A Report on “Establishing Civilian A Report on “Establishing Civilian Supremacy in Southeast Asia”Supremacy in Southeast Asia”

By Harold CrouchBy Harold Crouch

Lucio B. Pitlo III Lucio B. Pitlo III AS 210AS 210

July 17, 2008 July 17, 2008

AUTHOR: HAROLD CROUCHAUTHOR: HAROLD CROUCHEducation Education BA- Melbourne UniversityBA- Melbourne University MA- University of Bombay MA- University of Bombay Phd- Monash University Phd- Monash University

Career Career Presently Professor, Department of Political and Social Presently Professor, Department of Political and Social

Change, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Change, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National UniversityAustralian National University

Taught political science at the University of Indonesia (1968-Taught political science at the University of Indonesia (1968-71)71)

Taught political science at the National University of Malaysia Taught political science at the National University of Malaysia (1975-85, 1988-90)(1975-85, 1988-90)

Taught political science at the University of the Philippines Taught political science at the University of the Philippines (1983-84)(1983-84)

Director, Indonesia Project, International Crisis Group (2000-Director, Indonesia Project, International Crisis Group (2000-02)02)

AUTHOR: HAROLD CROUCHAUTHOR: HAROLD CROUCH

InterestsInterests Southeast Asian politics, particularly Southeast Asian politics, particularly

Indonesia.Indonesia.Key PublicationsKey Publications Trade Unions and Politics in India (1967)Trade Unions and Politics in India (1967) The Army and Politics in Indonesia, Cornell The Army and Politics in Indonesia, Cornell

University Press, 1978University Press, 1978 Malaysian Government and Society, Cornell Malaysian Government and Society, Cornell

University Press and Allen & Unwin, 1996University Press and Allen & Unwin, 1996

HISTORICAL CONTEXTHISTORICAL CONTEXT

Cold War- Asia as the battleground Cold War- Asia as the battleground for communism and capitalist-based for communism and capitalist-based democracy (i.e. Indochina, Korea)democracy (i.e. Indochina, Korea)

Rise of military intervention in Rise of military intervention in politicspolitics

Western support for military Western support for military dictatorships by the West as a dictatorships by the West as a vanguard against the spread of vanguard against the spread of communism (e.g. Marcos in RP) communism (e.g. Marcos in RP)

HISTORICAL CONTEXTHISTORICAL CONTEXTTIMELINE OF HISTORICAL CONTEXT

1962 Cuban Missile Crisis; Military coup in Burma established military rule

1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident; Increased US presence in South Vietnam

1965 150, 000 US troops sent to Vietnam; Failed coup plot in Indonesia led to reprisals against communist elements within the army and in society

1967 Formation of ASEAN

1972 Signing of US-USSR SALT I

1975 US defeat in Vietnam brings victory to communism; Communist Khmer Rouge rose to power in Cambodia; Communist Pathet Lao took power in Laos

1976-83 Military ruled in Thailand

1978-79 Vietnam invaded Cambodia and toppled the Khmer Rouge

1979 Iranian Revolution

1985 Iran-Contra Affair

INTENTION OF THE PAPERINTENTION OF THE PAPER

Concerned with the challenge for Concerned with the challenge for Indonesian elected government to Indonesian elected government to establish civilian supremacy over the establish civilian supremacy over the militarymilitary

Compare the civilian-military Compare the civilian-military relations as experienced by different relations as experienced by different Southeast Asian countries Southeast Asian countries

RP EXPERIENCERP EXPERIENCE Military withdrawal among Southeast countries Military withdrawal among Southeast countries

was easiest in the Philippineswas easiest in the Philippines It was a civilian dictator who called for the It was a civilian dictator who called for the

military; government remained largely under military; government remained largely under civilian control with only few cabinet positions civilian control with only few cabinet positions afforded to active and retired generals; defense afforded to active and retired generals; defense ministry was under a civilian ministerministry was under a civilian minister

RAM as representing the few politicized military RAM as representing the few politicized military elements, but which grew more prominence after elements, but which grew more prominence after Marcos’s martial rule staging 8 failed coups Marcos’s martial rule staging 8 failed coups during the Aquino administrationduring the Aquino administration

Civilian supremacy enshrined in 1987 Civilian supremacy enshrined in 1987 Constitution Constitution

