A Report on the Unesco La Breviere Seminar on Workers’ Education, Compibgne, France. My-August 1952.

Edited by 6.8. H. Cole and Anrlri Philip

I - Report on the I nrsco L a Hreviere Interntationnl Seriiiriur o n 1Vorb.c.rs' I:ducationj 19.72, by G.D.11. Cole falso in French and Spanish)

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19, A v e n u e Kleber, Priris - 16:

PREFACE

The following pages contain a report on the first seminar organized by Unesco at its International Centre for Workers' Education established in 1952 in the Chiiteau de la Brbvidre, C o m idgne, France. The Centre had already been running for one month when the seminar began. Durin that montK and in the month which followed

and co-operative movements held summer schools for their members. Unesco had no part in the direction of these schools which was entirely in the hands of the international bodies themselves. There is therefore no account in this report of the subjects discussed and the results of these summer schools, although their parti- cipants were guests of Unesco at the Centre.

the close of the seminar various international organizations of tr 9 e unions, workers ' educational associations

A proposal that International Summer Schools in Adult Education be organized and that Unesco give such support as it could to them was made in the report of the International Conference on Adult Education held at Elsinore in 1949. This w a s reinforced b y a strong recommendation of the International Seminar held at Kreuzstein in Austria in 1950, that Unesco establish an lnternational Centre of Vorkers ' Education.

At its Sixth Session held in Iuly 1951 the General Conference of Unesco decided to establish an International Centre of Adult Education for a trial period of three months. The objectives were clearly laid down in the programme attached to the Conference Resolution as being: to bring together experts in workers' education to study and perfect their methods and to offer facilities to international workers ' organizations for them to conduct summer schools designed to train their members in international understanding.

The Centre achieved both aims in 1952, the Unesco Seminar being the meeting of experts.

(a) Organization of Workers' Education (b) TeachinB Problems (c) Workers Education and lnternational Understanding.

Professor G.D.H. Cole accepted an invitation to fill the position of Director of Studies, Professor Charles Orr that of Director of the Centre in c h m e of general administration and Messrs. Andre' Philip , P o d Hansen and Herbert

The subject a Workers' Education, was subdivided as follows :

Grau that of group le$Ers.

The Seminar opened on 12 July and lasted six weeks. Throughout this period there was an average attendance All the experts were nominated

the Member States of Unesco. of 42 experts, plus the interpreting, administrative, clerical and domestic staff. b y

The report is in the form of digests prepared by the two editors from the reports of the various groups at the Seminar. No attempt has been made by Unesco to influence or modify the statements made and these are therefore in no way the expression of official policy or aims. The suggestions made to international and to national organizations are interesting and important but must not be taken as emanating from Unesco itself.

The digests on which the report is based were prepared during the Seminar or immediately afterwards. Their authors were not familiar at all points with the internal organization of Unesco and there are slight inaccuracies in the text, which cannot he corrected without substantially modifying the phraseology. They have therefore been allowed to remain.

I

The list of publications on pages37-38 is iven to complete the report. The copies available for distribution are spare working papers left over from the 8 eminar. There are very few of them and the supply cannot be aug- mented. Alore details about them w e given on page 37

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Author's Preface ..........................................

Introduction ...............................................

First Fortnight: Digest of Study Group Reports - Organization and Administration in Workers' Edu- cation ..........................................

Page

4

5

8

Second Fortnight: Digest of Study Group Reports

- Teaching Methods in Workers' Education: funda- mental Principles in Such Education. ............. 17

Third Fortnight: Digest of Study Group Reports

- Workers' Education and International Understand- ing 24 ............................................

Conclusions and Recommendations. .......................... 34

List of National and Special Reports Issued in Connexion with ............................................ the Seminar 37

List of Participants.. ...................................... 39

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EDITORIAL PREFACE

In presenting this report of the proceedings of the Unesco Seminar on Workers I Education held at the Chateau de La BrBviBre, in the Forest of CompiBgne, in July and August 1952, I wish first of all to express as, Director of Studies, m y cordial thanks to the group leaders and participants who took part in the very difficult attempt to arrive at useful conclusions across the barriers of differences of language and of national culture and educational structure. Save in one or two emergencies w e used only two languages - French and English; and this meant that many of the participants needed both to listen and to express themselves in tongues that were not, their own. The strain irrvolved in this was considerable for many of them, and was made the greater by the lack of any effective international vocabulary of educational terms, which are inevitably coloured by national differ - ences in educational practice, so that it is often almost as easy for Americans and Englishmen to misunderstand one another as for Englishmen and Frenchmen - to say nothing of participants from such countries as Mexico or Malaya or Haiti.

In face of these and other obstacles to mutual understanding, I think w e got on pretty well. I wish it had been possible in this volume to publish our reports in full; for much of the best work done in the three study groups into which the Seminar was divided for most of its time loses a good deal Of its force when it is presented only in the summary form of a digest. In the full report the digest of each fortnight's work was followed by re- ports from each of the groups and also by a number of reports on particular subjects drawn up by special groups of participants who met to consider such problems as the education of women workers, workers' education in multilingual areas, the sociological aspects of workers education, the use of visual aids, and the functions of full-time residential Workers Colleges. It was felt that the inclusion of these documents would make the pub- lished report too long and too costly, and accordingly they have been left out. most of them, including the study group reports, are however, available in stencilled form for serious students or responsible persons active in the field of workers I education; and this holds good, in addition, for a number of descriptive accounts, specially prepared for the Seminar, of the workers I educational movements in particu- lar countries.

Copies of them, or at any rate of

In the present volume, the reader has before him the digests produced and laid before the participants at These digests were pre- the end of each of the three fortnightly periods into which the Seminar was broken up.

pared - two by m e and one by M r . Andre Philip - on the basis of the study group and special reports, and I a m responsible for the English and M r . Philip for the French text of all three, but the other group leaders - Mr. Poul Hansen of Denmark and M r . Herbert Grau of Austria - are equally responsible for the content of the digests. I have explained in the introduction which follows this preface the conditions under which these digests werd pro- duced and the limits within which they can be regarded as committing the participants. The digests are followed by certain conclusions and recommendations, addressed-mainly to the United Nations Organization and to its Specialized Agencies, including Unesco and the Commission on Human Rights. These recommendations, it should be noted, arose mainly out of the proceedings during the final fortnight, when the Seminar was considering particularly the relations of workers I education to the purposes and activities of these bodies. The reason why similarly specific recommendations did not emerge from the work of the previous fortnights is that the subjects there discussed did not lend themselves to the same way of embodying the views of the participants, as each na- tional educational movement will necessarily require to adapt the conclusions reached to its own peculiar condi- tions.

The La Br6viBre Seminar was a pioneer experiment in the field of workers education. There was, I believe, no doubt in the minds of most of the participants that, whatever its shortcomings - and I a m well aware of them - it was thoroughly worth while. terms of reference, some fully international and some bringing together on a regional basis groups of countries with more in common than there could be in a gathering drawn from every continent. It is, for me, good news that Unesco has decidedfto carry on the Centre of Workers I Education 'opened at La BrdviBre in 1952 and that further Seminars for 1953 and sibsequent years are already being planned.

It needs now to be followed up by further meetings with narrower

21.12.1952 cc. 14.1.53

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G.D.H. COLE

INTRODUCTION

In July and August 1952, at a chlteau in the heart of the beautiful forest of CompiCgne, a number of men and women active in workers education came together from all parts of the world under the auspices of Unesco to discuss their common problems and to give Unesco their advice about what it should do to stimulate and guide the movement for workers I education throughout the world. These persons were called together because Unesco had decided to give, during the next few years, a high place in its programme of activities to this particular as- pect of adult education. to attempt to cover the whole vast field at once, and some parts of it must therefore be singled out for prior at- tention. raising of technical and cultural standards in those parts of the world in which poverty, illiteracy and ignorance of the basic conditions of successful production are still widespread, and workers whose work is dealt with in this Report was concerned with the second of these fields, though it was found imprac- ticable to avoid referring again and again to the first, because in the less developed countries the two problems inevitably run together. areas, of Fundamental Education to every attempt to provide education for the workers of the countryside as well as of the towns.

This decision was taken because the resources at Unesco's disposal make it impossible

Among the fields of educational action selected by Unesco are Fundamental Education, devoted to the

education. The Seminar

The participants had to bear constantly in mind the relation, in the less developed

Eighty-six participants and sixteen guest lecturers took part in one or anothe'r of the three fortnights covered by the Seminar. Twelve participants stayed for two of the fortnights and fourteen for all three. Eleven of the participants were women. of w h o m twenty-seven came from Europe and fifteen from other parts of the world. Of these forty-two typical participants, thirty-six were m e n and six women. speak French, but not English; the remaining fourteen spoke and understood both French and English.

The average fortnight was attended by forty-two participants and group leaders,

Nineteen could speak English, but not French; ten could

Sixteen of these forty-two typical participants were active in trade union education,nine in other forms of workers I education, six in other kinds of adult education; most of the remaining ten either came from Ministries of Education, or were teachers in universities.

The total number of countries represented was twenty-six - and on an average participants from twenty- three countries were present at any one time. twelve in other parts of the world.

Of these twenty-six countries, fourteen were in Europe and

The Seminar faced at the outset the immense difficulty of finding any definition of workers education that would be generally accepted throughout the world. movement has done this in its one way, in accordance with its own social structure, its traditions, and the na- ture of its entire educational system. workers education is thought of mainly as education carried on under trade union auspices, and largely, though not exclusively, for the training of m e n and women for service to the trade union movement. In others - for example, Great Britain and Scandinavia, which have a long tradition of workers I education organized through special bodies set up for this purpose - workers ' education is understood in a much broader sense, as including any kind of non-vocational education designed principally for working-class, students, and carried on by voluntary organizations set up under working-class auspices and control. In such countries, a clear distinction is normal- ly drawn between "education" and "propaganda", and the aim of the workers I educational bodies is to provide ob- jective teaching designed to improve the students I understanding, and increase their mastery, of the world they live in, as well as to improve their personal culture. In yet other countries - for example, France - workers' education is thought of as one aspect of a wider movement of "popular education", aided by public funds, while trade unions and other working-class organizations both take part in the movement and act independently in cIose contact with it. as in Great Britain and in Scandinavia the emphasis is on voluntary bodies constituted for the purpose of workers education alone, and a distinction is drawn between "workers education" and other forms of "adult education': in France the main stress is placed on "popular education'' and there is no separate workers I education move- ment distinct from the trade unions and other working-class bodies for which education is only an aspect of their wider functions.

Each country that has built up a workers' education

In some countries - for example, in the United States of America -

Aid from public funds is given also in countries of the second type: the difference is that,where-

These differences made it impossible to arrive at any precise definition of workers I education that would be acceptable in all countries. What is regarded as "workers I education" in any particular country will vary according both to the stage of development that has been reached and to the class structures of the peoples con- cerned, and also from period to period, For example. the American participants made it clear that the recent and rapid growth of the trade unions and their still precarious position in relation to American society render it necessary to concentrate their immediate efforts largely on education for trade union service. At the same time they recognized that this situation may well change as their immense problems of assimilating a vast number of new recruits give place to conditions more nearly comparable with those which exist in Great Britain and in Scandinavia.

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In many countries, of course, there is still either no workers' educational movement as such, or only a bare beginning; and it was one of the great problems of the Seminar to bridge the wide gulf between such coun- tries and those in which the movement, even if recent, is already well-established and clearly defined. It might have been thought that the bringing together of a body of participants drawn from all five continents, and from no fewer than 26 countries at many levels of social and cultural development, would render it impossible for any constructive results to be achieved. whether this pessimism was justified. nar, with whatever anticipations they may have come, believed that real results were achieved. one was fully satisfied; but there was almost general agreement that worth-while progress had been made, and sound foundations laid for further work.

Those who read the Reports of the discussions must judge for themselves

Naturally, no Certainly the great majority of those who actually took part in the Semi-

Indeed, the difficulties were perhaps greater in getting a basis of agreement among the participants from countries with advanced workers I education movements than in finding common ground between the more and the less developed countries. The most difficult of all the questions that faced the Seminar was that of "objectivity" in teaching, and this question came up again and again. In the end, however, agreement was reached in princi- ple, and the difficulty of finding an acceptable form of words to express this agreement was overcome.

By "objectivity", as the word is used in the reports of the Seminar, is meant an attitude, which should be

A teacher is "objective" if he does his best to teach the truth as he understands it, without suppres- shared by both teachers and Students, towards adult education as a process of communication both of knowledge and ideas. sing or misrepresenting views, or interpretations of facts, with which he disagrees. Similarly, a student is "objective" if he tries continually to understand, and is prepared to modify his views in face of facts or argu- ments which run counter to his preconceived opinions. of either teacher or student to speak out concerning his beliefs; it does mean that the teacher must not teach controversial opinions as if they were facts, and that the student must be prepared to look his own prejudices squarely in the face and not to evade discussion of them.

"Objectivity" does not mean any restriction on the right

It was the general view that objectivity, in this sense, is a necessary condition of true education as dis- tinct from propaganda. It is in the interest of the workers' movements to accept to the full the self-criticism which the educational process involves, in the confidence that this will strengthen them by equipping them with leaders and active members who, instead of repeating slogans parrot-wise, will be able to face their opponents in rational argument and tc; adapt their policies to meet changing conditions and opportunities. Naturally, work- ers ' movements, including workers I educational movements, will approach their tasks on a foundation of certain ultimate values. Those who take part in them believe broadly in human equality of rights and duties, in person- al liberty, in human fraternity transcending national limits, in democracy both as a form of government and as a way of life, and in the mission of the workers to transform the class cultures of the past into forms of a cul- ture to which every man and woman will have free access. Naturally, workers l movements will carry on their educational work in the light of their beliefs, which are indeed the inducements to their members to take part in this work. What they should not do is to shut themselves up from self-criticism and honest thinking in a world of fixed ideas that have in effect ceased to be real ideas and become mere emotive slogans.

This question of objectivity looms large in the Seminar 's Reports because in the answer to it, rather than in any attempt to define who are "workers" and who are not, lies the clue to the development of Unesco's acti- vities in the field of workers' education. This field should be defined as including all forms of objective non- vocational education that are designed mainly to suit working-class students, in a wide enough sense to include "white-collar" as well as manual workers, rural as well as urban workers, small farmers as well as labourers, and also, of course, housewives and mothers belonging to all these social groups. It must further be defined as including the non-vocational education of adolescents, as well as of adults, and the work of "popular" youth move- ments which cater primarily for the members of families drawn from this range of social groups.

In terms of content, workers I education must be regarded as including a wide range of cultural activities extending well beyond any narrower concept of education; for the education of the workers in the creative use of leisure is a problem whose importance is bound 111 increase as hours of labour grow less, and as mass amuse- ment provided by commercial agencies threatens more and more to reduce the use made of free time to merely passive reception - often in most undesirable and anti-social forms. on such things as the acting of plays, workers I music (especially choirs and bands), folk activities, workers I film clubs, and the improvement of cinema and radio programmes to meet working-class needs. such.was not discussed, not because its importance was underestimated, but as falling rather beyond the Semi- nar's range; but the Seminar did deal with the educational aspects of workers ' travel, exchange study-visits, etc. other countries is an indispensable contribution to better international understanding.

That is why the Reports lay great stress

Sport, as

Making the workers in each country better acquainted with the conditions and ways of life of workers in

The whole Seminar lasted six weeks, and was divided into three fortnightly periods. pants were present throughout; others for only a part of the time. study. with the administrative and organizational aspects. The second fortnight concentrated Oil problems of teaching

Some of the partici- Each fortnight had its special subject of

The first was concerned with broadly defining the field of workers' education, and thereafter mainly

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and of the various kinds of courses, study circles, summar schools. and so on, best suited to meet the varying needs of each type of student. Finally, the third fortnight embarked on the vast field of study presented by the United Nations and its Specialized Agencies and associated working-class movements in their 'actual and poten- tial connexions with workers t education.

