Secondary Education Board
3.88 1.03
2 Denial of fringe benefits of conflicting parties by the principal 3.54 1.12
3 Denial of promotion of principals and teachers by the Secondary Education Board.
3.26 0.44
4 Demotion of principals and teachers by the secondary Education Board.
3.09 0.34
5 Suspension of students from school by the principal 3.45 0.34
Grand mean 3.46 0.65
Results of data analysis presented on Table 1 show that sanction is adopted to a great extent in resolving conflict in secondary schools in Ebonyi State. The grand mean for the responses is 3.46 and SD of 0.65 on a 4-point scale. The grand mean is above 2.5 decision rule; therefore it shows that sanction is used to a great extent.
Research Question Two
To what extent is dialogue used by school principals in Ebonyi State to achieve conflict resolution?
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Table 2: Mean rating of the extent to which dialogue method is adopted for conflict resolution is secondary schools in Ebonyi State
Items Methods related to dialogue x
SD
6 Dialogue between students and students 1.86 0.72
7 Dialogue between students and teachers 2.24 0.64
8 Dialogue between teachers and principals 2.32 0,57
9 Dialogue between school authority and Government 1.96 0.65
10 Dialogue between principal and community leaders 2.76 0.62
Grand mean 2.13 0.64
Results of data analysis presented on Table 2 shows that dialogue is adopted to a less extent in resolving conflict in secondary schools in Ebonyi State. On the 4-point scale grand mean responses is 2.13 which is below the 2.5 decision rule and hence it can be concluded that dialogue is not used to a great extent.
Research Question Three
To what extent is arbitration used by school principals in Ebonyi State to achieve conflict resolution?
Table 3: Mean rating of the extent to which arbitration method is adopted for conflict resolution is secondary schools in Ebonyi State
Items Methods related to arbitration x
SD
11 Round table discussion between staff and government officials 2.16 0.46
12 Intervention of the parents/teachers association (PTA) 2.23 0.57
13 Intervention of the clergymen in the community 1.86 0.62
14 Intervention of the community leaders 2.26 0.64
15 Joint arbitration conferences between community staff and conflicting parties
2.32 0.58
Grand mean 2.16 0.57
The summary of the results presented in Table 3 indicated that for arbitration the grand mean 2.16 below the 2.5 decision rule showing the arbitration is employed to less extent in Ebonyi State secondary schools for resolving conflicts.
RESEARCH QUESTION FOUR
To what extent is third party used by school principals in Ebonyi State to achieve conflict resolution?
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Table 4: Mean rating of the extent to which third party method is adopted for conflict resolution is secondary schools in Ebonyi State
Items
Methods related to third party x
SD
16 Invitation of the principals and teachers by government officials for mediation
1.65 0.64
17 Invitation of students in conflict by teachers 2.67 0.62
18 Invitation of students and teachers by the principal 2.86 0.64
19 Invitation of the conflicting parties by the community association 1.76 0.58
20 Invitation of the conflicting parties by the stakeholders of the school
2.24 0.58
Grand mean 2.23 0.61
The result of the data analysis for table 4 also shows that third party is employed to less extent as a method of conflict resolution in Ebonyi State secondary school; since the grand mean for the items amounted to 2.23 which is also less than the decision rule of 2.25.
Hypothesis
Ho: There is no significant difference in the mean rating of the conflict resolution method adopted by the male and the female principals in secondary schools in Ebonyi State
Table 5: t-test statistic table showing conflict resolution methods used by male and female principal of secondary schools in Ebonyi State
Item Variable x
SD t-cal Alpha t-
critical
Decision
1 Male
female
1.679
1.348
0.704
0.758
1.60 0.05 1.96 Accept
Ho
2 Male
female
3.692
3.511
0.817
0.616
1.88 0.05 1.96 Accept
Ho
3 Male
female
2.496
3.767
0.575
0.437
1.21 0.05 1.96 Accept
Ho
4 Male
female
1.274
1.224
0.599
0.362
0.74 0.05 1.96 Accept
Ho
5 Male
female
2.793
3.813
0.794
0.446
0.95 0.05 1.96 Accept
Ho
6 Male
female
3.830
3.476
0.377
0.577
6.60 0.05 1.96 Reject
Ho
7 Male
female
2.526
3.768
0.513
0.433
0.76 0.05 1.96 Accept
Ho
8 Male
female
1.076
2.377
0,712
0.486
6.37 0.05 1.96 Reject
Ho
9 Male
Female
2.427
3.273
0.668
0.828
1.04 0.05 1.96 Reject
Ho
10 Male
Female
3.071
3.391
0.704
0.578
3.30 0.05 1.96 Accept
Ho
11 Male
Female
1.467
1.332
0.215
0.533
0.14 0.05 1.96 Accept
Ho
12 Male
female
2.153
2.771
0.242
0.722
0.13 0.05 1.96 Accept
Ho
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13 Male
Female
3.207
3.430
0.592
0.531
3.53 0.05 1.96 Reject
Ho
14 Male
Female
2.437
2.122
0.536
0.678
0.24 0.05 1.96 Accept
Ho
15 Male
Female
1.483
1.610
0.836
0.638
-1.51 0.05 1.96 Accept
Ho
16 Male
female
3.732
3.563
0.416
0.479
1.25 0.05 1.96 Accept
Ho
17 Male
Female
3.421
3.209
0.577
0.754
0.43 0.05 1.96 Accept
Ho
18 Male
Female
3.582
3.546
0.542
0.489
0.60 0.05 1.96 Accept
Ho
19 Male
female
3.124
3.295
0.634
0.657
1.32 0.05 1.96 Accept
Ho
20 Male
Female
3.365
3.487
0.587
0.657
-1.63 0.05 1.96 Accept
Ho
The summary of data analysis for table 5 indicates that for individual items 1,2,3,4,5,7,9,11,12,14,15,16,17,18,19 and 20 have their t-critical value greater than the t-calculated while only 6,8,10 and13 have their t-calculated greater than t-critical value – 1.96 at the 0.05 level of significance. Based on the decision rule the null hypothesis was accepted, hence it was concluded that there is no significant difference in the mean rating of the conflict resolution method adopted by the male and the female principals in secondary schools in Ebonyi State.
COUNSELLING IMPLICATIONS
Perls (1971) saw the goal of Counselling/therapy as the client‟s maturation and the removal of “blocks that prevent a person from standing on his own feet.” The group leader/Counsellor in Gestalt therapy helps the members to make the transition from external to internal support by locating the „impass‟ - that is, the place where people get stuck – the point at which they avoid experiencing threatening feeling and attempt to manipulate others by playing the game of helpless, lost, confused and stupid. The Gestalt therapy will aid in making people to take responsibility for their actions instead of blaming others for their problems, which is what happens in a conflict situation. Again, the implication of Mallum‟s definition of counselling (1990) is that people have problems which should not be taken for granted or sub-summed in their conflict, they need counselling to be able to adjust in the „self‟ dominated societies that they find themselves. Another angle to the amelioration of their problems could also be in the counselling of significant individuals who relate with them in various ways and their attitude towards the needs of others.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The findings of the study have revealed that Ebonyi State Secondary School principals employ sanction more than dialogue, arbitration or third party in conflict resolution in the school system. It appears that many of them may not be aware of the various methods of conflict resolution. It is therefore recommended that:
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1. Workshops or seminars be organized to train school teachers and head teachers on the various methods of conflict resolution to help them in resolving conflicts that arise in the course of their discharging their duties.
2. Government officials who relate with the school authority should also be involved in dialogue, arbitration and third party methods of conflict resolution instead of just using sanction as the only option.
3. Guidance counsellors should be posted as a matter of necessity to all the schools, since they are trained to use dialogue and to arbitrate between conflicting parties as significant third parties in resolving conflicts.
REFERENCES
Alu, I. (2002). Conflict and conflict management in secondary schools in Nigeria. Nigeria Research in Education, 7, 37-46.
Ezegbe, C. (1997). Management of conflict in Nigerian Education System. In A.N. Ndu, L.O. Ocho and B.S. Okeke (Eds.), Dynamics of Educational administration and management: The Nigerian perspective. Awka: Meks Publishers Ltd.
Mallum, M. (1990). Guidance and counselling in secondary schools. Ibadan: Evans Brothers Nigeria Publishers Ltd.
Okoro, B.U. (1998). Areas and sources of conflict between education officers and political appointees in primary school management. Unpublished M.Ed Project, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Perls, F.S. (1971) Gestalt therapy verbation. New York: Banton Books.
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TECHNICAL SKILLS REQUIRED IN COCOA PRODUCTION BY SENIOR
SECONDARY STUDENTS FOR PROMOTING FOOD SECURITY
J.U. Ndem PhD
Department of Technology and Vocational Education,
Faculty of Education, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki
Aneke, C, U; PhD.
Department of Technology and Vocational Education,
Faculty of Education, Enugu state University of Technology, Enugu. Phone: 08035494630.
ABSTRACT: This study was carried out to determine the extent of technical skills acquired in
cocoa production by senior secondary students for promoting food security in Cross River State.
The study adopted survey research design. Four purposes of study and four corresponding
research questions, as well as two hypotheses guided the study. The instrument used for the study
was a structured questionnaire which has four points rating scale of Highly Acquired (HA),
Acquired(A) Rarely Acquired(RA) and Not Acquired (NA) with their nominal values of 4,3,2, and
1 respectively. The instrument which contains 27 items was validated by three experts from the
university of Calabar. The specialists’ observations and corrections were incorporated at the
final stage of the production of the instrument. The reliability of the instrument was determined
by using cronbach alpha to analyse the result of the preliminary test, and 0.92 was obtained as
the reliability coefficient. The data collected with the instrument were analysed using mean and
standard deviation for the research questions while t-test was used to test the hypotheses
formulated. The result of the analysis revealed that the senior secondary students of agricultural
science in Cross River State acquired technical skills in pre-planting operations, post-planting
operations as well as harvesting and post-harvesting operations. On the basis of the findings, the
following recommendations among others were that in the teaching of crop production the
teachers should lay more emphasis on those skills in cocoa production that the students do not
have.
KEYWORDS: Technical skills, cocoa production, food security.
INTRODUCTION
There is a high level of unemployment in Nigeria among the graduates (Okoro,2006). Ozoro in
Okoro (2006) reported that the graduates unemployment could be attributed to lack of saleable
technical skills and knowledge that will enable them take up the jobs that are available. He
further explained that graduates who possess skills have many jobs waiting for them, especially
in agricultural sector. Nigeria is agrarian society and as such needs people who possess technical
skills in the area of agriculture in order to take up jobs in agro industries.In Nigeria, farmers
produce food crops such as rice, cassava, maize, yam, potato, and many others as well cash crops
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like cocoa, coffee, palm oil and kernel, coconut and many others. These crops require special
skills for their production.
Allen (2000) defined skill as a special ability in a particular field, especially acquired by learning
and practice. Delacroix (2000) explained skill as the ability to do something well after learning
and practicing it. Turnbull (2010) stated that skill is the ability to do something well.
According to Okeme (2014), skill is a well established habit of performing task in a manner
acceptable in a particular profession. Ben (2010) explained skills as ability and capacity acquired
through deliberate systematic and sustained effort. Skill is the manifestation of acquired
knowledge, it is a knowledge that is translated into practical use. In the context of this study;
skill means the ability to do anything well and expertly. Technical skill on the other hand is
referred to as the knowledge and abilities needed to accomplish mathematical, engineering,
scientific or computer-related activities or duties, as well as other specific task (Beatrice and
Owusu, 2002). They further explained that technical skill is a talent and expertise a person
possess to perform a certain job or task. Technical skills are the knowledge and capabilities to
perform specialized task. In another way, it is referred to as the skills that is required for the
accomplishment of a specific task. Technical skills need to be developed in individual for
performance of specific tasks. Technical skills are very important for a nation’s natural resource
and for promoting economic stability. The wealth of a society is determined to a large extent by
the development of technical skills in such a society. The behavior of a nation in the comity of
nations may be influenced by the technical skills possessed by that nation. It is also important for
its agricultural values, because most of the agricultural machines require some level of technical-
know-how in their operations (Ben, 2010). Technical skills are required for proficiency in almost
all areas of agricultural production and should be identified and emphasized during training.
Technical skills are required by the senior secondary students for production of crop such as
cocoa. Anochili (2010) identified the following technical skills in cocoa production such as skills
in site selection, skills in pre-planting operations, skills in post-planting operations, skills in
harvesting, processing, preservation and storage.
The agricultural science teachers train the students on the production of crops such as cocoa and
others. The teachers expect that on graduation, the students should be able to acquire adequate
skills in cocoa production. Cocoa belongs to the family of Malvaceae and genus is theobroma.
Cocoa was discovered in the 18th
century at the Amazon basin and later spread to other tropical
areas of South America and West Africa (Opeke, 2007). The cocoa trees seldom reach a height
of 7.5 meters. To flourish well, it needs to be shaded from direct effect of the sun and wind
velocity particularly in the early growth stages. The cocoa tree has broad dark leaves about 25cm
long and pale in colour.