The time available did not make it possible, in any of these fortnights, to deal with more than a fraction of the issues that arose. The entire Seminar was indeed frankly an exploration of largely uncharted seas, and no attempt was made to do more than lay down certain essential principles and throw out a number of suggestions for following up both in the several countries and by means of further international gatherings of a more specia- lized kind. countries and for seminars, with a narrower agenda, to carry the discussion of particular problems a great deal further than has been possible so far. it was given an enormous task that had to be faced at once, in however provisional a fashion. This task was to give the Workers I Education Section(') of Unesco some clear guidance both in carrying out its programme over the next few years and in making the best use of the International Centre of Workers I Education opened this sum- mer - at which the Seminar actually met. It should be mentioned that, in addition to Unesco's own Seminar,. with which this Report deals, the Centre gave hospitality in the summer of 1952 to other, shorter seminars or- ganized by a number of international working-class bodies - the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, the International Federation of Christian Trade Unions, the International Co-operative Alliance, and the Inter - national Federation of Workers I Educational Associations. These arrangements bring into relief the close re- lations between Unesco's Workers I Education Section and the various international workers I movements. The Seminar here described consisted of participants chosen by Unesco I S Member States, usually through the Unesco National Commissions in the various countries. These participants included many active members of the various national working-class movements, and in many cases these movements were consulted concerning their choice. They came, however, not as representatives, but as individuals free to express their own opinions without com- mitting either their own organizations or the governments which sent them. a series of free discussions among a number of individuals, some members or officers of workers I movements, some public servants, and some active in social work. These individuals were drawn together by knowledge and experience of some part of workers I education in their own countries or over a wider field. It is not pretended that the Reports embody unanimous conclusions on every issue. There was no voting on them: only free discus- sion and a fair attempt to meet every objection that was raised. What can be claimed is that they embody a large measure of common consent, and that no participant expressed opposition to their being sent out as indica- ting broadly the collective, views which emerged from the discussions in the study groups and general meetings.

There is room both for regional seminars bringing together participants from smaller groups of

O n the present occasion, the Seminar had to cover a wide field, because

The Reports are thus the result of

~~ ~~

(1) This is now called the Adult Education Section, though the emphasis in its programme for 1953-54 will continue to be on workers I education.

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FIRST FORTNIGHT, 12 TO 26 JULY 1952

DIGEST OF ST U D Y GROUP R E P O R T S

Introduction

The following Report is a digest of the separate Reports submitted by the three Groups into which the members of the Seminar were divided for study. participants; but there was not enough time for their Reports to be discussed in detail in full session. The digest here presented therefore cannot be taken as representing the views of all the participants, or even of all the m e m - bers of a particular Group. ''sense of the meeting", arrived at, not by majority voting on particular parts, but by comparing the views re- corded in the Group Reports with those expressed in the General Meetings. appeared to be a large measure of agreement, despite the great variety of conditions in the countries represented, and also despite the presence of delegates standing for different tendencies within the same country.

These Groups reported each week to General Meetings of the

Like the Group Reports. it is no more than an attempt to represent the general

O n most issues, however, there

This digest does not replace the Group Reports; it is only a summary and omits many points contained in them. full freedom to modify the agenda by additions or omissions or by treating some matters in greater detail than others. on behalf of the Seminar as a whole and not merely of those who took part in a particular Group.

The method of study used was that each Group was given the same general agenda, but was allowed

This method, while very flexible, appeared to provide the best chance of arriving at broad conclusions

Factual memoranda, describing the present state and in some cases, also the history of workers I educa- tion in a large number of countries were circulated to the participants. General lectures were given on a num- ber of important special aspects of workers I education; and ad hoc Groups were also formed for the discussion of particular issues. Certain conclusions arrived at by these ad hoc Groups were recorded in appendixes to the Group Reports; but they were not, like the Reports of the main Groups, submitted for discussion in General Meetings of the Seminar.

I. Basic Conditions

(a) Workers education should be directed, not only to meeting the special needs of the various countries and international needs, but also and essentially to the whole man, as an individual possessing both rights and duties as a person, as member of a family, as a citizen of his own country, and as a member of the human race. nity and of humanity.

Man does not live by bread alone, but also by the culture and traditions of his own commu-

(b) What is regarded as workers with differences of class structure and of social traditions and social relations. No common line can be drawn for all countries to mark off workers' education from other branches of adult education. Nor will the distinction within a country be unaffected by social, economic and political changes, such as the growth of industrialization, land reform, the rise of nationalist movements, and the development of democratic institutions.

education will of necessity differ from country to country in accordance

(c) No soundly based movement of workers' education can exist, so as to perform its tasks with full success,

It is therefore necessary, not only unless there is a strong, free. working-class movement, and unless the aims of this movement are suf- ficiently understood by the general public as well as by its adherents. for workers I organizations to undertake education for their own members, but also for a fair knowledge of their nature and aims to form part of the system of general education open to all citizens.

(d) Although forms of organization will differ from country to country, special agencies will be needed in each country to ensure an adequate and well-directed movement for the education of the workers.

11. Character and Range of Studies

(a) The recognition that workers education should cater for the needs of the whole man implies that the range of studies must be wide enough to include, besides studies specially related to the needs of working- class movements, the entire realm of cultural studies and of recreational activities in their educational aspects, as well as all studies which can help the worker towards a better understanding and therewith towards a greater mastery of his social, economic and cultural environment.

(b) The extent to which the workers movements will need to set out to provide all these services themselves, or under their own auspices, or will make use of facilities provided by the State or by other agencies, will necessarily differ from country to country, and from time to time, according to the facilities avail- able and to the conditions under which these agencies operate.

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(c) In general, technical and professional training, both of adolescents and of adults, fo? particular occupa- tions, has been regarded as falling outside the scope of the Seminar Is discussions. Nevertheless, it is recognized that (1) where adequate training 'is not supplied under public auspices, it may be necessary for workers I organizations to intervene directly in this field; (2) that special tasks may fall on the workers I organizations in helping workers threatened with loss of employment to equip themselves for alternative trades; and (3) that, in any case, workers' organizations should be regularly consulted and should par- ticipate in the control of the vocational education of their adherents.

(d) Education must not be confused with propaganda. But this does not mean either that controversial ques- tions should be avoided or that workers t educational movements should accept any restriction on their right to direct their activities in such ways as will meet the aspirations, social as well as cultural, of the students and of the workers I movements themselves. Worker-students are attracted to courses organi- zed by the workers I movements largely on account of these aspirations; and preparation of students for better participation and service in the workers I movements, as well as in other social and civic activities, forms an essential part of the content of workers I education.

'

(e) Where illiteracy is still prevalent, or where the lack of a common language presents obstacles to educa- tional advance, workers I movements m ay need to concern themselves actively with fundamental education, or with language teaching. defective, the workers I organizations may need to undertake tasks which elsewhere fall within the scope of the general school system.

(f) Even where the general education of the people has reached a relatively high standard, workers' educa- tion must be largely concerned with helping workers to improve their powers of self-expression in both speech and writing. national culture as expressed in the growth of language.

Moreover, where general systems of primary and secondary education are

This is a matter both of clarity and logical arrangement and of knowledge of the

(g) Workers I educational movements, while claiming as their field the entire range of knowledge required for the education of the whole man, should Pn general set out to build directly on the experience of the worker-student, rather than to provide instruction in the traditional academic forms. tion should be as far as possible En exchange of experiences as well as an imparting of information; and accordingly discussion must play a large part in it.

Workers I educa-

(h) It should be an aim of workers' education to promote international understanding, both by giving worker- students a knowledge of workers I movements in countries other than their own, and in the international . field, and also by spreading a knowledge and understanding of existing agencies for international co- operation, and of political, social and economic conditions throughout the world. These aims should be pursued in the spirit of free democratic intercourse, and should extend to cultural activities as well as to social studies.

(i) The education of their own members in the understanding of workers' movements for their service, should take an important place in the educational programmes of workers ' organizations. Such education is needed at many levels, and for a variety of purposes. It should include (1) the education of new m e m - bers in respect of the functions, aims, structure and running of trade unions, co-operative societies,and other working-class bodies; (2) further education of active members both for the service of their own organizations and for the exercise of their civic rights and duties; (3) special provision for the better equipment of workshop representatives, shop stewards, local spare-time officers, and others in such matters as collective bargaining, members I rights and obligations under social welfare schemes, and other. activities of trade unions , co-operative societies, mutual societies, and other working-class bodies; (4) training at higher levels for actual or potential full-time officers of working-class organizations; (5) refresher courses for active leaders; (6) provision of scholarships and grants to enable suitable m e m - bers to avail themselves of opportunities for special training or education. ments forget the need to educate the families of their members and the general public towards a fuller understanding of their significance and aims.

Nor should workers move-

Workers I educational boqies must also set out to develop better understanding of social, economic and political issues and problems, so that the workers may be equipped to play a more intelligent part in their discussion and in action in social, economic and political affairs. This involves some knowledge of the historical development which has provided the basis for the actual situations needing to be faced.The desire for this kind of education is one of the most powerful motives impelling workers to become students.

Cultural education, in a wide sense, also forms an indispensable element in the content of workers I educa- tion. concerned; but purely cultural education should be carried on for its own sake, as part of the function of the whole man. Such forms of cultural education as drama, music, literature, and the graphic arts,

Where appropriate, it needs to be related to the social and economic development of the country

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together with the newer forms connected with cinema, radio and television, are important both as means of attracting workers to educational activities and in their own right. education are developed for workers specially, or on a more general basis, will necessarily differ from country to country and from time to time.

(1) Nor should activities of an essentially recreative character be neglected by workers ments, above all in catering for the needs of youth. of attracting workers towards other forms of participation and a desirable supplement to more formal educational work. instead of promoting, more fully educational developments.

The extent to which these forms of

- educational move-

Such activities often constitute both a useful means

Caution is, however, needed, in order to prevent such activities from supplanting,

111. Recruitment of Students

(a) Workers' education must include at one and the same time activities designed to appeal to the general body of workers and activities at higher levels both intellectually and in relation to the meeting of specific working-class needs. Moreover, it is both impracticable and undesirable, in many forms of workers education, to attempt to grade students or potential students according to their levels of formal education, since their practical experience and interests are also vital factors in determining their suitability for the various forms of workers I education.

.

(b) It is therefore out of the question to lay down any precise conditions or to prescribe any formal standards for admission to courses organized for workers I education. standards; it means that the standards need to be worked out in relation to the specific situations and qualities of worker-students, and therefore cannot correspond to the standards adopted in schools and other academic institutions which form part of the existing general educational system in each country. In practice, each workers' educational movement arrives at its own standards, and provides facilities at a variety of levels to meet varying needs.

This does not mean that there should be no

(c) Methods of recruitment of students are bound to differ widely, both between countries and within each single country. place. bodies catering for particular kinds of workers; or (2) special workers I educational associations, such as are active in Scandinavia; Great Britain, and certain other countries; or (3) youth organizations, women's organizations, or other organizations of a similar kind. Among methods of recruitment in wide use are popular lectures, social and recreational activities, sometimes centred on a particular building or institute, film shows and dramatic performances, one-day or week-end conferences or schools, lunch-hour or other talks in factories or similar places of employment, handbills, brochures, and other forms of written appeal, and informal groups meeting in community centres or' elsewhere - by no means an exhaustive list. be made an integral part of the methods adopted for the promotion of a sense of social unity combined with respect for the personality of the individual.

A great deal depends on the nature of the agencies through which recruitment takes These may be either (1) particular trade unions, co-operative societies, or other working-class

In the less developed countries, activities in the field of fundamental education can

(d) Where workers1 education is already a going concern and also, to some extent in breaking new ground, the most effective approach to potential students is often through personal contacts. are already interested make an approach to others whom they know personally, and through these reach others who might never be reached by any more formal method. Such methods of appeal often lead to the establishment of working groups and classes whose members have close mutual relations and common interests and are thus able to work together at a high level of intercommunication and enthusiasm and to achieve excellent results.

A few workers who

(e) The Seminar discussed the question whether better results can be obtained from homogeneous groups Of

The conclu- students - for example, students drawn from a single trade union or other workers I organization - or from groups whose members bring a wide diversity of experiences into the common stock. sion reached was that there is need for groups of both kinds, but that, especially at the higher levels and in education which includes a considerable cultural element, diversity is as a rule to be preferred. In this connerion a great deal will necessarily depend on the structure of the workers movements in the various countries and on the distribution of financial resources between particular and more general workers I organizations.

(f) Activities of the simpler and more elementary types should be regarded as valuable both as means of re- cruitment for workers education at higher levels and in their own right.

IV . The Place of Workers Organizations in the Field of Workers Education

(a) Trade unions and trade union federations have a special task to fulfil in equipping their members both for service in [heir unions at different levels and for the exercise of their civic rights and responsibilities.

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(b) The extent to which these tasks can best be carried out by (1) individual trade unions, (2) local federations or councils of trade union branches, (3) national trade union centres, or (4) special educational organiza- tions set up under trade union auspices, or by trade unions in collaboration with other working-class bo- dies, will be bound to differ from country to country and from time to time. A combination of several of these methods will usually yield the most satisfactory results.

(c) In any case, trade unions should be responsible for the basic education of their own members in the aims and activities of the unions and for the training of their own officers and representatives at various levels - though the latter activity may be best carried on in part in collaboration with other bodies.

(d) The increased social opportunities and responsibilities falling on trade unions (and also on other working- class bodies, such as friendly or mutual societies and co-operatives), in consequence of recent social legislation call for increased activity in promoting among their members a good understanding of their social rights and duties.

(e) Co-operative societies and, to a smaller extent, other working-class organizations have special respon- sibilities for the training of their employees in the vocational field, and for ensuring that the means of acquiring qualifications for promotion to higher forms of service shall be open on a democratic basis, to those who are capable of fiofiting by them, allowing for the special needs of "late developers", handicap- ped by defects in their earlier education.

(f) Workers I political parties will evidently need to make provision for the equipment of their active m e m - bers at a variety of levels for political work, including propaganda. It is a moot point how far such acti- vities are to be regarded as forming part of workers I education, and also how far political parties should participate in the work and control of associations established specifically for the conduct of workers I education in a wider sense. class movement are closely integrated, it is normal for workers I political parties to unite with trade unions and other working-class bodies for educational work. tion is kept separate from workers I education in the wider sense; and in yet others, where workers I political parties hardly exist, political activities are mainly in the hands of the trade unions. Accordingly, no generalization is possible, save that the training of party propagandists should in general be carried out by the parties concerned, in the same way as trade unions and co-operative societies undertake the training of their officers and active members for specific trade union or co-operative work.

In some countries, where the political and economic sections of the working-

In other countries, party-political educa-

(g) In some countries, workers' organization follows religious lines of division. The Seminar has not dis- cussed the merits of such forms of separation; but what has been said of the tasks of trade unions and other working-class bodies remains valid whether such divisions exist or not.

(h) It is not possible to pronounce in general terms on the desirability of establishing distinct workers I or- ganizations, such as workers I educational associations, as against conducting workers education under the auspices of bodies established primarily for purposes other than education. It is, however, clear that where organization takes the latter form, there should be special educational departments with their own budgets and with a sufficient autonomy to ensure the steady pursuit of truly educational objectives.

(i) Some participants wished to lay emphasis on the importance of the conduct by workers I educational move- ments of a sustained struggle on behalf of the principles of democratic freedom and against totalitarian ideologies or attempts to make use of the workers I movements for purposes extraneous or even contrary to their fundamental objectives; but the Seminar did not discuss this question fully enough to allow any general conclusions to be formulated in its name.

V. The Place of Public Authorities in the Field of Workers' Education

(a) The term "Public Authorities" here includes (1)Mational or Federal; (2) Regional or (in Federations) State; and (3) Local Government Authorities. It also includes, where appropriate, other public bodies, such as the directing authorities of nationalized industries and services. The distribution of educational €unctions between these various authorities differs greatly from country to country; and there are also large differences in the distribution of educational functions between public authorities and other agencies, such as private schools, colleges and universities, religious foundations, and voluntary institutions of many kinds. It is therefore difficult to generalize about the r61e of public authorities in workers I educa- tion, as this is bound to be greatly influenced by the structure of the educational system as a whole.

(b) The place of the State in the field of workers I education calls for consideration principally under three heads :

(i) direct provision of educational facilities by public bodies;

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(ii) financial aid or aid in kind afforded to workers' education out of public funds;

(iii) the forms and degrees of control exercised by public authorities either generally or as a condition of aid.

(c) It has been seen that the range of educational work done by workers' organizations will be affected by the range and adequacy of what is done by public bodies or under their auspices; but even where this public provision is most extensive and best adapted to the needs of the workers, it remains necessary for work; ers I movements to carry on a wide range of educational services under their own auspices or in associa- tion with special educational agencies.

(d) The school system in any country provides the basis from which workers I education has to set out. This applies not only to primary education, but also to secondary education as far as it is open to workers, and to technical and vocational education conducted either in conjunction with apprenticeship or separately. It is therefore an essential part of the task of workers I educational movements to press for the improvement of the general system of public education, both at the primary level and in its higher ranges.

(e) In many countries, state agencies or local government authorities themselves provide a wide range of educational facilities in the fields of popular culture, language teaching, hygiene, and training for home life, including special arrangements for such groups as housewives and adolescents or young men and women. Workers' associations have a right to be consulted and to participate in such public activities, wherever they are designed, wholly or in part, to meet workers I needs.

(f) Where public bodies directly provide courses in social, economic, political and kindred subjects, the need for such consultation and for participation evidently exists in even greater measure, in order to en- sure that workers I aspirations and the activities of workers ' movements are fairly presented to the stu- dents.

(g) Public authorities, central and local, should be prepared to give generous assistance to workers' educa- tional movements, both by providing financial aid and by offering help in the supply of meeting places (in- cluding regular educational centres), books and library services, and equipment in the form of visual and other aids and advice.

(h) Financial aid is indispensable for the development of an adequate workers' educational movement in any country; but it is needed most of all in countries where the workers' living standards are too low to allow their own movements the means of meeting the cost of extensive programmes of work. Such aid is needed in particular for helping to meet the costs of reaching - above all in order to make possible the appoint- ment of full-time teachers; but it is also requisite in many places for bearing part of the costs of organi- zation and administration.

(i) Public authorities, in aiding workers' education, can reasonably ask to be satisfied that the work done is of tolerable standards and that an attempt is made to distinguish education from mere propaganda. latter condition should not, however, be so interpreted as either to limit the range of subjects to be taught - for example, by excluding controversial subjects - or to restrict freedom of expression of diverse opinions by either teachers or students, or to prevent workers' organizations from receiving aid because they base their educational activities on the broad foundations of the aspirations and conceptions which inspire their work, to the extent to which their work is carried on in a sincere spirit of intellectual hones- ty and objective research.

The

(j) Where industries or services are carried on under public ownership or management, central or local, a special responsibility rests on the bodies entrusted with their conduct for ensuring the workers employed adequate training and means of acquiring the qualifications requisite for promotion. These functions need to be exercised in close consultation and partnership with the workers I organizations concerned.

(k) Under modern conditions of social legislation, workers I education is a matter of concern, not only to Ministries of Education and local education authorities, but also to the numerous other government de- partments and local agencies responsible for the administration of industrial laws and social services and for the supply of information. All such public bodies should co-operate with workers' organizations in the task of promoting an understanding by the workers of their rights and duties in the relevant fields.

VI. The Place of Universities in Workers I Education

(a) In many countries, universities, as well as technical and other colleges, form part of the public educa- tional system and are controlled by the State. In some countries, on the other hand, the universities, even where they receive substantial aid from public funds, are independent of the State. In yet others,

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State and independent universities and colleges for higher studies exjst side by side. T o some extent, accordingly, what has been said under the preceding heading applies to universities; but this is not uni- versally the case. Moreover, there are big differences in respect of social attitude and of readiness to participate in workers I education between universities in different countries, and also within the same country; and these differences do not necessarily correspond to those between universities in their re- lations to the State, or to other public bodies. Generalization is therefore particularly perilous under this heading.

(b) Above all, in Great Britain and in certain of the British Dominions, and also in certain cases in the United States of America, universities play an active part in workers I education, especially in three fields. These are:

(i) cultural education at high levels, including social and economic as well as philosophical, literary, and some forms of artistic study;

special activities designed for the training of trade union officers and representatives in the field of industrial relations;

(ii)

(iii)

In most countries, on the other hand, although individual university professors and teachers lend their services to workers I education, the universities play no formal part in such arrangements. This is a matter partly of the sharpness of class-divisions and partly of varying conceptions of the proper scope of university education. In some countries, where people s universities or folk high schools play an im- portant part, tasks which might otherwise fall to universities are taken over by organizations of these types.

training cf teachers for workers I education.

(c) Universities cannot play a useful part in workers' education - apart from what they may do for individual workers who are able to reach them as regular students - unless they are prepared to respond to the special needs and conditions of the workers and to collaborate on an equal footing with the workers I edu- cational agencies. they must be prepared to give proper recognition to the aspirations which inspire the various workers I movements and to adapt their methods of teaching and organization to fit working-class needs.

While universities are entitled to insist on good standards and objectivity in teaching,

(d) University participation can take the form either of providing within the university courses of varying duration for full-time, part-time, or spare-time worker-students, or of co-operating with workers I edu- cational bodies in the provision of extra-mural courses of study. Universities can also offer special scholarships for worker-students, especially for those who have attended extra-mural courses or the like. In addition, they can provide places of meeting for, and join in the conduct of, summer schools and other short residential courses, including courses for the training of teachers for workers education.

(e) Similar activities can be undertaken by technical colleges and other institutes of higher education, subject to much the same conditions as apply to universities.

(f) It will usually be found that where universities and colleges of a similar type play a substantial part in workers I education, the presence of a sufficient group of university teachers who are in broad sympathy with the aspirations of the working-class movement is a sine qua non.

VII. Types of Educational Activity

(a) Workers I education takes many forms, both in different countries and within the same country; and the Broadly, it is possible to dis- emphasis laid on the various forms differs greatly from place to place.

tinguish five main types of activity, as follows:

1. Meetings attended by students who are at the same time earning their living in full-time employ- ment (or are unemployed);

2. Correspondence Courses;

3. Summer (or in some countries winter or spring) courses attended by workers during vacations without loss (or at least without serious loss) of earnings;

4.

5.

Part-time courses of study involving partial release from gainful employment;

Full-time courses involving complete loss of normal earning capacity during the period of study.

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The meetings, or series of meetings falling under the first of these heads are of many different kinds. They range from single lectures to continuous courses extending over a whole year, or most of a year, or even, as in the case of the British "tutorial class", over three consecutive winter sessions. They can be at any level from the most elementary, or the most ''popular'', to the most advanced. They can deal with any subject, and can include, not only formal lectures or lecture-courses, or classes, or study- groups, but also such activities as lunch-hour talks in or near factories or other placesofwork. parents' or family meetings for the discussion of issues closely affecting family life or the relations between school and home, social gatherings which include an educational element (e.g. at co-operative women's guilds, women's institutes, or village halls), group correspondence courses, and a number of other types of meeting. lic readings, or meetings for folk-dancing or community singing, or for other cultural pursuits, wherever an educational purpose is present. assemblies are discussed in the Report dealing with the second fortnight. them only from the standpoint of organization and administration.

They can also take the form of concerts, dramatic performances, educational film shows,pub-

The relative use and the methods of conducting such meetings and This Report is concerned with

The relative places of these diverse kinds of meeting and continuous courses in the activities of workers I educational movements are bound to vary greatly from country to country. class'' for example is hardly practicable except where the movement has reached an advanced level and is in receipt of substantial aid from the State or from the universities, or from both. Moreover, the range of work in these fields undertaken by workers I educational bodies will be affected by the extent of direct public provision of adult education in the various fields, by the activity of vcluntary bodies providing po- pular adult education open to, but not specifically directed to, working-class students, and by a number of other factors.

The three-year "tutorial

There will also be large differences between town and country. and between predominantly urban and pre- dominantly rural societies.

In some cases, different agencies will be mainly responsible for various parts of the field. Great Britain, the more advanced types of workers tional bodies acting in conjunction with the universities, and the less advanced either by the workers' educational bodies alone or. in certain cases, by the local public education authorities. In France the universities play no such part, though individual university teachers do, and the public authorities act mainly by means of subsidies and other help to voluntary bodies rather than by providing courses of their own. Each country has its own peculiar methods, and nothing would be gained by any elaborate attempt to list or classify these methods. cribing conditions in the various countries circulated as part of the documentation of the Seminar.

Thus, in education are carried on largely by workers I educa-

Information concerning them must be sought in the memoranda des-

(c) The first group of activities outlined above includes also one-day, week-end, and similar schools (or in- stitutes, to use the American term), or conferences, meeting mainly outside working hours. These, too, are of a number of different types. They can be divided roughly into four groups:

1. those designed to attract workers who are not already active in workers I education, either in the hope of interesting them in further study, or simply for the educational discussion of some parti- cular issue, normally of current interest;

2. those designed mainly for actual students in workers I classes or circles, with a view to pooling of experiences or to specialized consideration of a particular subject;

those designed mainly for the instruction of officers, delegates, stewards, or active members of trade unions, co-operative societies, or other working-class bodies, in matters directly related to their work, or for the discussion of such matters. These include courses in such subjects as time and motion study and management problems, as well as in trade union or co-operative ad- ministration;

3.

4. those designed for the training or preparation of teachers or study group leaders in workers education, or for the exchange of experiences between such teachers (including short "refresher1' courses); or similar courses for those engaged in organizing work.

Sometimes longer courses of these types are arranged to take place over a succession of consecutive week-ends, in order to enable the work to be carried to a higher level, and reading and other "homework" to be undertaken.

Mention has already been made of Group Correspondence Courses; but in addition to these many workers' organizations conduct correspondence courses for individual students. These are useful for several

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purposes: for example, for students in areas where no courses are available, or none which meet the students I needs and interests; for students wishing to take highly specialized subjects; and for students suffering from disabilities which do not allow them to attend classes, or from irregular hours of work. Most workers I educational movements have a strong preference for classes and groups over individual correspondence courses; but this should not prevent their use for filling in gaps and meeting special needs.

(e) Day release of adolescents for part-time study, both general and technical is becoming increasingly com- mon in a number of countries; and a beginning has been made with similar releases of adults for study in educational centres near their homes. workers for special responsibilities in trade unions or other working-class bodies, or of study-group leaders and teachers for service in workers I education.

Use can be made of such release especially for the training of

VI11 .

(a)

Full-time courses of study, involving cessation of earnings for a period, can be of widely varying dura- tion, from a few weeks or even less, up to several years. workers sion for worker-students. for this purpose, and these provide courses of varying standard and duration, with or without the award of diplomas or certificates. peoples I colleges or high schools or with universities or technical colleges to conduct special full-time courses for worker -students, agsin with or without diplomas or certificates for those who satisfactorily complete the course. strength (including the financial strength) of workers higher education to make proper provision for meeting the needs of the workers suring them of participation in control.

Such studies can be pursued either in special colleges or study centres or in other institutions of higher education which make special provi-

A number of working-class movements have set up special colleges or centres

In addition, some workers I organizations have made arrangements with

The extent to which such arrangements are practicable will be affected both by the organizations and by the readiness of institutions of

movements and for as-

Even where generous financial or other aid is forthcoming from public sources for activities of these va- rious kinds, it remains important that workers t movements should contribute substantially towards the cost, in order to ensure their independence and to prevent undue control from restricting the freedom of the students or limiting or inappropriately directing their courses of study.

Training for the Service of the Working-class Movement

As the status and function of working-class organizations develop and call for the assumption of wider and wider responsibilities, the educational requirements of these bodies also increase steadily in both range and intensity and it becomes continually more important to diffuse among their members a good under- standing of the conditions which underlie the formulation of public policy in every field.

Every working-class organization has therefore a growing responsibility, proportionate to its power and aspirations, for educating its members not only for the better conduct of its own particular business, but also in such a way as to enable them to bring into the affairs of the organization a wide background of knowledge. Without this it will be difficult to prevent the growth of bureaucratic tendencies as trade unions and other workers methods on account of the general development of centralization and planning in the world of today.

It is also of importance that workers organizations should be on their guard against the danger of using their educational work as an instrument for pressing the policies of the leadership upon the members in such a way as to limit the effective freedom of democratic discussion in the local educational groups.

organizations both grow in size and are compelled to adopt more centralized

Choice and Training of Teachers, Group Leaders and Organizers

(a) This problem has three main aspects:

1. Choice of teachers from among those who already possess the requisite academic qualifications;

- 2. Choice of group leaders;

3. Choice of workers and of other persons to be trained as teachers.

Each of these aspects involves a corresponding aspect of the problem of training:

1. (a) Special training for those already qualified academically;

2. (a) Training of group leaders;

3. (a) Training of teachers not holding higher academic qualifications.

- 15 -

(b) It is necessary, especially in the less-developed countries and above all fop purposes of fundamental edu- cation, to make extensive use of schoolteachers for workers I education. Where such teachers lack knowledge of working-class life or of the workers I movement, special measures need to be taken for their equipment in these respects. They need also to learn to adapt the methods which they practise in teaching schoolchildren or adolescents to the requirements of adult workers whose attendance is volun- tary and whose active participation is indispensable.

(c) In the main, similar Considerations apply to teachers in universities and other institutions of higher education. Indeed, a majority of such teachers are apt to be even more remote than the school-teachers from working-class experience and from an understanding of workers I movements. Usually, university and similar teachers will not be successful in workers working-class aspirations and are ready to accept the conditions of democratic equality which are an es- sential prerequisite of good teaching in it. special. training; but they are likely to get the greatest advantage from active voluntary participation in the workers I educational movement, in its social as well as in its purely pedagogical activities.

education unless they feel a real sympathy with

They can be helped in this respect by appropriate forms of

(d) Special courses of training should be arranged for university and other students desiring to take up work- education as a career, or to participate actively in it, either by becoming teachers or in organizing ers

or administrative capacities.

(e) Special courses of training are also needed to equip otherwise competent teachers with the knowledge they will require in handling groups of workers with special backgrounds of experience - for example, workers engaged in a particular industry who wish to study its social and economic problems.

(f) Special measures should be adopted for the training of group leaders in the techniques of discussion - above all in methods of eliciting the active participation of the less vocal students.

(g) Teachers in workers' education and also group leaders should be given special training in the methods of guiding students reading and helping them to express themselves better in speech and writing.

(h) Education should be a life-long activity for the teacher as well as the student. It is therefore of the first importance to arrange refresher courses for serving teachers as well as training courses for new entrants.

(i) It should be a special pre-occupation of workers I educational movements to recruit a high and growing proportion of their teachers from among their own students and group leaders.

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SECOND FORTNIGHT, 26 JULY TO 9 AUGUST 1952

DIGEST OF STUDY GROUP REPORTS

The first fortnight of the Seminar was devoted to problems of organization and administration in the field of workers I education: the second fortnight has been particularly concerned on the one hand with questions of teaching methods in working-class education and on the other with the fundamental principles of such education.

A. Teaching Methods in Workers Education

(a) Principles

Wbrkers' education is designed to appeal to adults: its purpose is to arouse them to a sense of their res- ponsibilities and of their personal capacities for action. Consequently,

Such education must set out from the concrete interests of the workers in order thereafter gradually to extend the range of their concerns. answer the concrete problems of the worker Is life.

It does not deal with"subjects" in an academic sense: it sets out to

It demands from its students an active participation. Workers' education is more vitaland dynamic than education carried on under official auspices. The worker becomes educated only to the extent to which he himself takes part in the solution of his own problems.

Under these conditions the teacher in workers education is a leader rather than a master: his task is to arouse more than to instruct. ability to arouse the confidence of those with whom he is dealing.

The quality he needs most is a gift of understanding and sympathy and of

Knowledge of the background

O n account of the active nature of workers ' education, the educator can act effectively only if he has an exact knowledge of the background of those to whom he is speaking. the same time in a scientific way and through his feelings.

H e needs to know this background at one and

H e needs scientific knowledge of the working-class background. different types of workers from country to country. country from region to region and also, within the same regions, in urban and in rural areas. Similarly, the groups which it reaches may differ very greatly in mental age, and educational methods will need to vary according as they are concerned with ordinary workers, with responsible members of works com- mittees, with trade union officials, or with active leaders of the working-class movement as a whole. It is therefore necessary to begin with as objective as possible an analysis of the background of the parti- cular group concerned.

It is not, however, enough to understand the background of the individuals with whom the tbacher is dealing. It is no less indispensable to understand each individual as a separate person. The educator must set out to establish personal links with each member of his class or study group, and must do his best to encourage the building up of similar links among the students themselves.

Traininn of teachers

Workers I education is directed to very Corresponding differences exist within a single

Teachers or group leaders may be drawn from either of two sources. Some are drawn from outside the movement - from universities (either university teachers or students who are engaged in, or have fi- workers

nished, their courses), from youth movements, or from-the general adult education movement. drawn from among those members of the workers' movement who have taken part in educational activities and have received their training at-the movementls own hands, or have obtained access to a university with the pur- pose of fitting themselves for workers I education as a career.