Cocoa can be cultivated in many tropical locations around the world now. (Falusi, 2010). Cocoa
(Theobroma cocoa) was introduced into Nigeria from the American continent in 1874 and was
first planted in Cross River State, but commercial planting began when the crops was re-
introduced into western Nigeria. (Opeke, 2007). Cocoa farming gained prominence in Nigeria in
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1965, by then Nigeria was recognized as the largest producer of cocoa world wide. According to
Amalu (2000), Nigeria is the fourth largest producer of cocoa world wide, after Cote D’voire,
Brazil and Ghana. In Nigeria, Etung Local Government Area in Cross River State is the second
highest producer of cocoa which made it possible for the federal government to establish cocoa
research institute of Nigeria at Ajassor in Etung Local Government Area in Cross River State.
Etung in Cross River State ranks the second largest producer of cocoa after Ondo State in
Nigeria. Cross River State produces not less than 30,000,00 kilogram of cocoa annually which is
the best grade in the world in terms of flavor and quality (Amalu, 2000).Cocoa is one of the main
cash crops exported to earn foreign exchange in Nigeria. Cocoa production provides employment
opportunity and generates income for the up keep of the farmer and his family. Cocoa is used to
produce numerous consumer products. However, the decline in cocoa production was attributed
to the discovery and exploitation of petroleum in the 1970s. Nigeria has for years over depended
on the exploitation of crude oil as a main source of foreign exchange earnings and thereby
neglecting agriculture as a versatile renewable and sustainable avenue for generating foreign
exchange and employment (Nwuzor,2009). Among other factors responsible for the decline in
cocoa production in Nigeria and Cross River State in particular is the gap created by the
extermination of cocoa marketing board, old age of cocoa farmers, rural-urban drift by the
youths who would have been cocoa farmers, high cost of farm labour and most importantly lack
of technical skill, (Nwuzor,2009).
Cocoa production is one way to enhance food security, Food security is explained as a condition
of assuring the availability of food, price stability of basic food stuffs at the local, national and
international levels. Furthermore, Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) (2006) reported
that food security is a situation when all people at all times have both physical and economic
access to the basic food that they need. In the context of this study, food security is
conceptualized as a situation whereby every individual at all times have physical and economic
access to the right type, sufficient and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs for a healthy
life. Realizing the importance of agriculture in the economy of Nigeria, the Federal Republic of
Nigeria under the auspices of Comparative Education Study and Adaptation Centre (CESAC,
1985) incorporated Agricultural Science in the curriculum of secondary schools with the aim of
developing technical skills in crop and animal production.
Cocoa is one of the crops being studied at the senior secondary school. The students who offer
Agricultural Science should be able to show possession of technical skills in cocoa production.
This expectation is based on the general objectives of agricultural science in senior secondary
schools curriculum which includes; to stimulate and sustain students interest in agriculture, to
enable students acquire useful knowledge and practical technical skills in agriculture, to prepare
students for further learning in agriculture and to prepare students for occupation in agricultural
science (CESAC, 1985). It is expected that the students should be able to produce at least two
crops and also rear two animals of their choices. Then, through close observation, it appears that
the senior secondary school graduates cannot manage cocoa farm due to lack of technical skills
required in the establishment and management of cocoa. The need arises for identifying the
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technical skills required in cocoa production by the senior secondary schools students in Cross
River State for promoting food security.
Statement of the Problem
Nigeria is the fourth largest producer of cocoa in the world after Cote’ voire, Brazil and Ghana
and Cross River State ranked the second largest producer of cocoa after Ondo State in Nigeria,
(Andrew, 2009). However, realizing the importance of agriculture in the economy of Nigeria, the
Federal Republic of Nigeria, under the auspices of Comparative Education Study and Adaptation
Committee (CESAC, 1985) incorporated Agricultural Science in the curriculum of secondary
schools with the aim of developing technical skills in crops and animal production.Cocoa is one
of the crops being studied at the senior secondary school level. Therefore, it is expected that the
senior secondary school students who offer Agricultural Science should be able to show
possession of technical skills in cocoa production on graduation. Students, on graduation from
secondary school should be able to produce at least two crops and also rear two animals of their
choices; but through close observation, it appears that the senior secondary school graduates
cannot manage cocoa farm due to lack of technical skills required to enable them establish cocoa
farms and manage it. It is on the basis of these that it becomes necessary to identify the technical
skills acquired in cocoa production by the senior secondary school students in Cross River State.
Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of the study is to determine the extent of technical skill acquired in cocoa
production by the students of agricultural science in senior secondary schools in Cross River
State for promoting food security. Specifically the study sought to
i. determine the technical skills acquired in pre-planting operation in cocoa production by
the SS III students for promoting food security;
ii. determine the technical skills acquired in planting operations in cocoa production by the
SS III students for promoting food security;
iii. determine the technical skills in post planting operations in cocoa production; and
iv. determine the technical skill acquired in harvesting and post-harvesting operation in
cocoa production for promoting food security.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided the study
1. To what extent are technical skills acquired by secondary school students in pre-planting
operations in cocoa productions for promoting food security?
2. To what extent are technical skills acquired by secondary school students in planting
operations in cocoa production for promoting food security?
3. To what extent are technical skills acquired by secondary school students in post-planting
operation cocoa production by the SSIII students for promoting food security?
4. To what extent have the students acquired the technical skills in harvesting and post-
harvesting operation in cocoa production?
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Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were tested in the course of the study.
H01: There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of the agricultural science
students and agricultural science teachers on the technical skills required in pre-planting
operation in cocoa production for promoting food security.
H02: There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of the agricultural science
students and agricultural science teachers on technical skills in post-planting operation in cocoa
production for promoting food security.
METHODOLOGY
The study adopted a survey research design; and was carried out in Cross River State of Nigeria.
Cross River is one of the 36 states in Nigeria and situated in the south-south geo-political zone in
Nigeria with Calabar as its headquarters. The state comprises of three(3) senatorial districts
(Cross River south, central and north). The state has eighteen local government areas.
The population for the study was 723 which comprised of 21 agricultural science teachers and
402 senior secondary school (SS III) students in public secondary schools in Cross River State. A
total of 402 students were randomly sampled while all the 21 agricultural science teachers were
used for the study. Therefore, the sample for the study was 423. A structured questionnaire was
used as the instrument for data collection. The questionnaire which contained 28 items were
constructed on four points rating scale of highly acquired (HA), acquired(A), rarely acquired,
and not acquired (NA) with their nominal values as 4,3,2 and 1 respectively.