Others are

I. Three problems arise in the case of teachers who are drawn from outside the working-class move-

They will differ. from country to country, both in their number and in their willingness to adapt them- selves to the requirements of workers I education. There is a case for appealing in the first instance especially to teachers who are themselves members of trade unions or have shown their active sympathy for the general movement of workers I education.

In most countries these teachers are badly paid, or even hardly paid at all. activity in the field of workers

Many of them regard their education as a voluntary service to the trade union movement. It appears,

- 17 -

(3)

however, to be in the trade unions I own interests, wherever practicable, to ensure that teachers of uni- versity origin receive a normal payment, wherever they are devoting themselves to the full-time service of workers I education, in order to guarantee them the same standard of living and the same status as other university teachers. Even where they contribute only-their hours of leisure to workers I education, it is desirable in principle to find means of providing them with some material reward.

Much the most difficult problem is that of the training of teachers for workers I education. who come to such education with the maximum of sympathy encounter difficulties at the outset because of the need to adapt their teaching methods to an environment altogether different from that of a university. It is therefore of importance to ensure that proper provision is made for prior training of prospective teachers before making definite arrangements to employ them. in the first place into contact with the working-class movement (for example by means of study groups lasting over several weeks and held in a trade union centre), or by securing their participation in joint rneetings with teachers of other kinds, or again by using them in the first instance as assistants to teachers who already possess some experience of working-class life.

11.

Even those

This can be done either by bringing them

The problem is different in the case of those teachers who come directly out of the working-class movement. plemented by the acquisition of the necessary technical knowledge and a capacity to express their thoughts with clarity and precision. Those teachers get their main training from the experience of working-class education itself; and in a number of countries they constitute the majority of the teachers engaged in it.

Such teachers have already a first-hand knowledge of the background. and this needs only to be sup-

0

111. It is essential to bring about as speedily as possible a real sense of community among all the tea- chers, no matter what their origin may have been. With this in view, it is desirable to establish regular con- tacts among them in order to induce them to exchange experiences: the Tutors I Association in Great Britain is an example of such contacts. Apart from this, it is desirable to organize mixed study groups made up both of teachers and of active workers in the trade unions. Much can be gainedfrom regular courses held in centres of advanced studies, such as the French centre at Marly, whether such centres are State-run or not. Courses of this kind can bring together active groups drawn from the working-class movement, from youth movements, and from educational movements.

IV . Finally, the training of teachers can be assisted by the development among them of international con- tacts. the different countries, as well as to get teachers to compare their various educational methods. everything possible should be done to encourage regional conferences with participants drawn from countries which are faced by the same difficulties and are coping with the same problems.

This can help to bring about a good understanding of the past and present of the trade union movement in Especially,

Methods

Teaching methods show great variety and need to be adapted both to the mental age and to the social back- of the groups in question.

Lecture meetings seem to be of necessity the commonest form of activity, even if they do not constitute an ideal means of education. In workers' education, lectures should be clear and simple; they should be concrete in substance, and should set out from problems which are familiar to the workers or can easily be made so. The lecturer should not deliver a written paper, but should make use of short notes in order to preserve the freedom of his thought and to be able to adapt himself to his audience. The es- sential thing is that he should feel the atmosphere of his meeting and rapidly build up a direct contact with his hearers. Some participants in the Seminar favour laying down at the outset a general outline of the lecture and a plan for the discussion, to be distributed to the audience at the beginning of the course; others prefer the distribution to the audience of a plan in the form of a number of questions to which the lecturer willdo his best to provide answers. Rather than a continuous lecture of three-quarters of an hour or an hour, others prefer short exposds of ten to fifteen minutes each with questions and discussion in between, in such a way that the lecturer moves on from one idea to another only after having elucidated the first idea as clearly as possible by means of discussion. audience, favour the use of such special methods as those of a speaker Is panel or forum. method the lecture is replaced by a discussion between three or four members of the group, and the tea- cher limits himself to guiding the discussion by asking questions. By the forum method a number of ex- perts drawn from outside the group answer questions put to them by the teacher. The methods to be ad- opted will also differ in the case of simple lectures and of courses of lectures developing a continuous theme.

Yet others, where the lecturer is addressing a large By the panel

In workers adequate time must be left for this purpose. and also to bring it to an end when it threatens to go on too long.

education the lecture does not make sense unless it is used to introduce a discussion; and It is the teacher Is responsibility to guide the discussion,

Where the group is too unwieldy, it is

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sometimes necessary, after starting off with general discussion, to break it up into smaller sub-groups which can then examine the issues more closely and can subsequently present to the full group either writ- ten or spoken reports leading to a fresh confrontation of rival opinions. In any case the discussion, after all the relevant facts have been brought out and all the relevant opinions expressed should be so conducted as to lead up to a conclusion, which will often serve as an indication of further subjects needing to be studied.

Sometimes, the discussion can take place without any preceding lecture. able to take as a starting point some sort of study-plan, such as a stencilled syllabus or outline of a book of which each participant has been asked to read a chapter in advance. set out on its discussion on the basis of this advance material.

In such instances it is desir-

The group as a whole can then

(3) The method of verbal or written-research cap be a particularly attractive means of preparing for a discus- sion based on the workers' concrete experience. Various examples of this have been brought out in the course of our meetings: for example, a group study of a particular street in a town, leading up to a gen- eral sociological treatment; a study of the worker Is own physical experiences (the worker has an eye - what does he see with it? H e has an ear - what does he hear with it? H e has a nose - what does he smell with it? and so on). Such methods can be used as means of studying an occupational or local group and of finding out about its needs and experiences. They generally make it possible to arouse a spirit of ob- servation in the members of the group and cause the discussion to develop out of the personal experience of each participant in such a way as to co-ordinate and systematize these experiences.

(4) In workers' education, insistence should always be laid on active methods. These can take the most di- verse forms; for example, the negotiation of a collective agreement, with one group playing the role of the employer and another that of the workers, or that of proceedings before an impartial arbitrator, with each side presenting its case and a conciliator trying to settle differences. When a group is studying li- terary or historical subjects, dramatization can play an important part - with the group endeavouring to bring out the gist of what has been learnt by means of a playlet in which the essential features are brought back to life. illustrations prepared within the group in the form of drawings, caricatures, or posters.

Finally, where there are members who have some artistic capacity, use can be made of

(5) For the very reason that workers education aims at securing the active participation of each student, The students ' capacity to express great importance attaches to training in means of self-expression.

their thoughts cannot be looked on as an end in itself, apart from the question that is being studied; but in relation to each problem it is important to equip every participant with a good knowledge of the key words, to define their meanings with precision, and to see that every intervention on the teacher Is part is based on a clear and precise purpose. reports, either orally or in writing.

It is no less important to insist on the mental development of the worker and on his emancipation in his use of language. Words are not exclusively expressions of thoughts; they often have a strong affective content and arouse among those who hear them automatic reactions of an almost physical character. It is important to teach the worker to express his thought in precise terms free from emotive historical traditions.

In this connexion, it is a good practice to induce participants to make

(e) Material Aids

Certain material aids can be of great use in the employment of these various methods.

(1) All education involves the use of written documents. Books in many cases are not suitable for use ex- cept with fairly advanced groups. Apart from this, the high price of books presents difficulties, which can be coped with by coming to an agreement with public libraries - in particular, circulating libraries. For average groups, however, it is often best to make use either of a study syllabus including a biblio- graphy, or of a stencilled outline: to either of these the teacher or group leader can add points or refer- ences drawn from local sources or bearing on local conditions Again, good use can be made of specia- lized small booklets, each dealing with a limited subject. A number of movements publish bulletins in the form of loose-leaf slips, distinguished by marks of subject classification; so that the student can group them together himself and thus build up a body of documents on problems which are of special in- terest to him.

(2) Workers' education can be assisted by various kinds of visual aids:

I. Use can be made of blackboards, of portable statistical tables, of filmstrips, and in general of any means of graphic illustration of a problem. In this field it appears that Unesco could give valuable help to the various workers I educational movements by undertaking the preparation of simple statistical m a - terial, filmstrips, and lantern-slides .

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11. Use can also be made of the cinema, the gramophone, and the radio. open a discussion by taking as its basis an article that has appeared in a newspaper and making a study of it, in order to develop in the students a habit of objective study of the problems presented and put them on their guard against misleading newspaper presentations. Sometimes a group can undertake the issue of a journal of ts own in stencilled form, in order to accustom its members to the writing of short articles dealing with a problem from different angles.

The gramophone is useful as an auditory aid in the study of foreign languages and more generally for put- ting before a group a basic text to serve as the starting point for a discussion.

Where teachers are scarce, a lecture reproduced on a record can be made use of by a number of differ- ent groups.

Collective listening to the radio, followed by discussions on the news as presented through this medium, or by a talk given by a group leader, can also play an important part in workers I education.

It may be a usehl method to

(f) Special problems arising in countries where illiteracy is common

The Report of Group 11 for the second fortnight has listed a number of measures taken in various countries to cope with this problem. Three questions arise:

(1) Should the struggle against illiteracy be eoneantrated on the children, or should it be directed equally to adults ? countries have endeavoured above all to act upon the rising generation and have thus succeeded in elimi- nating illiteracy from one age group after another. children thus culturally divided from their parents may all too easily either break the bonds of family life or, on the other hand, fall back into the solidarity of the family and forget all that they have been taught. For this reason certain countries are concentrating their efforts on educating the adults, in the belief that literacy among parents will be followed by literacy among their children. It seems clear that it is desirable, wherever possible, to make use of both methods. choice is bound to depend on the local circumstances and on the historical conditions of the countries con- cerned.

Various answers have been given, according to the experiences of the different countries. Some

In other countries, it has become apparent that

Where this is not practicable, the

(2) It is clear that the struggle against illiteraey cannot be dissociated from the campaign for fundamental education. order to solve actual problems which are facing them. dying the social background, getting an understanding of local needs, and bringing those concerned to realize that certain of the practical wants arising directly out of their immediate conditions call for the acquisition of literacy as a means of satisfying them. Literacy can be effectively established only by relating it intimately to the will to improve their material situuticrn as warkers of those who are without it.

Adults in particular will not learn to read and write unlesg they see the need for doing so in For this reasen, it is necessary to begin by stu-

(3) Finally, literacy is not an end in itself; becausethe desike for it develops out of an awareness of parti- cular needs, the campaign for it needs to be co&cted in close cmnexion with these needs. In the coun- tryside especially, the more elementary teaching needs to be intimately linked with every form of acti- vity designed to raise the standard of life af the peasant.

, B. The Fundamental Principles of Workers ' Education

All the foregoing consideration of methods leads necessarily to the queskion "What is it all for ? I 1 What is the purpose of workers education? improve his standard of life? Is it a question of enabling him to adapt himself better to his environment and to make the culture that has developed within this environment his own? O r is it a question of making the worker conscious of himself and ef the values underlying the working-class movement? working-class movement regard itself as the bearer of new values indepedemt Of the older -1- - that is of a proletarian culture - or is it a matter of giving new and concrete form to common values which are generally recognized ?

Is it a question of giving the worker knowledge which will enable him to

If it be this last, does the

It appears that workers I education envisages more than one of these elements. Its appeal is to the whole man,in whom it seeks to arouse the spirit of initiative and the sense of responsibility. It is coneerned with m e n in all their activities, and especially in their places of work and in society. with m e n as human beings who are in search of a clearer awareness of themselves. The relative importance of these various elements differs both from country to country and in accordance with the urgency of various needs, the character of the working-class movement and its conception of its place in the life of society.

Over and above this, it is concerned

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(2) Workers I education sets out to develop m e n in their capacity as workers. In this respect:

(1) The worker should be taught the structure of his trade union movement, its purposes and methods, and the general policy of the working-class movement as a whole; the more he understands these things, the more efficient will he be in the struggle for the raising of his standard of life. ment is indispensable; for no advance in the general lot of mankind can be expected unless the worker has won a certain minimum security and status and has become master of the leisure needed to give him an opportunity for relaxation.

This fundamental develop-

(2) Workers I education sets out to develop men in such a way as to give them an assured mastery of the cir- cumstances of their work. This involves some supplementary vocational training, to the extent to which sufficient provision has not been made by the authorities. Study of the worker Is position in his place of work, and knowledge of the problems of productivity and of labour organization within the establishment, become more and more important in proportion as the working-class movement sets out to solve the pro- blem of the worker's autonomy in his place of work and the re-establishment of satisfaction in the work done. In certain countries. the establishment of works committees or production committees is begin- ning to pose the problem of workers I participation in management and of the development of industrial democracy. nical and moral level, in preparation for the workers I assumption of the responsibilities involved in it.

Industrial democracy is inseparable from a working-class education, raised to a high tech-

(3) In connexion with the place of work, a number of further problems have to be faced to the extent to which society as a whole has failed to deal adequately with them. of working women in order to ensure their participation on equal terms with men in all responsible acti- vities of trade unionism, and also to give them not only better vocational qualifications but also an enthu- siasm for the trade union struggle which will make possible the effective application of the principle of equal pay for equal work.

Thus, it is essential to undertake the education

In general, where the trade union movement takes direct responsibility for the education of m e n as work- ers, this can best be done under the auspices of the working-class movement as a whole by means of inter- union groups covering all types of workers, though in many cases such inter-union activities will need to be complemented by specialized activities undertaken by particular trade unions for their own occupation- al groups.

Workers (b) which they belong; it seeks to give m e n an understanding of both their rights and their duties. A number of points call for consideration here:

education sets out to develop m e n not only as workers but also as citizens of the society to

(1) Man is not a worker only: in his life as a citizen leisure activities play an important part. In most coun- tries there has been, in recent years, a considerable increase in the amount of leisure time, and there have come into being a number of institutions which set out to co-ordinate the provision made for the use of leisure; A number of these activities have a most important educatianal aspect. This holds good for various forms of sport, to the extent to which they are not perverted by commercialism or by an undue pursuit of record-breaking, and are designed rather to help m e n to improve their mastery over them- selves. The development in certain countries of hiking, mountaineering, cave-exploration, ski-ing on snow or water, of under-sea shooting (la chasse sous-marine), of sailing, and even of sail-planing, form important elements in the education of adults who are in a position to take advantage of them; and it fol- lows that sdch activities should be brought within the reach of the workers by means of appropriate insti- tutions. problem at all completely: indeed,it is evident that an entire fortnight could be usefully devoted to it.

There has been no opportunity for the Seminar during the fortnight under review to study this

(2) The worker plays his part as member of a family. Workers' education needs to give attention to this as- pect of his life. than of forms which will bring husband and wife together on a family footing. The worker needs to arrive at a better understanding of the difficulties experienced by his wife in the conduct of the home; and she, for her part, needs a better awareness of the problems which her husband has to face in trying to improve his wages. Both of them need to understand the difference between money wages and real wages, which involves a systematic attempt to educate the consumer. Far too little is done about this even today in a great number of countries. The worker who fights for an improvement in his nominal wage by no means always knows the best ways of laying out his money so as to feed his family satisfactorily and to choose the commodities which best answer his needs. this respect the victim of commercial advertising, which, in order to develop the market for goods, has a way of acting directly on the subconscious of its public instead of appealing to their reason. Workers' education should include an attempt to protect the workers against commercial publicity methods, in such a way as to arouse in the consumer a rational consideration of market possibilities and a choice of pur- chases based on reasoning.

What is in question here is less the provision for special forms of education for women

The worker, like all other members of society, is in

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(3) Finally, still in connexion with the worker Is activity as a citizen, the working-class movement is c o m i w In some countries it plays to play a more and more important part in the making of collective decisions.

a part in national economic councils or in the administrstive boards of nationalized enterprises. Every- where its attitude towards the wages problem has a direct effect on the economic stituation of the country concerned. Hence the necessity to make the workers aware of such fundamental problems as those of in- flation, of the balance of payments, of the relation between investment and consumption, and of the general direction to be given to a country's production. This broad, economic training, which needs to be car- ried to a high level in the case of the responsible leaders of the working-class movement, ought also to reach the main body of active members. The future of our countries is bound to depend to a great extent on the success of the workers educational movements in developing the economic and political capacity of the workers.

(c) (1) Workers' education, however, cannot limit itself to developing the worker in respect of his trade, his in- dustry, or his city. means of expression both in each individual and in the various groups to which these individuals belong. It is a matter of inducing in each man an awareness of his own value and of helping him to work out for him- self an art of living and to look upon himself as fulfilling a certain vocation within the ambit of a general view of life resting on an appreciation of moral values. This concern with the whole m a n plays a part in every workers educational movement. It finds expression either immediately and explicitly or less di- rectly and implicitly according as the citrilization within which the working-class movement is developing is more or less conscious of the general crisis of values which is characteristic of our epoch.

Its appeal is addressed to the whole man, and its aim,is to make the best of the

(2) It is not enough for workers education to equip the worker with knowledge which will help him to gain immediate benefits; nor is its aim to bring about a mere artificial assimilation of the prevailing culture - a process which could lead only to turning the workers into bourgeois. lead men to become aware of their own natures and to free themselves from servitude to tradition, cus- tom and advertising propaganda. The nature of this task varies from country to country, but it is every- where particularly urgent in these times. The press, the cinema, the radio and advertising are so many means of collective domination, and all too often they degrade men and subject the workers to a deleter- ious influence by filling their unconscious with norms of living hostile to the working class. That is why the tasks of workers I education must include that of developing in m e n a critical spirit towards the mass affirmations of the press, the radio, the advertisers, and the cinema. In this connexion, special impor- tance attaches to the growth of those film clubs which develop in the spectator an active and critical at- titude towards the cinema by following up each film show with a discussion bearing both on the artistic value of what has been shown and on the social presuppositions implied in it.

O n the contrary, it sets out to

(3) For workers I education is sharply distinguished from and opposed to every form of propaganda. In these days propaganda is present everywhere, not only in matters which lend themselves to controversy but also in those which appear to be governed by the spirit of scientific objectivity but in which the examples used often contain elements of propaganda (for example, courses in arithmetic or grammar in schools in totalitarian countries). Workers I education, being based on the conception of freedom, presupposes objectivity and the independence of the teacher both in his actual teaching and in his activity outside his classes. The teacher should be entirely disinterested in both a material and an intellectual sense, and while remaining faithful to his own convictions should deeply respect the opinions of others. when he is examining a problem is to set forth all its aspects and as far as possible to give an account of all the varying points of view, particularly those which are unrepresented in the group to which he is speaking; but he must also give clear expression to the conclusions at which he himself has arrived and submit them to the dispassionate criticism of the other members of his group. the right principle is impartiality without neutrality, or in other words, taking sides without partisan bias (la prise de parti sans parti-pris).

His duty

In workers education

(4) These principles bring up certain concrete problems:

I. This objectivity should always be aimed at in working-class education when it is carried on under the auspices of the working-class movement itself, but it is not always easy. Trade union leaders may tend to wish to utilize education in order to convince their supporters of the justice of the policies which their unions are at the moment following, whereas objective education will sometimes have the effect of render- ing these supporters more critical of the conduct of their own collective affairs.

Furthermore, a working-class movement which is engaged in a serious struggle and is conscious of a continuing threat to its existence, may find considerable difficulty in arriving at complete objectivity in the study of a problem. Nevertheless, this objectivity should be regarded as the end to be pursued. A working-class movement ought to have enough strength and confidence in itself to seek, in the education which it gives to its members, not to inculcate half-truths which will arm them for thecontest but to equip them as free m e n capable of forming an independent judgment on any question.

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11. it had arrived for its own guidance, and its aim must be to bring about the triumph of these principles in society as a whole. Whether it be a matter of workers I education provided or subsidized by public au- thorities or of the entire system of public education in a country, the working-class movement ought to struggle to secure in every field the same principles of intellectual honesty and academic freedom. Clear- ly, no such principles will be conceded except to m e n who are themselves free: they will not be conceded to those who show by their actual conduct their fanatical attachment to totalitarian principles which rest on a denial of the very principle of freedom of thought. In order to guarantee the general extension of the fundamental principles of academic freedom to institutions other than those which belong to the workers, workers I educational movements in the various countries are forced to take up political attitudes and to bring pressure to bear on their governments when the problems of education come under debate. Such pressure should include not only an insistence on guaranteeing the principles of objectivity but also a cam- paign for the general raising of-the school age, for the improvement of the conditions of schooling, and for the opening of the universities to students of working-class origin.

The working-class movement directs its conduct in its own institutions by ethical principles at which

(5) Finally, it is impossible in workers' education to avoid raising the essential issue of the character of

The bourgeoisie of the six- working-class culture. tain values of a universal nature, of which it has become the protagonist. teenth century, in the course of its struggle against the decadent nobility, was responsible for affirming the moral value of work, of liberty, and of the spirit of initiative and creativeness. When it had become the dominant class, it abandoned certain of its values and allied itself with a conception of culture consis- ting merely of the enjoyment of certain literary and artistic achievements passively absorbed and cut off from the daily life of mankind. experience: on the contrary, it is a form of his experience which involves his mastery of himself and of the place in which he works, contact with a variety of social groups, and a capacity to co-ordinate exper- iences drawn from them and to arrive at a personal judgment in terms of a certain number of values com- m n to workers throughout the world. The working-class movement affirms justice, fellowship and uni- versality as values by which it stands. It thus sets out to take over from the bourgeoisie certain univer- sal values which the bourgeoisie has abandoned and to give to a culture based on two thousand years of experience a new form and a new life by incarnating them in economic and political institutions which will give back to the worker control of his destiny. ment of responsible human beings: for such beings alone can play to the full their part in a responsible society.

Each social class, in the course of its advance, has thrown into high relief cer-

For the worker, culture is not something that is added on to his daily

Workers' education has, then, for its aim, the develop-

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THIRD FORTNIGHT, 9 TO 23 A U G U S T 1952

DIGEST OF STUDY GROUP REPORTS

The Reports of the Study Groups for the third fortnight of the Seminar are even more difficult to summari- ze than those for the,preceding fortnights. The field opened up for survey has been even wider; and it has been out of the question for any group to cover, even in outline, more than a small part of it. are considerable differences in content between the Reports, though conflicts of opinion appear to be few and re- latively unimportant where more than one group has eFressed its view. The general sessions at which the Group Reports and the present digest were considered have brought out clearly the large amount of common ground be- tween participants drawn from a very large number of countries at very different levels of economic and sucial development and of widely varying ways of life.

Accordingly. there

Although it is not easy to break up the subject matter of the Reports under logically distinct headings - for the varying methods of treatment in the groups suggest different and conflicting arrangements - the following broad classification is offered as coming as near to a satisfactory grouping as seems practicable in view of the diversity and number of the matters discussed:

I. this right to the Declaration and to the proposed Charter of Human Rights.

Workers' education as a human right, including the right to participate in cultural life. The relation of

11. played in this field by the workers I organizations, national and international.

111. tional understanding.

IV. and the applicability of such techniques in different countries.

The function of workers' education in the promotion if international understanding, and the part to be

The choice and training of teachers for participation in workers I education designed to promote interna-

The special techniques to be used in workers' education for the promotion of international understanding,

V . the workers, including in this connexion the place of cultural activities.

VI. the forms of co-operation that should be developed between these bodies and the workers I educational movements.

The part to be played by different subject matters in the promotion of international understanding among

The functions of the United Nations and of its Specialized Agekcies in relation to workers I education, and

I. Workers education as a human right

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights lays down, in Article 26, that "Everyone has the right to education". and to the strengthening of respect for Human Rights and fundamental freedoms". cannot be achieved unless education is continued beyond the age of full-time schooling into adult life, the Declara- tion makes no specific mention of adult education. Again, it is laid down in Article 27 that "Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts, and to share in scientific ad: vancement and its benefits". The Declaration places this Article next to that dealing with education, but does not bring out the direct interdependence of the two Rights. Men cannot participate fully in culture without proper education - including adult education; nor can education serve the ends of humanity unless it is permeated throughout by the spirit of culture and is treated as a means to the continuous development of culture, not only on the national but also on the international plane. tinuance into adult life, for both m e n and women, of an education which will enable the people of every country to exercise the rights attributed to them.

It also proclaims that "Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality Although this aim clearly

Article 27, equally with Article 26, evidently involves a con-

It seems necessary, in order to give precision to what is already implied in these Articles, to include in the proposed Covenant of Human Rights an explicit formulation of the Right to Adult Education. This is a matter of special importance to the workers, who in every country suffer most from the premature ending of their school education and therefore have the greatest interest in assuring themselves of the means to continue their education in adult life. They need this opportunity both in order to put themselves in a better position to participate actively in the cultural life of society, and in order to increase their understanding of, and their mastery over, their social and economic environment. workers, as citizens, and as human beings.

They need it, in effect, for their proper development as

The members of the Seminar are accordingly of the opinion that Unesco should press for the inclusion in the Covenant of Human Rights of an Article, or Articles, laying down the Right to Adult Education in some such terms as these:

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PROPOSED ARTICLE F O R C O V E N A N T ON HUMAN RIGHTS (l)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Public authorities, national and local, should everywhere recognize the right to education as ap- plying to all citizens, including adolescents and adults, as well as to children.

In giving effect to this Right, public authorities should aid, both financially and by providing free accommodation and teaching aids, non-partisan voluntary bodies carrying on adult education, es- pecially workers I education, without interference with their freedom of teaching.

Public authorities should also concern themselves with the direct provision of adult education, es- pecially in fields not adequately covered by voluntary bodies. both adults and adolescents, and should be additional to the provision made for vocational training.

No tax should be levied on any form of adult educational work.

The Rights of minorities to linguistic freedom in all forms of education should be implemented in adult and adolescent education by the assurance of access to literature in their own languages and of the training of teachers drawn from their language groups.

Public authorities should make compulsory, as far and as speedily as conditions allow, paid day- release of young workers for cultural as well as for vocational education. They should also do their best to encourage the granting of similar opportunities to adults who stand in need of them.(')

In countries where illiteracy is still widespread, and where fundamental knowledge of hygiene and technology is at a low level, both public authorities and international agencies should give the ut- most support to Fundamental Education in all these fields.

Such provision should extend to

(1) The Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted unanimously by the General Assembly of the United Na- tions on 10 December 1948, states the basic principles on which the nations who are partners to the Charter of the United Nations are agreed that the relations between the person and the State should be founded.

The Declaration defines on the one hand, the fundamental freedoms of all people without discrimination of any kind such as race, sex, language, religion or opinion. right to the security of person, the right to equality before the law and the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution. On the other hand, the Declaration states a certain number of civic and political rights. such as the right of association and the right to vote. A third group of rights is concerned with social and economic activities, such as the right to work. the right to social security, the right to edu- cation and the right to participate in the cultural life of the community.

But the Declaration, important though it is, is simply an affirmation of principles, and the United Nations, since its origin, has considered it as a first step in an operation which entails two further phases. The De- claration must, first of all, be completed by a pact which will incorporate in juridical form all those princi- ples of the Declaration which can be internationally regulated and be binding on the individual States .The Ge- neral Assembly of the United Nations, the Economic and Social Council and the Commission on Human Rights have devoted a large part of their activities, since the adoption of theDeclaration. to the drafting of such a pact. This draft, which will, in fact, comprise two separate pacts, one relating to individual rights and the other to economic, social and cultural rights, will be presented to the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1953.

It recognizes for example, the right tQ liberty, the

Finally. the work of the United Nations towards securing respect for the rights of man, includes measures to be taken in order to assure the practical application andthe effective preservation of the rights defined in the Declaration and in the pacts. Thus, the Commission on the Rights .of Man has already examined such pro- blems as what sanctions are to be applied in the case of violations of the rights of man, or how technical as- sistance provided by the United Nations and the Specialized Agencies can help governments assure for every- one the enjoyment of certain economic, social and cultural rights.

(2) The question of a general reduction of hours of labour, in order to increase the educational opportunities of adults, is not included here, as it is regarded as falJing within the field of the International Labour Organiza- tion rather than of Unesco.

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Apart from endeavouring to secure the incorporation of this Article in the proposed Covenant of Human Rights, the workers educational movements should give special attention to the means of securing adherence to the spirit as well as to the letter of the Universal Declaration in their respective countries. They should do their best to expose the evils of racial ana national prejudice, which are rooted in sheer ignorance and lack of imagination as well as in economic interests, and in the attitudes of colonial bureaucracies and of privileged groups. do their best to combat them by educational means; and they should give their full support to attempts to rein- force the Universal Declaration by positive sanctions, such as the establishment of laws against group slander and the establishment of an International Court of Appeal open to responsible bodios in cases of gross violation of the terms of the Declaration. They should also consider means of bringing the question of basic Human Rights before the workers in each country in the ways best calculated to appeal to their imagination by helping them to relate the universal claims of humanity to their own individual and collective aspirations and demands.

Recognizing that the workers themselves are by no means immune from these prejudices, they should

(a) The function of workers I education in the promotion of international understanding

The workers movement has been inspired from its very beginnings by international ideals and by a re- cognition of human fraternity. This gives it a special place in that field of education which is directed towards the promotion of international understanding.

Such understanding is primarily a matter of attitude and behaviour: factual knowledge is only a means towards improvement in these respects. not understand other peoples, or sympathize with them, without knowing something of how they live and of what they think and feel and value.

It is, however, a necessary means; for the people of one country can-

Among workers, education towards better international understanding needs to begin with concrete pro- blems such as affect the workers in every country, however different their exact forms may be. Workers are everywhere struggling to improve their means of living, their status in the societies they belong to, and their sense of security. They are apt, absorbed as they are in tlieir own struggles, to overlook world problems, des- pite their general feeling of solidarity with the workers of other countries. make its participants aware of the repercussion of conditions elsewhere on their own conditions and to emphasize the mutual dependence of one country on others for the development of the people's well-being. the workers, in improving their own situation, to be readier to seek to extend their gains to the workers in other parts of the world.

Workers I education should seek to

It should help

It is easy enough to say this: it is much harder to put into practice. m a y do harm instead of good to the cause of international understanding, by actually fostering national prejudices and setting the students of one country against some other country where institutions are widely different from theirs. which lies at the foundation of a happy and peaceful world society. Even workers' travel, unless it is properly organized, may strengthen prejudices instead of overcoming them. It is necessary, in helping the workers of each country to realize their basic community with the workers in other parts of the world, to use the loyalties and the sense of group fellowship that exist among them as a basis for the extension of these sentiments over a wider range, and for the transference of the will to co-operate in constructive tasks from the local and national to the international sphere.

Bad teaching about other countries

Again, teaching may wholly fail to touch the workers I imaginations, or to bring out the common humanity

This holds good just as much for women as for men, and not only for women wage-earners but also for housewives and mothers, whose international sentiment can often best be aroused by making them aware that wo- m e n in other countries are facing much the same problems as they are - high costs of living, bad housing condi- tions, ill-health among the children, defective provision for education, and SO on.

It is also necessary in discussing the problems of international co-operation and understanding to make the most of those instances in which positive and useful results have been secured by collaborative international action, and to face frankly the reasons for the failure of other attempts.

In education for improved international understanding, there is necessarily present a strong moral im- perative. The appeal must be in the last resort, not to man as an economic agent or even as a citizen of a par- ticular country, but to m a n as man, and as such claiming rights. recognizing duties as correlative to them, and willing, on the whole, to do his duty when it is made plain in a way he can understand and relate to his own ex- perience.

One great obstacle to the direct teaching of international understanding as a subject in workers I classes or study groups is the workers I sense of inability to influence the course of international events. The best means

- 26 -

of removing this inhibition is to encourage the development of an international workers I movement through which national policies can be closely linked to an international policy for raising the living standards and the status of the working classes throughout the world.

It is an error to believe that education about international affairs will automatically bring improved inter-

Education dealing with international issues or direc- national relations into being. lessen national prejudices and tensions between countries. ted to the study of other countries I institutions and ways of life will contribute towards better international undec- standing only if it sets out from certain basic principles. m o n tradition of the working-class movement, which is therefore peculiarly fitted to play its part in the struggle for a world free from racial and national prejudice and prepared to devote its energies to the tasks of raising standards of living in the poorer countries, not only in a material, but also in a cultural sense, and of persuading all the peoples to regard the earth as their common heritage to be developed for the use of all mankind.

International affairs can be mis-taught in such a way as to aggravate, instead of

Fortunately, these principles form part of the com-

The workers I movements share certain common ideals. No list of these can be made; but they include:

(i) A love for peace though not at any price, where fundamental values are in danger;

(ii)

(iii)

A belief in human dignity, in freedom, and in the prior claim for the satisfaction of basic needs;

Hostility to discrimination, respect for others, and a readiness to co-operate in securing these ends and in helping the unprivileged;

A belief in responsible. democratic societies, based on equal rights and duties. (iv)

The danger is that these aspirations may be treated as no more than fine words: it is the task of workers' education to give them real content by facing the difficulties and inducing the workers in each country to under- stand better the feelings and needs of others. tribute a rich variety to the art of living together.