The reliability of the instrument was determined by carrying out a pilot study using 20
agricultural science teachers and 25 SS III students. The data collected were analyzed using
cronbach alpha to determine the internal consistency of the items which yielded 0.92. The data
for the study were collected by the researchers by administering the instruments to the
respondents. A total of 423 questionnaire were administered while 408 were retrieved which
represents 96.45% retrieval. All the data collected were analysed using mean statistics and
standard deviation for the research questions and the hypotheses formulated were tested using t-
test statistics. In taking decision, a cut off point of 2.50 was used as bench mark for decision
making. Any item in the questionnaire with mean score of 2.50 and above was regarded as the
skills acquired by the senior secondary students in cocoa production and any item with the mean
score less than 2.50 was regarded as skills not acquired by the senior secondary students in cocoa
production. In testing the hypothesis, the t-calculated was compared with t-table and if the t-
calculated was less than the t-critical value, the null hypothesis was accepted and if the t-
calculated was greater than the t-critical, the null-hypothesis was rejected at 0.05 level of
significance.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Research question 1: What are the technical skills in pre-planting operation in cocoa production
acquired by the senior secondary students for promoting food security?
Table 1: Mean ratings and standard deviation of the respondents on technical skills
acquired in pre-planting operations in cocoa production for promoting food security.
SN Item statements X SD Remarks
1 Technical skills in site selection for cocoa farm. 1.89 0.94 Not acquired
2 The technical skills in nursery preparation for planting
of cocoa seeds
2.93 0.92 Acquired
3 Technical skills in land preparation for planting of cocoa
seedlings
2.57 1.15 Acquired
4 Technical skills in selecting appropriate varieties of
cocoa seeds for planting.
2.85 0.99 Acquired
5 Technical skills in soil testing to determine the fertility
of the soil on the cocoa farm
2.29 0.97 Not Acquired
6 Skills in dressing the cocoa seed before planting 2.84 0.95 Acquired
7 Technical skills in identifying healthy seeds of cocoa for
planting
3.04 0.92 Acquired
Grand mean 2.63 0.97
The table 1 above revealed that items 2,3,4,6 and 7 had their mean scores above the cut off point
which ranged between 2.57 and 2.04 with their corresponding standard deviations, this implies
that the respondents agreed that the students acquired the technical skills in pre-planting
operations those items but items 1 and 5 had their mean score below the cut-off point. This
implies that the respondents disagreed with the two items on selection and determination of
fertility of the soil.
Research question 2: What are technical skills in planting operation in cocoa production
acquired by the senior secondary students for promoting food security?
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Table 2: Mean ratings and standard deviation of the respondents on technical skills acquired
in planting operations in cocoa production for promoting food security.
SN Item statements X SD Remarks
1 Technical skills in inter-cropping of cocoa with other
crops.
2.75 1.03 Acquired
2 Technical skills in marking of the planting holes 2.65 0.99 Acquired
3 Technical skills in determining the depth of planting of
cocoa seeds
2.76 0.98 Acquired
4 Technical skills in determination of planting distance of
cocoa on the field.
2.69 1.01 Acquired
5 Technical skills in seed rate determination in cocoa
planting
2.68 1.07 Acquired
6 Technical skills in the replacement of vacancies after
planting.
2.64 1.03 Acquired
Grand mean 2.69 1.01
Table 2 above revealed that all the items had their mean scores above the cut –off point of 2.50
with their corresponding standard deviations. This signifies that the respondents agreed that the
students acquired technical skills in planting operations in cocoa production.
Research question 3: What are the technical skills in post-planting operation in cocoa
production acquired by the senior secondary students for promoting food security?
Table 3: Mean ratings and standard deviation of the respondents on technical skills acquired
in post-planting operations in cocoa production for promoting food security
SN Item statements X SD Remarks
1 Technical skills in mulching the cocoa seedlings after
planting.
3.31 1.05 Acquired
2 Technical skills in provision of shade for the young
cocoa seedlings
3.10 0.87 Acquired
3 Technical skills in pruning of the cocoa plant. 3.09 0.89 Acquired
4 Technical skills in pests and disease control of cocoa. 2.86 1.19 Acquired
5 Technical skills in mixing and spraying agro-chemicals
on the cocoa plants.
2.56 0.97 Acquired
6 Technical skills in determining fertilizer type to be
applied to the cocoa plant.
2.88 0.93 Acquired
7 Technical skills in applying fertilizer using appropriate
methods
2.91 1.08 Acquired
Grand mean 2.95 0.99
Table 3 showed that all the items had their mean scores above the cut-off point of 2.50 with their
corresponding standard deviations ranging between 0.87 and 1.19. This showed that the senior
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secondary schools students required he technical skills in planting operations in cocoa
production.
Research question 4: What are the technical skills in harvesting and post-harvesting operation
in cocoa production acquired by the senior secondary students for promoting food security?
Table 4: Mean ratings and standard deviation of the respondents on technical skills acquired
in harvesting and post-harvesting operations in cocoa production for promoting food security. SN Item statements X SD Remarks
1 Technical skills in recognizing matured and ripe cocoa pod 3.26 0.97 Acquired
2 Technical skills in harvesting cocoa using appropriate techniques. 2.89 1.11 Acquired
3 Technical skills in breaking cocoa pods 2.93 0.92 Acquired
4 Technical skills in fermentation of cocoa seeds. 2.90 1.03 Acquired
5 Technical skills in determining appropriate fermentation method 2.83 1.12 Acquired
6 Technical skills in drying of cocoa seeds 3.01 1.01 Acquired
7 Technical skills in winnowing to remove debris from the cocoa
seeds.
2.83 1.12 Acquired
Grand mean 2.95 1.04
Table 4 above revealed that all the items in the table had their mean scores above the cut-off
point of 2.50 with their corresponding standard deviations. This implies that the respondents
agreed that the students acquired the technical skills in harvesting and post-harvesting of cocoa
in cocoa production.
Table 5: t-test analysis of the mean responses of the students and the teachers on technical
skills acquired in post-planting operations in production for promoting food security in
Cross River State. SN Item statements
Students X
S21
Teachers
X S21
t-cal t-critical Interpretation
1 Technical skills in mulching the cocoa
seedlings.
3.31 0.83 3.14 0.91 -0.39 1.96 *
2 Technical skills in provision shade for
the young cocoa seedlings
3.10 1.05 2.90 0.82 0.43 1.96 *
3 Technical skills pruning of the cocoa
plant.
3.09 0.75 2.59 0.85 0.49 1.96 *
4 Technical skills in pests and disease
control of cocoa.
2.86 0.97 2.76 1.41 0.75 1.96 *
5 Technical skills in mixing and
spraying agro-chemicals on the cocoa
plants.
2.56 0.75 3.28 0.95 -6.89 1.96 *
6 Technical skills in determining
fertilizer type to be applied to the
cocoa plant.
2.88 0.96 3.00 0.89 -5.23 1.96 *
7 Technical skills in applying fertilizer
using appropriate methods
2.91 1.09 2.95 1.07 -0.33 1.96 *
N1 = 387, N2 = 21, *= No significant difference, ** = Significant difference, df = 406
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Table 5 above revealed that all the items had their t-calculated less than the t-critical with degree
of freedom of 406 at 0.05 level of significance. Therefore, the null-hypothesis was accepted. This
signifies that the students and the teachers had the same opinion on the technical skills acquired
in post-planting operations in cocoa production for promoting food security in Cross River State.