Differences need not be barriers to understanding: they can con-

Education for international understanding should find its roots in the civic education of the warkers in the affairs of their own countries. peoples with his own, and to relate his rights and duties as a citizen of his own country to his rights and duties as a citizen of the world. It should teach him to find analogues in other countries for all the social units of which he forms part. from the family to the nation. and should help him to develop a critical attitude towards his own groups and way of life and to arrive at a right balance between individual and social behaviour at every level.

It should help the worker to compare the institutions and ways of life of other

These ends cannot be secured unless there is a free flow of information from country to country, and also a wide freedom of personal movement.

The necessary foundation for successful education towards better international understanding is to be found in the stimulation of a feeling of enthusiasm for world citizenship - of the sense of membership in a world community. powerful factor in arousing this sentiment.

The feeling of attachment to an active and practicable international workers I movement can be a

It is accordingly of the utmost importance to spread among the workers of each country a better knowledge of the history and position of the working-class movements of other countries, and everything possible should be done to improve the supply of information and to promote research having this object. The means of achieving this will be discussed in Section IV of this digest.

(b) The part to be played by workers organizations, national and international

Education for international understanding needs to be aimed at all workers. At present, workers I edu- cational movements are hampered by lack both of money and of time to pursue these activities on a sufficient scale. and from international agencies,

The remedy for this lies outside their control. They require more generous help both from their States

Official international agencies are apt to suffer both &om an impersonal anonymity and from a reluctance to face controversial issues. act in a more humanly appealing way, and should be given the fullest encouragement in invoking the workers' sense of international solidarity as a basis for improved international understanding.

Workers I educational agencies and international working-class bodies can often

The workers I educational movement forms part of the workers movement as a whole, and shares its Accordingly, it regards education not only as valuable in itself, but also as a preparation for action.

The inherent internationalism of the workers I movement ideals. This holds good in the field of international affairs. will grow more effective in proportion as it can show its success in international action.

- 27 -

The International Trade Union Movement should receive every encouragement to develop its work in help- ing the growth of trade unions in the less advanced countries and in stimulating educational activity on the part of trade unions in these countries especially, with a view not only to the provision of an adequately trained body of leaders and administrators, but also to the general education of the workers in the problems of their own coun- tries as related to the rest of the world. Special attention should be given in this connexion to the development of trade unionism in colonial and other non-self-governing territories.

Similarly, the International Co-operative Alliance should be urged to greater activity in fostering the sound growth of co-operative societies - agricultural and producers as well as consumers societies - in the countries in which the movement is still at an early stage. The Co-operatives Movement has a strong interna- tionalist tradition, and is well qualified to undertake educational work directed to the promotion of international friendship as well as to the encouragement of sound forms of economic organization in the countries concerned.

The International Federation of Workers Educational Associations should be urged to extend the range of its activities, so as to cover a larger number of countries and to help the national workers' educational move- ments to give effect to the recommendations contained in the later sections of this digest and in the Reports on which it is based. There is need for a strong international workers' education movement, organized as a dis- tinct body independent of the bodies dealing with adult education in a more general sense, in order to give clear expression to the workers I aspirations to establish a new world order in which their human rights will be fully recognized. as the sole international working-class body concerned with workers' education. It must share this field with the International Trade Union and Co-operative Movements, which have also a vital part to play in the develop- ment of many forms of workers @ education not only in preparing their members for the service of their own movements, but also in respect of education for international collaboration and uiiderstanding .

The International Federation of Workers I Educational Associations cannot, however, be considered

111. The choice and training of teachers for participation in workers I education designed to promote inter- national understanding: the problem of objectivity

The finding of good teachers presents particular difficulties in the field of international affairs. In order to teach well, the teacher or group leader needs to have a wide and deep knowledge of the institutions both of his own country and of the countries about which he is to teach; and this latter knowledge cannot be acquired merely from books. possible, some knowledge of the languages concerned - or at least of some language other than the teacher Is own. and teachers drawn from other classes are apt to lack the requisite understanding of the lives and attitudes of the workers in other countries, if not in their own.

It demands a direct acquaintance with the attitudes and ways of life of other peoples and, where

These conditions are particularly difficult for teachers drawn from the ranks of the workers to acquire;

Something can be done to cope with these difficulties by organizing exchange of visits of teachers. This, however, is practicable only for small numbers, and where such exchanges have been arranged the time allowed has often been too short to yield satisfactory results. It is recommended that exchanges should be al'ranged for long enough periods to enable those concerned to master the languages and institutions of the couhtries visited, and further that definite plans should be made for using the visiting teachers to full advantage after their return to their own countries.

International summer schools for adult teachers are also strongly recommended; and Unesco is asked to issue a special Guide for Teachers engaged in taking courses in international affairs and to give special help in the organization of exchange visits.

(a) The problem of objectivity in the teaching of international affairs

It has to be recognized that the problem of objectivity offers particular difficulty in the field of education for improved international understanding; but it is also particularly important in this field. on which the entire structure of the United Nations, of its Specialized Agencies, and of the working-class bodies associated with it rests, is that it is good to promote peace and to improve the mutual understanding of the world's peoples. Thus, all those bodies, as far as they are concerned with education in international matters, approach such education with a purpose. proach of workers I organizations to education in a wider sense; for those organizations necessarily regard workers education from the standpoint of their own claims and aspirations and make the assumption that these aims are good. In neither case does such an approach rule out objectivity of teaching; for what objectivity in- volves is not absence of aim or intention, but a readiness to expose aims and intentions to fair and open criticism and to take account of opposing views and attitudes. national field can hold and express strong views; but he must be always prepared, not only to justify them in fair argument, but even to go out of his way to present opinions with which he strongly disagrees; and in do@ so he must try, as far as he can, to state such views as nearly as possible as they would be stated by a skilled and convinced advocate. In this matter, as in many others, the greatest safeguard of objectivity in teaching is

A basic assumption

There is some analogy between this purposive approach and the ap-

The teacher who sets out to be a true educator in the inter-

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the fullest access to printed and spoken expositions of conflicting views, and therewith full fregdom for teachers and students alike to express their opinions without fear of interference from any source - whether it be a State or some section of the working-class movement itself. fortnight of the Seminar endorse the views on objectivity in teaching expressed in the Report on the work of the second fortnight.

In general, the participants in the work of the third

There is in all countries - and most of all in countries whose languages are not in wide international use - a most serious lack of suitable printed material for use in workers I classes dealing with international problems. For the worker, the realistic starting point for such studies is the getting of knowledge about the life of the work- ers in other countries and about their position in the social structure and the problems which the national workers' movements are attempting to face.

Each national workers I movement, each international movement, Unesco itself, and the other agencies of the United Nations, should all play their parts in filling this gap. It is recognized that Unesco has already e m - barked on much valuable work in this field; but what has been achieved, or even attempted, so far is not nearly enough. Unesco should issue, in as many languages as possible, simple background pamphlets about the nation- al cultures and institutions of the various countries; and the workers I movements should do the same for them- selves and should also provide, in a number of languages, simple accounts of working-class conditions and pro- blems in each country. ments in workers I movements abroad.

They should also do their best, in their own newspapers and journals, to report develop-

There should be regular exchanges between the workers' educational bodies of textbooks, study guides and other teaching aids. graphies of the outstanding national leaders of each movement and accounts of the great symbolic events in its history. Unesco, or one of the international workers' bodies, should produce an International Song Book for use in workers' educational and other gatherings. Special attention should also be given to the preparation of literature for the use of teachers in workers I education who are handling international questions.

The books and booklets issued by the workers I movements should include simple bio-

In addition to books and booklets of the above kinds, national literature in a more restricted sense can play an important part in the development of international understanding. able in as many languages as possible and at low prices the great classics of each country, especially novels and plays with a social content, giving a clear picture of national ways of life, and above all those written on the foundation of an experience of working-class life and conditions. ers in each country to understand such elusive matters as the sense of humour of other countries, their attitudes to the arts, their methods of discussion and their views of polite and rude behaviour - things which often lead to unfortunate misunderstandings.

Steps should be taken to make avail-

Some attempt should be made to help the work-

Literature, however understood, is of course only one of the means which can be used to further mutual understanding. Films are a most important source both of better international comprehension - and oi worse. Commercial films have furnished a host of most unhappy examples, as well as some of real excellence. More effort should be made, nationally and internationally, to persuade commercial film producers to make not only more good documentaries but also good straight story films giving a fair, instead of a distorted view of natiod cultures and habits. Unesco should take up this task; and it should be aided by the workers' movements, es- pecially through the creation of more and better Workers ' Film Clubs, offering regular constructive criticism of the fare provided for them, and bringing their influence to bear on the producing and exhibiting agencies.

It should always be borne in mind that the most established film techniques are by no means necessarily suited to the receptivity of potential viewers in all countries. most distorted view of the way of life of the countries they are supposed to picture, a film that has achieved de- served popularity in some countries may easily move much too fast for peoples used to a slower way. of life, and may be utterly misunderstood through taking for granted knowledge which is general in the country of origin.but differs immensely from the basic knowledge of peoples differently situated. In some cases, the filmstrip or the lantern-slide is a more useful visual aid in teaching less advanced peoples than the film, because the pace of showing can be varied at will.

Even apart from the fact that many films give a

Unesco should help to solve this problem by issuing lists of films suitable for educational use with groups of different types, and should make these lists and comments widely available to the workers I movements.

Broadcasting in its more general educational aspects has been discussed in the Reports for the preceding fortnights. At present, in most countries, radio programmes play far too little attention to working-class interests and points of view, and in some cases such points of view are ruled out altogether as involving controversial issues.

It, too, could be much more widely used as an aid to the promotion of international understanding.

- 29 -

Moreover, in dealing with international questions or in presenting accounts of conditions in foreign countries, the radio can do immense harm by taking up a nationalistic standpoint, or by distorting news or comments. Broad- casting authorities and corporations, whether publicly owned or not, should be advised by consultative-councils including a strong representation of workers I movements,. or by special workers I advisory councils. In some cases, workers' movements may need to operate radio stations of their own, dr to hire time at stations which they do not own.

Given the right approach, there can be great value in radio presentations of the life of the people in for-

Experience has shown the great success of panel discussions on topical subjects between speakers eign countries. affairs. holding different points of view, and given full freedom to express their ideas. Such discussions are of special value where they are "unscripted" - either unrehearsed or rehearsed only immediately before being presented. The essential is that such talks should be uncensored and should have the character of spontaneity that gives them life in the view of the public.

Radio can also play a most important part in stimulating intelligent interest in international

Television has not yet advanced far enough in most countries to play any important part in the international field. But workers abuses that may arise, and to take advantage of such opportunities as it may present.

organizations should be on the alert in watching its development, in order to correct any

The arts and crafts can also make their contribution to international understanding, especially through gifts exchanged by groups of workers in different countries, illustrating national ways of life.

Moreover, in the field of the arts, attention should be given to the organization of foreign tours by groups of musicians, actors, and other artists, in such a way as to make the performances fully available to working- class audiences. workers from participation. visits of amateur workers I groups - for example workers I choirs.

Too often such visits are at present organized in such a fashion as in effect to exclude the In addition to professional exchanges and visits, there should be exchanges and

Exhibitions of many kinds can also serve a useful purpose; but where they are designed to illustrate the life of a foreign country or some aspect of international unity, they are likely to be ineffective unless they are directly related to the conditions and outlooks of the persons who are expected to visit them and to take their mes- sage to heart. I

Workers I travel is evidently a matter of the greatest importance. W e are here concerned with it only in its specifically educational aspects, in particular, where it takes the form of organized study-visits for acquir- ing knowledge about a foreign country. study-visits calls for special stress. under the guidance of a skilled leader.

The need for long and careful preparation of the participants for such The groups in question should prepare themselves by prior discussions

Either in connexion with such visits, or more generally, foreign guests can be invited to speak to work- ing-class audiences about their own countries.

Language differences will continue to present formidable obstacles in most parts of the field surveyed in this section. of a second living language in wide international use. language. subjects, in such a way as to produce truly bilingual men and women who can think as well as speak in either tongue. ing children from the elementary stage in both French and English; and there are cases (e.g. Malta) in which similar practices have already shown their value. view to their application on a wider scale.

It is highly desirable to encourage, wherever possible, the teaching in the schools of each country This is not merely a matter of instruction in a second

There are immense advantages, where practicable, in using both languages in the teaching of other

Attention is drawn to the experiment now being launched in certain French villages with a view to teach-

Such experiences should be most carefully studied with a

Language teaching in adult classes should include study of the conditions and cultural achievements of the peoples using the language in question: it should be conducted in such a way as to relate the structure and usages of the language to national institutions, traditions, and habits of thought.

The language problem arises in its most acute form in the case of migrants entering a country in which a Such migrants need at one and the same time at least three things - instruction in different language is spoken.

the language of the country they are proposing to enter, instruction concerning that country's institutions and way of life, and instruction of a vocational kind, either to teach them new trades for which they will be able to find openings in their new country, or to enable them to adapt their own trade knowledge to the different practices and techniques which they may expect to find in use.

In dealing with such problems, the governments of the receiving and supplying countries have each a part to play, both in teaching the required languages and techniques and in giving migrants as good as possible an

- 30 -

introduction to the conditions and customs of the countries in which they are proposing to settle. Simple booklets should be specially prepared for these purposes, and full use should be made of the time spent in, or waiting for, transport. selves specially responsible for imparting the required knowledge about labour conditions and movements in the receiving countries. The International Labour Organization, which is already active in this field, should be en- couraged to extend its work in this and cognate matters, especially in dealing with the difficult problems arising in connexion with the resettlement of displaced persons.

Workers I organizations should be consulted by the governments concerned and should make them-

Special attention is drawn to the work that has been done in this matter in Israel, where it has been neces- . sary to cope with an immense problem of assimilating immigrants from many countries and accustomed to wide-

ly different ways and standards of life. Unesco should prepare and publish a full report on this work,

A particular effort should be made to develop educational activities bearing on international understanding among young workers and in youth movements. - International camps give particular opportunities for such work, which needs to be carefully designed to meet the special conditions. opportunities for the development of cultural exchanges between adolescents and adults from neighbouring coun- tries. It has, however, to be recognized that in nearly all countries the great majority of young people remain quite outside the ranks of the organized youth movements and more particularly of those which are carried on under the auspices of working-class organizations. It is for the trade union and co-operative movements of the various countries and for their international organizations, to work out better means of appealing to young work- ers, both in the fields of adolescent and adult education and, still more, in that of leisure-time activities in a wider sense, including sports, hiking and camping, and other communal enjoyments. Such efforts are likely to achieve the best results if activities within each country are linked up with activities designed to promote friend- ly intercourse between the young people of different countries.

V.

Youth movements also provide admirable

The part-to be played by different subject matters in the promotion of international understanding among the workers, including the place of cultural activities in this connexion

Understanding other peoples is a matter of getting to know about their whole culture and scale of values, and not merely about their economic, political, or social conditions. ject matters is therefore artificial and is useful only for clear presentation and provided that the different sub- jects are integrated into a single whole. deprives the teaching of vitality; prevented by it from relating what is being taught to their own experience of life. and above all in workers I education on international matters, are means of making human situations understood and of helping the student to direct his actions in relation to them. taught as to bring out the sense of interdependence among the peoples, and to emphasize the common elements equally with the national differences.

Division of the field into a number of sub-

Especially in the social studies a sharp division into separate subjects and such division is particularly unsuitable for most worker-students, who are

Facts, in workers' education

International subject matters should be so

The Report of Group I11 sets out to apply these general notions to the teaching of particular subjects at an international level. that the Seminar as a whole gives them its broad approval.

The views there expressed cannot be summarized in a paragraph: all that can be said is

In this age of rapid scientific advance, it is all-important that a general understanding of scientific m e - Science is essentially international, thods and trends shall be widely diffused, especially among the workers.

both in its techniques and in its effects. make its methods and achievements unintelligible to the common man, and also to cause the applied scientists to be unaware of, or even to ignore, the human repercussions of what they are doing. In order to check this ten- dency, and to recall those who control the uses of sciences to its human implications, it is particularly neces- sary for the workers and for their movements to make their influence felt; and for this purpose they need to find the means of international collaboration and common discussion of the fundamental issues involved.