Table 6: t-test analysis of the mean responses of the agricultural science teachers and students
on technical skills acquired in pre-planting operations in cocoa production for promoting food
security in Cross River State.
SN Item statements Students
X S21
Teacher
s X
S21
t-cal t-critical Interpretation
1 Technical skills in site
selection for cocoa farm.
1.84 1.02 1.95
0.86
-0.57 1.96 *
2 The technical skills in
nursery preparation for
planting of cocoa seeds
3.06 0.75 2.80
1.08
0.13 1.96 *
3 Technical skills in land
preparation for planting of
cocoa seedlings
2.72 1.19 2.66
1.15
-6.84 1.96 *
4 Technical skills in selecting
appropriate varieties of
cocoa seeds for planting.
3.05 0.70 2.85
1.06
0.14 1.96 *
5 Technical skills in soil
testing to determine the
fertility of the soil on the
cocoa farm
3.08 0.91 2.14
1.10
2.79 1.96 *
6 Skills in dressing the cocoa
seed before planting
3.19 0.97 2.90
0.88
1.21 1.96 *
7 Technical skills in
identifying healthy seeds of
cocoa for planting
2.98 1.08 2.80
1.03
0.78 1.96 *
1 = 387, N2 = 21, * = No significant difference, ** = Significant difference, df = 406
Table 6 above revealed that all the items had their t-calculated below the t-tabulated of 1.96 with
degree of freedom of 406 at 0.05 level of significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was
accepted. This implies that the opinions of the students did not differ from, that of the teachers
on the technical skills acquired in pre-planting operation in cocoa production for promoting food
security in Cross River State of Nigeria.
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Major Findings
Based on the analysis of the data, the following findings emanated;
1. Students acquired technical skills in pre-planting operations except the skills in site selection
and the skills in soil testing to determine fertility of the soil.
2. Students acquired the technical skills in planting operations in cocoa production.
3. Students acquired technical skills in post-planting operations
4. Students acquired technical skills in harvesting and post-harvesting operations in cocoa
production.
5. The null-hypotheses formulated were accepted meaning that the opinions of the two groups of
respondents, the students and the teachers did not differ in the pre-planting and post-planting
operations in cocoa production for promoting food security.
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
The work found that the senior secondary students acquired the skills in pre-planting operations,
planting operation, harvesting and post harvesting operation; but lacked the skills in site selection
and skills in soil testing to determine the fertility of the soil. These findings are in line with
(Beatrice and Owusu, 2002) who reported that graduates of secondary schools can confidently
establish and manage cocoa farms.
CONCLUSION
This study was carried out in Cross River State using the agricultural science students and
agricultural science teachers as the subjects of the study. A survey research was adopted for the
study. The study used structured instrument for data collection and the data collected were
analysed using mean and standard deviation. The finding revealed that the students possessed the
technical skills in pre-planting operations, planting operation, post-planting operations as well as
harvesting and post harvesting operations. The study also revealed that the students lack the
skills in site selection and testing of the soil to determine the fertility of the soil. This study is
concluded by recommending that the government of Cross River State should improve the
welfare of the agricultural science teachers in the state in order to motivate the teachers to
continue to carryout effective teaching in the school, so that the students will be skillful in not
only in cocoa production but in other crops and fields of agriculture.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made;
1. The agricultural science teachers should continue to improve on their efforts in teaching the
students in order to ensure that students continue to acquire the technical skills in cocoa
production.
2. The teachers should drill the students more on the skills in cocoa production in which the
students lack.
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3. The Cross River State government should ensure that the teachers welfare are taken care of, so
that the teachers will continue to do their best in teaching the students.
4. The graduating students of senior secondary schools should be encouraged by the Cross River
State government to engage in cocoa production as one of the ways of reducing unemployment
and promoting food security in the state.
REFERENCES Adams, S.O. (2010). Precision farm labour supply for effective cocoa production in Nigeria.
Medwell journal 3(4) 130-200.
Allen, R. (2000). The New Peguin English Dictionary. Finland: Bookwell publishers.
Amalu, U.C. and Abang, S.O. (2000). Survey and constraints analysis of Yam-based cropping
practices in two rainforest communities of south east Nigeria. Journal of agricultural
Economics 2(3) 45.
Andrew, Z. (2009). Producer networks and technology adoption in Ghana. Paper presented at
the 6th
mid-west international economic development conference.
Anochili, B.C. & Tindall, H.D. (2010). Tropical agricultural handbook. Cash crop: Cocoa
Research Institute.
Beatrice, P. & Owusu, G.K. (2002). Towards an integrated pest management of sustainable
cocoa production. Ghana: Macmillan Publishing Ltd.
Ben, C.B. (2010). Vocational technical education in Nigeria. Ibadan: Elsumme Educational
Book Ltd.
Delacroix, L. (2000). Longman Active Study Dictionary. New York: Longman Publishers.
Falusi, A.O. (2010). Economy of cocoa production the future of cocoa industries in Nigeria.
Ibadan: A spirit and park publishers.
Isamgedighi, N. (2004). Determination of training needs of cocoa farmers in Ikom Local
Government Area of Rivers State. Unpublished B. Sc project, Department of agricultural
economics, university of Calabar.
Nwuzor, B.A. (2009). Agricultural extension, its contrietention to agricultural development in
Nigeria. Enugu: Snaap Press Nig. Ltd.
Okeme, I.; Alawa,A.D. & Akwagiobe, C.U. (2014). Entrepreneurial skills required by secondary
school graduates for economic success in cocoa production in Ikom local Government Area.
Journal of education and practice. 15(16) 200-210.
Okoro, O.M. (2006). Principles in vocational technical education. Nsukka: University Trust
Publishers.
Opeke, L.K. (2007). Tropical tree crops. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd.
Turnbull, J. (2010). Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English. 8th
Ed. New
York: Oxford university Press.
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TEACHERS PERCEPTION AND PRACTICE OF AUTOMATIC PROMOTION
IN ENGLISH SPEAKING PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN CAMEROON
ENDELEY Margaret Nalova
Department of Curriculum Studies and Teaching
Faculty of Education,
University of Buea, Cameroon
ABSTRACT: Differences in the perception and outcomes of automatic promotion may
be due to discrepancies in its implementation. Automatic promotion was conceived in
Cameroon to be accompanied by support mechanisms and it is necessary to find out
teachers’ perceptions and practice of automatic promotion especially against a backdrop
of the inability of many primary school pupils to read and write. Teachers have a
firsthand experience about the outcomes of automatic promotion. Their perception and
practice may provide a basis for improving quality. Thus the study was a survey that
incorporated a 15-item closed ended questionnaire and an interview. 275 primary school
teachers and examiners of the First School Leaving Certificate Examination took part.
Data were analyzed descriptively using frequencies and means. Findings revealed a
negative perception of automatic promotion and discrepancies between the conception
and implementation of automatic promotion which may explain the drop in quality.
Implications and recommendations are discussed.
KEYWORDS: Teacher perception1, Automatic promotion2, Implementation3, Practice4
Primary schools5
INTRODUCTION
Automatic promotion is the practice in primary and secondary schooling of advancing
pupils from one grade to the next higher grade at the end of the school year regardless of
the educational attainment of the pupils (Dictionary of Education as cited in Mehndiratta,
2000). Automatic promotion has polarized education development stakeholders along the
lines of those in support and those against (Okurut, 2015). Opponents of automatic
promotion state that it negatively affects the overall quality of education since it
eliminates competition, de-motivates students and teachers alike hence lowering teaching
and learning outcomes (Koppensteiner, 2014; Taye, 2003; and Chohan & Qadir, 2011).
By contrast, grade retention is viewed as leading to an improvement in cognitive learning
outcomes (Brophy, 2006; Roderick et al., 2002; and King et al., 1999). These arguments
only reveal the fact that the implementation and outcomes of the automatic promotion
policy may be different in various contexts. There are many instances where the scheme
of automatic promotion is uniformly practiced but evaluation aimed at constant
improvement of learning is either totally neglected or paid inadequate attention. As a
result, children often remain weak in the basic skills of reading, writing and computation
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besides other aspects of achievement improvement of learning is either totally neglected
or paid inadequate attention.
Contextual Background
Fonkeng, (2006) reports that in Cameroon the school system continues to suffer from
inefficiency witnessed in the repetition of classes, poor pass rates in official examinations
with large differences in performance between urban and rural schools. Indeed, many
studies (UNICEF, 2001; Amin M.E. 1999) reveal high repeating rates (more than 40%) at
the level of primary schools in Cameroon. To confront this problem, the government of
Cameroon through the former Ministry of National Education initiated with the
assistance of the African Development Bank, the Education project II. This project had as
a main objective, to experiment on the reduction of repetition to about 10% through the
introduction of compensatory or remedial education, competency-based teaching and
automatic promotion in some selected primary schools in the country. Compensatory
teaching within the context of Education Project II refers to any supplementary teaching
outside the official school time (MINEDUC, Education Project II, 2011). The strategies
in compensatory/remedial education proposed by Biehler and Snowman in Fonkeng,
(2006) are as follows: Group work, individual teaching, material for extra and further
teaching, provision for alternative material, re-teaching and re-education
Promotion is based on a policy upon which children change from an inferior class to a
superior class irrespective of the child’s average score. In Cameroon, the primary school
system is divided into three cycles: Class I and II form cycle I; Class III and IV form
cycle II; Class V and VI (VII for Anglophone system) form cycle III. This division into
cycles is based on the fact that the curriculum of each cycle is similar and connected.
Automatic promotion is conceived to be within a cycle. That is, from class I to II, class
III to IV, or class V to VI or VII and not class II to III or IV to V since later promotion
require changing the cycle. Weak pupils who are automatically promoted are given
remedial/compensatory education to reduce deficiencies in preparation for promotion
(through normal examinations) to next cycle. Repeating is thus significantly reduced
because the number of promotion examinations is reduced to three
Generally, in this approach there is adjustment of learning time to the capacity of the
learner. This strategy was experimented in some pilot schools and the outcome was
positive. It was envisaged that should the experiment attain its objective, compensatory
education, competency-based teaching and automatic promotion will be generalized to all
primary schools in the country as a measure to reduce repetition. Currently, collective
promotion is practiced in primary schools in Cameroon but remains a source of debate
especially against a backdrop of the falling standards of basic education.
Teachers are the key players in the implementation process and their beliefs, practices
and attitudes are closely linked to teachers’ strategies for coping with challenges in their
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daily professional life and so are important for understanding and improving educational
processes. Thus the study aims at investigating teacher attitudes and practice of the
automatic promotion strategy in Cameroon.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Repetition and wastage could be curbed and automatic promotion practiced while
ensuring that learning is taking place. Mastery learning uses differentiated and
individualized instruction, progress monitoring, formative assessment, feedback,
corrective procedures, and instructional alignment to minimize achievement gaps
(Zimmerman & Dibenedetto, 2008). The strategy is based on Benjamin Bloom’s Mastery
model, in which following initial instruction, teachers administer a brief formative
assessment based on the unit’s learning goals. The assessment gives students information,
or feedback, which helps identify what they have learned well to that point (diagnostic)
and what they need to learn better (prescriptive). Students who have learned the concepts
continue their learning experience with enrichment activities. Students who need more
experience with the concept receive feedback paired with corrective activities, which
offer guidance and direction on how to remedy their learning challenge. To be effective,
these corrective activities must be qualitatively different from the initial instruction by
offering effective instructional approaches and additional time to learn (Centre on
Instruction).
In order to curb repetition and practice automatic promotion while ensuring learning,
mastery learning is essential because automatic promotion effected in isolation and in the
absence of complementary and more systematic changes may diminish repetition and
drop out but may not necessarily ensure learning (Torres in Taye, 2003).
Findings from a study carried out in Afghanistan by Mansory (2007a) reveal that teachers
are concerned about the low level of achievement in lower primary grades due to
automatic promotion which according to them is due to the high prevalence of repetition
in grade 4.Bonvin et al, 2008, Witmer, Hoffman and Nottis, (2004) found out that
teachers believe in retention but the authors argue that past inquires have found that
teachers' beliefs about retention are influenced by peers rather than by research. Burkam
et al, 2007, Cannon and Lipscomp, 2011 and Range et al., believe that this has caused
teachers to recommend retention for students who have similar characteristics such as
being male, minority and from low socioeconomic backgrounds. According to a study by
Witmer et al. (2004) 77% of respondents who were teachers believed that grade repetition
is an effective way of preventing students’ future academic failure and 94% of the
respondents disagree with the statement that students should never repeat.
Wynn (2010) presented findings from a study conducted among Middle School teachers
in a Florida school district and tried to glean their perceptions about the practice. Survey
responses of 326 teachers in five selected middle schools in Florida and ten interviews
clearly indicated that teachers believe children should be retained. A majority, nearly
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83% disagreed that students should not be retained. Over 65% of teachers indicated that
grade retention allows students who are behind academically to-catch up with peers. In
addition, nearly 39% disagreed that retention is harmful to a child's self-concept / self-
image. However, nearly 80% of teachers agreed grade retention affects a child's self-
esteem.