Specialization among scientists and technicians is, however, apt to

Cultural education has a vital part to play in the development of better international understanding. It should be regarded, not, as it too often is, as a mere appendage to more formal educational work in the tradition- al branches of study, but as an essential means of access to the deeper appreciation of the lives of the different peoples. At present, too many workers use their leisure only for passive amusement; it is the task of the work- ers ' educational bodies to arouse them to an active and creative use of leisure, and to develop their cultural ac- tivities to the fullest possible extent as a means of breaking down the barriers between the peoples. To this end full advantage should be taken of the essentially international appeal of music and of the visual arts, and these arts should be related to the lives of the different peoples by pointing out the character of their several contribu- tions. Architecture is yet another art with a deeply international tradition, and one of particular significance to workers, whose sense of international fellowship can be stimulated by a consciousness of the contribution made by members of their own class as builders of the great monuments of national history.

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VI. The functions of the United Nations and of its Specialized Agencies in relation to workers' education; and the forms of co-operation that should be developed between these bodies and the workers educational movements

Far too little time was available for any full study of the United Nations and its Specialized Agencies in Many questions were opened up both in the general

Accordingly what is here said omits many questions of high importance, and

their actual and potential relations to workers I education. sessions ?nd in the study groups, without there being any opportunity for full enough discussion to make it possi- ble to draw definite conclusions. passes others over with all too scanty a treatment.

It was felt that there is a danger of overlapping in the educational field both between the Specialized Agen- cies themselves and between these Agencies and the International Trade Union, Co-operative and workers I edu- cational organizations. Overlapping is not necessarily to be deplored; but its existence should be recognized, and the fullest provision should be made for regular consultation in order to avoid waste of effort in face of the all too scanty resources that are available for the work needing to be done.

There was considerable criticism both of the United Nations Organization and of Specialized Agencies for The composition and their failure to make an effective impact on popular opinion within the member countries.

inactivity of the United Nations Associations and of the Unesco National Commissions were strongly criticized. It was considered that there had been a general failure to issue a satisfactory documentation explaining the fun- ctions, achievements and problems of the Specialized Agencies in a simple and attractive way, and that, even where suitable documents had been issued, the measures needed to ensure their effective distribution had been wanting. launched in such a way as to arouse the imagination of the peoples; but this appeared to be a lonely instance. It was stressed that success could be expected only from publicity campaigns definitely related to proposals for positive action.

The Food and Agriculture Organization was held up as the example of how a successful effort could be

#

In this connexion, the language problem necessarily came up again; and it was urged that more simple documents dealing with international organizations - and rather with their activities than with their formal struc- tures - should be made available in a wide range of languages, and not only in those used at official conferences. It was also urged that reports of international conferences and seminars should be widely distributed to interested groups and individuals.

Most of the more detailed recommendations were naturally addressed to Unesco, as the body responsible Among recommendations addressed to other Agencies the following call for special for organizing the Seminar.

mention:

1 ~ The winding up of the International Refugee Organization was deeply deplored, and the handing over of its work to national governments condemned. agency, new or existing, should be definitely charged with the solution of the refugee problem.

The International Labour Organization was urged, not only to greater activity in dealing with pro- blems of migration and of training for alternative work, but also to consider the question of re- duction of hours of labour to a reasonable maximum in order to increase the workers @ oyportuni- ties for education.

It was urged that special attention should be given to the problems of working women, including housewives, and that closer connexions should be established between the United Nations Commis- sion on Womens # Questions and the United Nations Commission on Human Rights,

It was strongly urged that an international

2.

3.

In relation to Unesco, a number of proposals have been mentioned already in this digest. The following are the main additional recommendations embodied in the Reports and endorsed at a full session of the Seminar:

1. Unesco Is National Commissions should pay much more attention to workers adult education in general. Commissions; and each country should set up a sub-commission to deal exclusively with questions of workers' or of adult education.

education and to Workers' organizations should be more fully represented on the

2. Unesco should submit to its Committee of Experts, which is understood to be meeting in the near future, and should carry forward to the Commission on Human Rights, the proposed Article on .adult education for inclusion in the Covenant of Human Rights now being drafted by that body.

Unesco should strengthen its division dealing with workers I education and should provide it with sufficient staff and finance to enable it not only to cope with its existing commitments but also to extend its work along the lines recommended in this digest. Care should be taken to secure a staff well acquainted with working-class needs and attitudes.

3.

- 32 -

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

The aims of the Section of Unesco dealing with workers accordance with the proposals laid down in this and in previous reports of the Seminar; there should be close and regular consultation between the Section and the workers cerned.

education should be clearly defined in

organizations con-

Workers I organizations should be adequately represented on the Consultative Committees of Unesco and should be regularly consulted on all matters relating to the work of the Section res- ponsible for workers I education, including the choice of experts asked to report on particular issues. Unesco should be free to seek the advice of experts representing minority opinions in their own countries.

The Centre for Workers I Education opened this year should be continued and developed, in close consultation with the workers I organizations concerned, and also with bodies specially represen- tative of women workers, including working housewives and mothers, and with representatives from the less developed countries.

Unesco should establish closer contacts with the film industry, with a view to an improved service of newsreels and documentaries dealing with international questions and with national conditions in ways calculated to advance mutual understanding. duction and distribution of good story films which satisfy these conditions.

It should also endeavour to stimulate the pro-

Unesco should establish a regular periodical devoted to the international exchange of information on workers I educational activities in the various countries.

Unesco should arrange for the holding of regional, as well as world-wide seminars dealing with workers I education.

Although the recommendations listed in this section and others which appear elsewhere in this digest or in the Group Reports. are addressed to the United Nations and to its Agencies, many of them should be addres,sed equally to the governments of the Member States; for upon these governments lies a large part of the responsi- bility for making the work of the United Nations and of its Specialized Agencies a success or a failure.

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CONCLUSIONS AND R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S TO WHICH ATTENTION IS SPECIALLY DIRECTED

Conclusions

A. commendations should arise out of the work of the final fortnight, when particular consideration was being given to the work of the United Nations, of Unesco, and of the other specialized organizations. The work done during the earlier fortnights, being mainly concerned with the definition and scope of workers' education and with the study of methods and techniques of organization and teaching, lent itself much less to specific recommendations - or rather. the Reports for these fortnights constitute in themselves a series of recommendations addressed mainly to organizations engaged in workers I education throughout the world.

It was in the nature of the subjects studied in the Seminar that by far the largest number of specific re-

Towards the end of the digest of Group Reports for the third fortnight, w e have gathered together most of the recommendations specifically addressed during that fortnight to Unesco and to other official international agencies, and endorsed by a Plenary Session of the Seminar at the end of the fortnight. There remain a num- ber of further recommendations scattered through all three fortnightly reports; and it seems desirable to draw attention to some of these here, in order to have the record reasonably complete and easily available for refer- ence.

W e have grouped these remaining recommendations under the various bodies to which they are addressed: they include recommendations not only to official organs of the United Nations, but also to the governments of Member States and to workers educational organizations.

Further recommendations addressed to the United Nations

(i) fugees. Fortnight - Plenary Session).

That an international agency, new or existing, should be charged with the solution of the problem of re- In this connexion, the dissolution of the International Refugee organization was deeply deplored (Third

(ii) wives, not only through its Commission on the Status of W o m e n but also generally (Third Fortnight - Plenary Session).

That the United Nations should pay special attention to the problems of working women, including house-

Further recommendations addressed to all United Nations Agencies

(i) work rather than the constitutions of United Nations Agencies, and addressed specially to workers (Third Fort- night - Plenary Session).

More attention should be given to the issue of simple and attractive publications, describing the actual

(ii) ing (Third Fortnight - Plenary Session).

More aid should be given to workers' educational movements in the teaching of international understand-

Further recommendations addressed to Unesco

(i) (Second Fortnight - Group 11). (ii) Fortnight - Group 11).

Advice and assistance should be givento the less developed areas in the setting up of public

Small summer schools on workers I education should be held in the less developed countries

libraries

(Second

(iii) pamphlets on the following among other matters:

The Workers I Education Section should institute enquiries with a view to the publication of booklets or

(a) Successful projects either of sociological enquiry into the conditions underlying workers I educa- tion or of group work by workers

The forms of training needed for workers I service on productivity committees, factory commit- tees and the like, and the best means of meeting these needs (Second Fortnight - Plenary Session). The provision made in various countries for long-term residential courses of education for work- ers and the best means of developing such provision (Second Fortnight - Plenary Session).

educational classes (Second Fortnight - Group 111). (b)

(c)

(d) Forms and methods of co-operation between workers I educational movements and universities in various countries and the best means of developing such co-operation (Second Fortnight - Plenary Session).

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(e)

(f)

Methods of sociological research into workers I education (Second Fortnight - Plenary Session). Experience in education of immigrants with special reference to Israel (Third Fortnight - Plenary Session).

(iv) The Workers Education Section should publish:

(a) Background pamphlets on the institutions and the ways of life of the various countries, written specially for workers (Third Fortnight - Group I). Background pamphlets on workers I movements in various countries (Third Fortnight - Plenary Session).

(b)

(c) Bibliographies including notes and comments (i.e. not mere lists) of films useful for the teaching of international understanding, with indications of their suitability for different types of audience. (Third Fortnight - Plenary Session). Bibliographies of outstanding novels and plays throwing light on the cultures of the various coun- tries, especially in relation to working-class conditions (Third Fortnight - Group 11). (d)

Recommendations addressed to Member States of the United Nations

Member States are urged to introduce legislation:

Providing for the paid day-release of young workers for cultural as well as for vocational education (i) (Second Fortnight - Plenary Session and Third Fortnight - Plenary Session). (ii) Plenary Session).

m i d i n g , as rapidly as possible, for continued part-time education up to the age of 18 (Second Fortnight -

Recommendations addressed to workers I educational associations

(i) The International Federation of Workers I Educational Associations is urged to extend the range of its ac- tivities to cover a wider number of countries and to play a more active part in co-ordinating workers I education- al movements wherever they exist (Third Fortnight - Plenary Session). (ii) issuing, either through the International Federation of Workers I Educational Associations or otherwise, an In- ternational Song Book for use in workers # educational gatherings.

Workers I educational associations and other working-class educational bodies are urged to co-operate in

Final recommendations for action

In bringing our Report to a conclusion, w e wish to stress certain recommendations on which w e should like to see Unesco take immediate action. dations w e are expressing the wish of those who participated in the Seminar; and w e hope they will be treated, not merely as the opinions of the actual draftsmen of this Report, but also as embodying general agreement among delegates both from the more developed and from the less developed countries.

I. W e wish to lay special stress on the recommendation that the United Nations should entrust some inter- national organization, new or existing, with the solution of the problem of refugees (see digest for Third Fort- night ).

W e believe that in assigning the highest priority to these recommen-

Among recommendations addressed to Unesco itself, as distinct from those addressed more specifically to its Workers I Education Section, w e wish to pick out two for special mention.

11. W e hope that Unesco will make every endeavour to secure the inclusion in the Covenant of Human Rights now being prepared of the proposed Article dealing with the Right to Adult Education (see digest for Third Fort- night ).

111. that special attention will be given to promoting legislation to ensure the paid day-release of adolescents for part-time cultural as well as technical education throughout the world (see digest for Third Fortnight).

This Article includes recognition of the Right to Education of adolescents as well as of adults. W e hope

In addition to these more general recommendations for action by Unesco, w e wish to single out the fol- lowing recommendations addressed to the Unesco Workers I Education Section:

- 35 -

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

The International Centre of Workers Education should be maintained and developed.

Its aims should be defined in the light of the recommendations made by the present Seminar.

Further seminars should be held; but these should have a more limited range of studies and should include regional seminars as well as seminars with participants drawn from all types of country.

The Workers Education Section should pay special attention to the cultural aspects of workers education, including methods of improving the use made of leisure. These cultural activities are especially important in relation to the education of young workers, and the Workers I Education Section should have special regard to the development of youth movements in their educational as- pects.

The Workers I Education Section, and Unesco as a whole, should do their utmost to induce the Na- tional Commissions in the various countries to set up sub-commissions to deal specifically with questions of workers I education.

The Workers I Education Section should make a special effort to help the less developed countries in undertaking, as a complement to what is being done in the field of Fundamental Education, ac- tivities in workers I education on the lines recommended in the Seminar I S Report.

With this in view, small seminars or summer schools should be organized in the less developed areas, including participants from more developed countries, in order to give advice concerning the methods best suited to the countries in question.

The less developed countries are in particular need of libraries and of other teaching aids for the furtherance of their educational work. W e recommend that means should be sought of establish- ing a Fund for the provision of libraries in the less developed countries, rather on the lines of what was done through the Carnegie Endowment in a number of countries. that funds should be made available for the provision of visual and other teaching aids for the ser- vice of workers I educational movements in the less developed countries, including colonies and other non-self-governing territories.

Finally, w e wish to reiterate our hope that the Workers ' Education Section of Unesco will be ade- quately staffed and will be allocated financial resources on a sufficient scale to enable it to carry out the recommendations of the Seminar.

W e further recommend

- 36 -

NATIONAL AND SPECIAL R E P O R T S ISSUED IN CONNEXION WITH THE SEMINAR

Copies of Some of the Reports listed are still available-and may be had on application to Education De- partment, Unesco, 19 Avenue KlBber, Paris, 16&me., but the supply is small and will soon be exhausted. Until then, individual copies or single sets in English or French as required, will be sent on request. When no copy of a paper in one language remains that in the other will be substituted without notice, unless the enquirer ex- pressly asks that this not be done.

The Reports are not official Unesco publications. Most of them were produced by the persons or groups named in response to a request for working papers on the different aspects of workers I education with which the authors were familiar. have been reproduced exactly as received. In reading them it should be remembered that several were written in a language other than the author's own, or have been translated without the original being edited. Opinions ex- pressed are those of the authors and not necessarily €he official views of Unesco.

The others are the Reports of the Groups at the Unesco Seminar at La Brdviere. All

List of Reports issued by the International Centre of Workers I Education - 1 May to 15 September 1952 (available in French and English)

Code No.

UN-ESCO/Centre WE/ 1

UNESCO/Centre W E 1 2

UNESCO/Centre W E / 3

UNESCO/Centre W E / 4

UNESCO/Centre W E / 5

UNESCO/Centre W E / 6

UNESCQ/Centre WE/7

UNESCO/Centre W E / 8

UNESCO/Centre W E / 9

UNESCO/Centre WE/lO

UNESCO/Centre WE/ 11

UNESCO/Centre WE/12

UNESCO/Centre WE/13

UNESCO/Centre WE/14

UNESCO/Centre WE/ 15

UNESCO/Centre WE/ 16

UNESCO/Centre WE/17

UNESCO/Centre WE/18

Author

Unesco Centre W. E.

Unesco Centre W ..E,

I .F .W .E .A.

V .S. Mathur

J.H. Mathews

Georges Vidalenc

Hans Haste

Thomas Hodgkin

Owen Ashmore

1 .C .F .T .U.

E .M . Higgins Dr . .Margot Bergman and Dr. Franz Deus

1.F .C.T .U.

Anonymous

Sohan Singe

firs. Rahel Adiv

R . Abadie Soriano

Unesco Centre W .E.

Title - Programme - Unesco Seminar on Workers I Education General Information Bulletin. International Centre of Workers I Education

Report of the International Federation of Workers I Edu- cational Associations - 1952

Some Trends in Workers I Education in India

Trade Union Education in the United Kingdom

Extracts from Workers I Education in France

Workers I Education in Sweden

Adult and Workers I Education in the Gold Coast and Nigeria

The Association of Tutors in Adult Education in Great Britain

Education Programme of the International Confederatron of Free Trade Unions

Memorandum on Workers I Education in Australia

Summary Report on Workers I Education in Germany

Educational Activities of the International Federation of Christian Trade Unions

Workers I Education in Switzerland

Workers I Education in India

The Educational Work of the, Israel Federation of Labour (Histadrut )

Workers I Education in Uruguay

Report of First Fortnight (Unesco Seminar on Workers I Education

37 -

Code No. Author

UNESCO/Centre WE/19 Poul Hansen

UNESCO/Centre W E/2 0

UNESCO/Centre WE/21

UNESCO/Centre WE/22

UNESCO/Centre WE/23

UNESCO/Centre WE/23a

UNESCO/Centre WE/24

UNESCO/Centre WE/25

UNESCO/Centre WE/26

Austrian Federation of Trade Unions

Ellen McCullough

Constantin Alifkris

Unesco Centre W .E.

Unesco Centre W. E.

Apostolos Voyatzis

Jean Le Veugle

B. Drees & J. Bouhy

UNESCO/Centre WE/27 Dantes P. Colimon

UNESCO/Centre WE/28

UNESCO/Centre WE/29 A. Deldon

Unesco Centre W . E.