Jimerson (2002) found that teachers perceived repetition as a successful educational
policy for learning improvement. However, some teachers were not supporting the
former view point of repetition as motivating incentive but think by repeating, children
lose self-esteem and that repetition hinders students’ development. However, the authors
argue that most of the teachers were unaware of the research results on grade repetition.
They had limited knowledge on the long term effects and based their arguments on the
immediate outcomes generated from repetition. In line with this argument Pettay (2010)
gathered evidence which presented a conflict of sorts. Firstly, she stated that her results
revealed that the teachers’ attitudes about grade retention were significantly changed
when they were presented with a research-based article entitled 'Grade Retention and
Promotion'
Halverstadt (2009) in her research found that teachers either agreed or strongly agreed
that a student's maturity level, academic performance and date of birth are factors they
used to determine whether a student should be retained. They also strongly agreed that a
student's maturity level and academic performance are outcomes associated with grade
retention.
Another study undertaken by Range (2009) revealed female teachers and principals
agreed more strongly than males that 'Retention is an effective means of preventing
students from facing daily failure in the next grade level. Furthermore; 58.2% primary
grade teachers reported that the most important factor when considering a student for
retention was, School Academic Performance. 20.4% rated 'Ability' second and 16.3%
gave 'Emotional maturity' as a third reason.
Bowin as cited in Ede (2004) stated that even second grade teachers in Fribourg,
Switzerland who valued achievement as a decisive criterion were also found to utilize
retention if academic objectives were not met. Further to this Troncin (cited in
Ndaruhutse, 2008) reported that there was a generally positive attitude to repetition
among French teachers, with the view that it is a preventative measure helping children to
succeed later on. This research found that teachers believe repetition has a positive
impact on learning outcomes, that the negative psychological impacts on children are
limited and that there are not really any alternatives.
Another study carried out by Crahay (2003) on the views of Belgian and Genevan
teachers found that they had divided views on the entire phenomenon. Some teachers felt
that repetition gives some children the chance to mature and be better prepared for their
future schooling; others felt that making weak children repeat exactly the same
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curriculum seems wasteful. The teachers didn't generally believe that repetition reflected
a failure in their teaching or was an unjust practice. Additionally, the majority of primary
teachers didn't think that repetition has a negative impact on children or on their
confidence but rather they saw it as a way of providing remedial support to weaker
students.
African teachers who were spoken to regarding retention had favourable views and saw it
as an essential tool to assist weaker children by giving them a chance to improve their
knowledge and be more prepared for the higher levels of schooling. (Ndaruhutse, 2008).
CONFEMEN, (2003) reports that nearly 80% of Senegalese teacher thought repetition
was an 'efficient' measure and 18% thought it was 'extremely efficient'. Only 2% believed
that repetition was 'totally inefficient alternative to automatic promotion. It would seem
that most research findings on teachers’ perception on automatic promotion reveal
negative perceptions.
Statement of the Problem
In Cameroon like in many other countries, there is a debate on the effects of automatic
promotion on the quality of basic education where many primary school leavers can
neither read nor write. Even though there are many factors that may account for this,
there seems to be lapses in the implementation of automatic promotion which may be
affecting quality. Automatic promotion was well conceived yet changes in the school
environment have not taken place to support its implementation. Teachers are key actors
in the implementation process. As such they constitute a primary source of data. Research
has revealed that teachers who are positive about retention are unaware of research
results on grade repetition (Jimerson, 2002; Pettay, 2010). However, they have a first-
hand experience. They have observed children go through automatic promotion
throughout primary school and from what they practice and have observed over the years,
they are in a better position to make an assessment of the outcomes of this policy. Their
perception is important for policy makers as a basis to monitor, modify or change the
implementation of the policy to ensure quality.
Purpose of the study
The study aimed at finding out primary school teachers’ perception and practice of
automatic promotion in English-speaking schools in Cameroon.
Research Questions
What are the perceptions of English-speaking primary school teachers about
automatic promotion?
Does supplementary teaching accompany automatic promotion in English-
speaking primary schools in Cameroon?
METHODOLOGY
This research incorporated a mixed method research approach which applied both the
qualitative and quantitative approaches. A total of 275 primary school teachers from the
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two English-speaking regions of Cameroon participated. They were selected using the
purposive and convenience sampling techniques. Experienced teachers who had been
selected as examiners of the First School Leaving Certificate Examination were targeted
and their participation was voluntary. The study made use of a questionnaire which was
administered to 260 participants and an interview involving 15 teachers. The
questionnaire was a 15-item closed ended instrument where participants had to rate items
on the effect of automatic promotion on a four-point scale which required them to
strongly agree, agree, disagree and strongly disagree to items most of which were stated
in the negative form. The interview was aimed at complementing data from the
questionnaire as well as finding out from teachers about the practice of automatic
promotion as well as proposals to hierarchy. Data were analyzed descriptively using
frequencies and means. The cutoff point was 2.5. The higher the mean for negatively
stated items, the more negative the perception of the teacher and vice versa.
RESULTS AND FINDINGS
PERCEPTION SA A D SD
Mean Std.
Deviation
Collective
promotion creates
problems for the
next class because
pupils do not fulfill
the basic
requirements of the
current class.
207 43 10 4 3.7159 .60947
Collective
promotion improves
students'
achievement in the
next class.
12 13 144
96 1.7774 .73820
Pupils who were
automatically
promoted catch up
with their peers in
the next level.
9 57 124 69 2.0232 .79207
Collective
promotion enhances
failure rate in the
certificate
examination (e.g
FSCL).
121 80 41 21 3.1445 .95811
Collective
promotion does not 83 123 32 19 3.0506 .86228
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actually reduce
repetition because
pupils end up getting
stuck at the end of a
level.
Collective
promotion does not
help the teacher in
easily identifying
pupils' problem
areas.
97 90 47 26 2.9923 .97850
Collective
promotion results to
a drop in standard of
education.
152 81 13 15 3.4176 .83085
Collective
promotion still leads
to wastage of
resources because
the end of levels is
always crowded.
90 105 47 16
3.0426 .88333
Collective
promotion
encourages students
to work harder.
29 38 108 84 2.0463 .95934
Collective
promotion does not
help students to
struggle to catch up
in areas where they
are weak.
115 101 31 13 3.2231 .84529
Collective
promotion reduces
the probability of
dropping out.
69 126 47 21 2.9240 .87038
Collective
promotion is not the
best way of
improving students'
achievement.
118 112 17 18 3.2453 .85071
Collective
promotion does not
provide enough time
143 95 20 7 3.4113 .74408
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for pupils to catch
up with what they
have not grasped.
The policy of
collective promotion
needs to be revised.