UNESCO/Centre WE/30 I .C .A.

Title

The School for Members of Joint Production Committees in Copenhagen

The Educational Work of the Austrian Trade Unions

The Teaching of Trade Unionists in Great Britain

Workers I Education in Greece

Report of Second Fortnight (Unesco Seminar)

Annex to WE/23 - Second Fortnight (Unesco Seminar) Workers I Education in Greece

Sociological Aspects of Workers I Education

Educational Action in the Christian Workers I Movement in Belgium

Workers I Education in Haiti

Report of Third Fortnight (Unesco Seminar)

Education of the Working Class in Yugoslavia

The Educational Activity of the International Co-operative Alliance

- 38 -

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

12 Julv to 23 August 1952

Organization Country

AUSTRALIA

Name Fortnight

HIGGINS, Mr. E.M. 1, 2, 3 Department of Tutorial Classes, University of Sydney

AUSTRIA GIESE, Dr. A. 1, 2 KRASSER. M r . H. 3 MAGAZINER, Mrs. G. 3

BOUHY, M r . J. 3 DREES, M r . B . 1 LAFORGE, M r . A. 2 RENARD, M r . R. 1 SAS, Miss M.L. 2

Austrian Federation of Trade Unions, Vienna Catholic Group of Trade Unionists, Vienna Vienna Adult Education Association

BELGIUM Christian Workers I Movement, Brussels Christian Workers ' Movement, Brussels Workers I Educational Centre, Brussels Workers Educational Centre, Brussels Association of Christian Working Women, Brussels

BEAUGRAND-CHAMPAGNE, Mr. G.

CANADA 2

2

2 2, 3

Division de 1 'Education Populaire, Univer-

Canadian Confederation of Catholic Workers,

Canadian Congress of Labour, Toronto Labor Committee Against Racial Intolerance, (K .T .U .C , and C .C .L. Councils) Montreal

sit6 de Montrkal

Mont r ea1

Workers I Educational Association, Kalund-

Workers Educational Association, Copen-

Workers I Educational Association,

borg

hagen

Copenhagen

BOVY, Father L.

CONQUERGOOD, Mr. H MORIN, Mr. J.V.

DALAGER. M r . A .

JOHANNESSEN, M r . A.

DENMARK 1

3

LINDEN, Mr. I. 2

FRANCE BODIGUET. M r . J , 1 French Federation of Christian Workers,

Force OuvriCre, Paris Ministry of Overseas Territories, Paris Public Vocational Training Centre,

French Federation of Young Peoples Cultural

Directorate of Youth and Sports, Ministry of

National Centre of Popular Education, Marly-

University of Strasbourg

Bavarian Organization for Adult Education,

German Federation of Trade Unions,

German Federation oi Trade Unions,

Workers I Educational Association, Munich

Paris

,

Marseilles

Centres, Neuilly

Public Instruction, Paris

le-Roi

Munich

Dus seldor f

Duss eldorT

GALLOIS, M r . A. GILBERT, M r . G . GUYADER, M r . J. L .P .

1, 2, 3 3

2

HOTTIN. Mr. P 3

LEBRUN. Mr. R 2

LE VEUGLE, Mr. J. 2

LIVET, Professor G . 2

GERMANY BERGMAN, Mrs. M. I 1

BOSING, Mr. B.

1

1

DEUS, D r . F.

WILPERT, Professor P.

2, 3

2, 3

GREECE ALIPPERIS, Mr. C. LASCARIS. M r . C .

2. 3 1

Ministry of Education, Athens Greek General Confederation of Labour,

Greek General Confederation of Labour, Athens

Athens VOYIATGIS, Mr. A. 3

HAITI COLIMON, Mr . D . P . 1, 2, 3

- 39 - Workers ' Educational Service, Haiti

Country

INDIA

Organization Name Fortnight - ANNIGERI, Mr. S.G. DHINGRA, Mrs. K. SERANG, Mr. A.K.

1 2, 3

1, 2 National Seamen's Union of India, Bombay

IRAQ

ISRAEL

AL-YASSIN, Dr. M.H. 1 Ministry of Education, Baghdad

Cultural Department of the General Federa- tion of Labour, Histadrut. Haifa

1, 2, 3 ADIV, Mrs. R.

ITALY CASARA, Mrs. G. 3 Central Committee of Popular Education,

Ministry of Popular Education, R o m e Ministry of Labour & Social Insurance, R o m e

Rome CASCINO, Professor G LOMBARDO. Mr. P.

1, 2 3

J A P A N SUMIYA, Mr. M 1, 2, 3 Tokyo University

General Workers I Union, Valletta General Workers I Union, Valletta

M A L T A C A R U A N A , M r . E. ESPOSITO, Mr. V.

2 3

M A L A Y A

MEXICO

N E T H E R L A N D S

VITHAVER, Mr. K. 1 Trade Union Congress, Kuala Lumpur

Ministry of Education, Mexico City 2, 3 JOSEFE, W s . E

DE LANGE, Mr. H.M. 2 OLIEROOK, Dr . A . A . 3 PETERS, M r . H. 1 V E R M E U L E N , M r . J. W. 1

Woodbrookers I Community, Bentveld Catholic Workers I Movement, Doorn Christian Trade Union Federation, Utrecht Catholic Workers Movement, Driebergen

People Is Correspondence School, Oslo N O R W A Y ANDRESEN, Mrs. S. Gran 1, 2, 3

UNION OF S O U T H AFRICA DE LOOR, Professor B. 1, 2

1, 2. 3 VALLSTRAND, M r , L. 1, 2, 3

B O E H L E N , Miss 3 JAQUEROD, Mr. A. 1

SJdBERG, Mr. S.

University of Pretoria

Workers I Educational Association,Stockholm Swedish Factory Workers I Union, Stockholm

State Public Services Commission, Berne Swiss Association of Evangelic Trade Unions,

Workers I Educational Centre, Sierre Chamber of Labour, Lugano Young Christian Workers, Geneva Swiss Association of Popular Universities,

Lausanne

Zurich

S W E D E N

SWITZERLAND

REY, Mr. A. 1 VISANI, Mr. D. 3 VITTORI, Mr. J. 2 WALTER, M r . E. 2

UNITED KINGDOM, CHALLIS, M r . G. 1 Civil Service Clerical Association (TUC),

Workers Educational Association, London Transport & General Workers I Union (TUC),

Transport Salaried Staffs I Association (TUC),

Workers I Educational Association, London Union of Post Office Workers (TUC), London Workers Educational Association, Yorkshire

Workers Educational Association, West

Trades Union Congress, London

London

London

London

North District

Midland District

GREGORY, Mr. W. 3 McCULLOUGH, Miss E. 2

AORRIS, Mr. G.M.H. 2

P O O L E , Mr. H.E. 1 R A N D A L L , M r. H.E. 3 SEDGWICK, Mr. G.F. 2

STUTTARD, M r . G. C . 3

WINNARD. M r . D. 1

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA International Brotherhood of Paper Makers,

(AFL), Albany, New York ALLEN, Mr. R. 1, 2, 3

- 40 -

Name Fortnight - Country

UNITED STATES OF CONNORS, M r . J. D. 3 AMERICA (contld) ELDER, Mr. A.A. 2

MIRE. Mr. J. 1

PIERCE, Mr. J. 2 STARR, Mr. Mark 1

STEVENS, Mr. Don 1, 2 TURNER, Mr. J.E. 1 WERTHEIMER, Mrs. B. 3

URUGUAY

YUGOSLAVIA

ABADIE, Mr. R. Soriano 2

BEVILACQUA, Mrs. A. 2, 3

DELEON, M r . A. 1, 2, 3

DIRECTORS AND GROUP LEADERS

Organization

American Federation of Labor, Washington International Ladies I Garment Workers I Union, (AFL) New York

American Federation of State, County & Municipal Employees (AFL), Madison, Wis .

National CIO Community Services, New York International Ladies Garment Workers I

Michigan State CIO Council, Detroit United Rubber Workers (CIO), Akron, Ohio Amalgamated Clothing Workers (CIO),

Union, (AFL) New York

New York

Bureau of Inspection for Adult Education,

Teachers I Training College, Normal School, Montevideo

Montevideo

Trade Union Confederation of Yugoslavia, Belgrade

COLE, Professor G.D.H. (Director of Studies) Oxford University, England GRAU, Dr. Herbert

HANSEN, Mr. Poul Workers Educational Association,

ORR, Dr. Charles PHILIP, Professor Andre

People's High School of the City of Linz, Austria

Copenhagen (Director of the Centre) Roosevelt College, Chicago, Illinois

European Youth Education Campaign, Paris

UNESCO COUPONS

W e should like to draw the attention of our readers to this scheme, which may enable them to purchase materials listed in this periodical. Because it is often difficult to send money from country to country for the purchase of books, films, laboratory equipment, etc., Unesco has created something in the nature of an international currency, the Unesco Coupons. These coupons enable schools, universities, teachers and students in many parts of the world to buy freely the materials which they need for study and research. The system operates in 31 countries, and non-self-governing territories may obtain coupons through their administering countries.

Detailed information on the use of Unesco Coupons is contained in the pamphlets : The Unesco Book Coupon ; The Unesco Film Coupon; The Unesco Coupon for Scientific Material which may be obtained on request from:

UNESCO COUPON OFFICE 19, avenue KlCber, Paris W I e , France

UNESCO PUBLICATIONS :

ARGENTINA Editorial Sudamericana, S.A. Alsina 500, B U E N O S AIRES.

ASSOCIATED STATES OF CAMBODIA, LAOS AND VIET-NAM

Librairie Nouvelle, A. Portail. Boite Postale 283 SAIGON

K. Chantarith, CCR., 38 rue Van Vollenhoven,

Sub-depot:

P H N O M - P E N H .

AUSTRALIA Oxford University Press, 346 Little Collins Street, M E L B O U R N E ,

AUSTRIA Wilhelm Frick Verlag, 27 Graben, VIENNA 1.

BARBADOS S.P.C.K. Bookshop, Broad Street, BRIDGETOWN.

BELGIUM Librairie EncyclopCdique, 7 rue du Luxembourg, BRUSSELS IV.

Libreria Selecciones, Ave. 16 de Julio 216, L A PAZ.

Livraria Agir Editora, Rua Mexico 9&B, Caixa Postal 3291, RIO DE JANEIRO.

BOLIVIA

BRAZIL

CANADA University of Toronto Press, TORONTO,

CEYLON The Lake House Bookshop, 'Ihe Associated Newspapers of Ceylon Led., C O L O M B O I.

Libreria Lope de Vega, Calle Estado 54, SANTIAGO.

Emilio Roy0 Martin, Carrera 9a, 1791, B O G O T A .

CHILE

COLOMBIA

COSTA RICA Trejos Hermanos, Apartado 1313, S A N JOSE.

Unesco Cenuo Regional en el Hemkfero Occidental, Calle 5 No. 306 Vedado, Apartado 1350,

CUBA

H A V A N A .

M. E. Constantinides, P.O. Box 473, NICOSIA.

CYPRUS

CZECHOSLOVAKIA Orbis, Ndrodni 37, P R A G U E I.

DENMARK Ejnar Munksgaard Ltd., 6 Norregade, C O P E N H A G E N K.

ECUADOR Casa de la Cultura Ecuatc- riana, ave. 6 de Diciemhre, QUITO.

EGYPT L a Renaissance d'Egypte, 9 Adly Pasha Street, CAIRO.

Akateeminen Kirjakauppa, 2 Keskuskatu, HELSINKI.

The World Book Co., 99 Chuneking Road, 1st Section, TAIPEH.

Unesco Bookshop, 19 AV. Kleber PARIS 16e

Unesco Vertrieb fiir Deutsch land, R. Oldenburg, MUNICH. \

FINLAND

FORMOSA

FRANCE

GERMANY

GREECE ElefthCroudakis, Librairie Internationale, ATHENS.

HAITI Litrairie A la Caravelle, 36 rue Row, bite Postale III-8, PORT-AU-PR INCE.

HUNGARY Kultura, P.O. BOX 149, B U D A P E S T 62.

Orient Longmans Ltd., Indian Mercantile Chamber, Nicol Road, B O M B A Y . 17 Chittaranjan Ave, C A L C U T T A . 3GA Mount Road, MADRAS.

Oxford Book & Stationery Co., Scindia House, N E W DELHI. Rajkamal Publications Led., Himalaya House, Hornby Road, B O M B A Y I.

INDIA

Sub-depots :

INDONESIA G.C.T. Van Dorp & Co. Dialan Nusantara 22, DJAKARTA.

IRA0 Mckenzie s Bookshop, B A G H D A D .

Blumstein's Bookstores Ltd., ISRAEL

35 Allenby Rod. T E L AVIV. ITALY Li braria Cornmissionaria. G.C. Sansoni, via Gino Capponi 26, Casella postale 552, F L O R E N C E.

NATIONAL DISTRIBUTORS

JAMAICA Sangster's Book Room, 99 Harbour Street, KINGSTON.

Maruzen CO., Inc., 6 Tori Nichome, Ni hon bas hi,

JAPAN

T O K Y O . JORDAN Joseph I. Bahors & CO., Darul-Kutub. Salt Road, A M M A N .

Li br airie Universelle, Avenue des Frangais, BEIRUT.

LUXEMBOURG Librairie Paul Bruck, 50 Grand-Rue, L U X E M B O U R G .

LEBANON

MALAY AN FEDERATION AND SINGAPORE Peter Chong & CO., P.O. Box 135, SINGAPORE.

Sapienza's Library 26 Kingsway, V A L L E T T A .

Difusora de las Publicaciones de la Unesco, 127 Avenida Ejido, Esc. 401

MALTA

MEXICO

MEXICO, D.F. NETHERLANDS N.V. Martinus Niihoff, Lange Voorhout 9, THE H A G U E . NEWZEALAND Unesco Publications Centre, 7 D e Lacy, DUNEDIN.N.E.2

C.M.S. Bookshop, P.O. Box 174,

A/S Bokhjdrnet, Storcingsplass 7, OSLO.

PAKISTAN Ferozsons, 60 The Mall, L A H O R E . McLeod Road, KARACHI. 35 The Mall, PESHAWAR.

Agencia Internacional de Publicaciones, Apartado 2052, Plaza de Arango NO. 3, P A N A M A R.P.

Li breria Internacional del Peru S.A., Apartado 1417, LIMA.

NIGERIA

LAGOS. NORWAY

PANAMA

PERU

PHILIPPINES Philippine Educauon &.,Inc., 1104 Castilleios, Quiapo, . - - MANILA.

PORTUGAL

PUERTO RICO Pan-American Book Co., S A N J U A N 12..

SPAIN Aguilar, S.A. de Ediciones, Juan Bravo 38, MADRID.

SURINAM Radhakishun & Co.,Ltd., (Book Dept.), Waterrnolenstraat 36, Par arnari bo, SUR IN AM.

SWEDEN A/B C.E. Fritzes Kungl., Hovbokhandel, Fredsgatan 2, S T O C K H O L M 16.

Librairie de 1'Universid S.A., Case postale 72, FRIBOURG. Europa Verla RPmistrasse f: ZURICH.

SWITZERLAND

SYRIA Librairie Universelle, DAMASCUS.

Centre International, 54 rue du Statut.

Suksapan Panit, Arkarn 9, Rajdamnern Avenue,

TANGIER

THAILAND

B A N G K O K . TUNISIA Agence AghlCbite, 20 Grand-Rue, Postal address; B.P. 2, KAIROUAN.

Librairie Hachette, 469 Istiklal Caddesi, Beyoglu, ISTAMB UL.

Burma Educational Bookshop, 551-3 Merchant Street, P.O. Box 222, R A N G O O N .

UNION OF,SOUTH AFRICA Van Schaik's Bookstore (Pty) Ltd., P.O. Box 724,

TURKEY

UNION OF BURMA

PR E T O R I A , UNITEDKINGDOM AND N. IRELAND H.M. Statione Office, P.O. Box 56x L O N D O N S.E.I.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA International Documents Service, Columbia University Press, 2960 Broadway, N E W Y O R K 27, N.Y.

Unesco Centro de Cn-operacih Cientifica para Amhlca Latina, Bulevar Artigas 1320, MONTEVIDEO.

URUGUAY

Publica p e s Europ a- America Y UGOSL AV1 A Ltda., Jugoslovenska Knjiga, 4 rua da Barrocn, LISBON.

Marsala Tita 23/11, B E L G R A D E