202 58 2 5 3.7116 .57776
Table 1: Descriptive Statistics of Teachers’ Perception of Automatic Promotion
Research Question One sought to find out the perceptions of teachers on automatic
promotion. Out of 15 items only 1 (Collective promotion reduces the probability of
dropping out) scored a positive mean. Results of the other 14 items all indicated negative
perceptions leading to the conclusion that teachers generally have a negative perception
of automatic promotion. Specifically, the table above reveals that automatic promotion
creates problems in the next class; does not improve pupils’ achievement, enhances
failure in the First School Laving Certificate Examination; does not actually reduce
repetition or minimize wastage because pupils still get caught up at the end of the cycle,
rendering it over crowded; it does not help the teacher of the next class in identifying
students’ problem areas; it results in a drop in educational standards; it does not
encourage students to work harder; it does not provide enough time for pupils to catch up
with what they have not learnt and the policy needs to be revised .
FINDINGS FROM THE INTERVIEWS
Most of the teachers did not think automatic promotion had a positive effect on the
quality of education. This finding corroborated that of the questionnaire. Eleven out of
fifteen teachers expressed this view. Some of the teachers gave the following as reasons
for their opinion: “Many pupils end up unable to read and write,” Pupils are not
motivated to work hard and teachers are tempted not to pay attention to weak students
because they will eventually be promoted, whether they pass or not.” So teachers
generally have a negative perception of automatic promotion
Research Question 2 aimed at finding out if supplementary or remedial teaching
accompanies automatic promotion. Findings from the interview reveal that there are no
laid down regulations on having remedial classes or supplementary teaching outside the
school hours to help slow pupils in classes1-5 and no individualized instruction for pupils
who need it. Teachers use their discretion to help slow pupils for the most part. However,
after the regular sequential assessment (formative evaluation) all participants said they
would revise the test but no special classes are given to slow pupils after that point. As a
strategy to help slow pupils some of the teachers said, “We encourage slow learners by
giving them extra work and home work and mark.” Another said, “I pair the slow and fast
learners in class.” Therefore, generally schools do not have remedial classes or
supplementary teaching for pupils who are not performing well. Only class six pupils are
given extra classes to prepare them for end-course examinations. Also, there is no
British Journal of Education
Vol.4, No.11, pp.11-23, October 2016
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ISSN 2054-6351 (print), ISSN 2054-636X (online)
provision for more material for further reading or alternative material. No changes have
taken place in schools to facilitate the implementation of automatic promotion.
As far as suggestions to hierarchy are concerned, participants had the following to say
about automatic promotion, “It should be supervised and monitored. Teachers must be
motivated;” “The concept of the Competency Based Approach has not been mastered by
many teachers and it is supposed to be a component of automatic promotion;” “Slow
learners should not be promoted automatically. They should be given time to assimilate
what they were taught.” “Collective promotion should only be effected if a pupil has
passed in two terms.”
DISCUSSION
There are discrepancies between the conception and implementation of automatic
promotion. Automatic promotion was conceived as a package that involved remedial
teaching, individualized instruction and the competency based approach. Findings reveal
that these elements are not being implemented which could lead to a drop in quality.
Automatic promotion effected in the absence of remedial teaching, a key component of mastery is learning
may diminish repetition and dropout, but not necessarily ensure learning (Torres, 1995). Research reveals
that in Cameroon a 2010 study conducted by the Ministry of Basic Education
(MINEBUB) among primary school students confirms this finding: 49% of Cameroonian
children in the third year of primary school struggled to read, while 27% could not read at
all, demonstrating the urgent need for Cameroon to improve the quality of its education
(World Bank, 2014). The fundamental goal of Basic education is for people to acquire
literacy, numeracy and essential life skills and a lack of literacy and numeracy is strongly
correlated with poverty – both in an economic sense and in the broader sense of a
deprivation of capabilities. Literacy strengthens the capabilities of individuals, families
and communities to access health, educational, political, economic and cultural
opportunities and services (EFA Monitoring Report, 2006) without which Cameroon
cannot attain its vision of becoming an emerging nation by 2035.
Amongst other factors automatic promotion is perceived to be a key factor. If
experienced teachers who have firsthand experience have a negative perception of
automatic promotion, then there is a probability that automatic promotion has negative
consequences. The above perceptions are in line with some of the perceptions of teachers
in literature. Arguments against automatic promotion state that it negatively affects the
overall quality of education since it eliminates competition, de-motivates students and
teachers alike hence lowering teaching and learning outcomes (Koppensteiner, 2014;
Taye, 2003; and Chohan & Qadir, 2011). Teachers believe that grade repetition is an
effective way of preventing students’ future academic failure. (Brophy, 2006; Roderick et
al., 2002; and King et al., 1999). Witmer et al. (2004). However, there is also substantial
research findings that contradict the above assertions.
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IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH AND PRACTICE
Automatic promotion as a policy may have positive or negative outcomes depending on
its implementation. Even though many studies have addressed perceptions of automatic
promotion very few have dwelled on models of automatic promotion which may affect
one’s perception. A closer look at how it is implemented in various contexts may provide
clues to the outcomes. Many developing countries may not set the stage for the
implementation of automatic promotion but anticipate successful outcomes. In Cameroon
there is a discrepancy between the conception of automatic promotion and the
implementation. This may account for the negative perceptions and outcomes. Changes
were not made at the school level to enhance the effectiveness of automatic promotion.
Even though automatic promotion is aimed primarily at minimizing wastage it also calls
for a lot of investment by way of human and material resources especially in countries
which are grappling with large class sizes and low socio-economic background of pupils.
Therefore, a clear distinction needs to be made between the philosophy of automatic
promotion and actual practice. Contextual factors must come into play and so this calls
for various models of automatic promotion which can be successfully applied in various
contexts
CONCLUSION
Teachers’ perception of collective promotion is generally negative because they believe
that it negatively affects quality. However, the key factor in automatic promotion is its
implementation. Automatic promotion should not be done in isolation. In Cameroon
automatic promotion was conceived to be accompanied by the mastery learning approach
which required remedial and individualized instruction, alternative resources the
competency based approach and the new pedagogic approach, but these components are
not applied for the most part and that is affecting quality. As a proposal to hierarchy on
how to improve quality, participants interviewed said, it should be supervised and
monitored, teachers must be motivated, the concept of the Competency Based Approach
needs to be mastered by many teachers, slow learners should not be promoted
automatically; Pupils should be given time to assimilate what they were taught and
automatic promotion should only be effected if a pupil has passed in two terms or it could
be stopped completely. Conclusively there is need for more human and material
resources and a standard model for the implementation of collective promotion which is
monitored to ensure quality.
FUTURE RESEARCH
Based on the discussion above, there is a need to identify models of automatic promotion
of countries recording good performances against those recording poor performances in
order to identify a standard model for certain contexts.
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