THAI EXPERIENCETHAI EXPERIENCE Military withdrawal more difficult Military withdrawal more difficult Thai military has a history of actively participating Thai military has a history of actively participating

in politics and governancein politics and governance Military coup welcomed when it ousted unpopular Military coup welcomed when it ousted unpopular

regimes, but military rule is also criticized for its regimes, but military rule is also criticized for its human rights abuses human rights abuses

Military’s hold in power checked by factionalism Military’s hold in power checked by factionalism and infightingand infighting

Military retired from politics after popular outrage Military retired from politics after popular outrage over their handling of mass demonstrations in the over their handling of mass demonstrations in the early 1990searly 1990s

Since then, Thai military became more professional Since then, Thai military became more professional

INDONESIAN MILITARY DURING INDONESIAN MILITARY DURING SUHARTO’S REGIMESUHARTO’S REGIME

Military were entrenched in the government Military were entrenched in the government from the cabinet ministries, national and from the cabinet ministries, national and regional parliaments, regional and local regional parliaments, regional and local government units, foreign service, justice and government units, foreign service, justice and leadership in state-owned enterprisesleadership in state-owned enterprises

Presence of military counterpart for almost all Presence of military counterpart for almost all civilian government positionscivilian government positions

Developed Developed DwifungsiDwifungsi (dual function) doctrine, (dual function) doctrine, saying that on account of the military’s saying that on account of the military’s participation in the struggle for independence, participation in the struggle for independence, they are entitled to play not only the role of a they are entitled to play not only the role of a professional military, but also an actor in the professional military, but also an actor in the sociopolitical life of the countrysociopolitical life of the country

INDONESIAN MILITARY DURING INDONESIAN MILITARY DURING SUHARTO’S REGIMESUHARTO’S REGIME

Territorial organizational structure reinforced military Territorial organizational structure reinforced military role and contributed to militarization; 2/3 of the role and contributed to militarization; 2/3 of the army’s battalions scattered throughout the countryarmy’s battalions scattered throughout the country

This structure checked the rise of social unrest and This structure checked the rise of social unrest and ethnic, religious or social strife; it was also used to ethnic, religious or social strife; it was also used to monitor the activities of political parties, religious monitor the activities of political parties, religious orgs, NGOs, student groups, trade unions etc.orgs, NGOs, student groups, trade unions etc.

Central troops- Kostrad (Strategic Reserve Command) Central troops- Kostrad (Strategic Reserve Command) and Kopassus (Special Forces)- are called in the event and Kopassus (Special Forces)- are called in the event that territorial troops would need augmentation that territorial troops would need augmentation

Police integrated in the military and given military Police integrated in the military and given military trainingtraining

Military given access to spoils, legal and otherwise, Military given access to spoils, legal and otherwise, getting their support for the maintenance of the getting their support for the maintenance of the status quostatus quo

INDONESIAN MILITARY IN THE INDONESIAN MILITARY IN THE POST SUHARTO YEARSPOST SUHARTO YEARS

Change in the military mind-set during the mid 1990s, with many Change in the military mind-set during the mid 1990s, with many encouraging Suharto to step downencouraging Suharto to step down

Many in the military still admire the dictator so no use of force to oust Many in the military still admire the dictator so no use of force to oust him came from the militaryhim came from the military

Resentment over his patronage politics (i.e. favoring of family, cronies Resentment over his patronage politics (i.e. favoring of family, cronies in business) and use of military for his personal interests (i.e. in business) and use of military for his personal interests (i.e. overthrow of Megawati as leader of IDP in 1996)overthrow of Megawati as leader of IDP in 1996)

Failure by Suharto to initiate or foresee the need for reforms in light Failure by Suharto to initiate or foresee the need for reforms in light of the Asian financial crisis which hit Indonesia of the Asian financial crisis which hit Indonesia

Suharto compelled to step down amidst widespread street Suharto compelled to step down amidst widespread street demonstrationsdemonstrations

The next president, Habibie depended on the military to add The next president, Habibie depended on the military to add legitimacy to his term legitimacy to his term

Easing of restrictions in criticizing the military led to a barrage of Easing of restrictions in criticizing the military led to a barrage of attacks against the military for protecting and lending itself as an attacks against the military for protecting and lending itself as an instrument for the authoritarian Suharto regime instrument for the authoritarian Suharto regime

Gen. Wiranto apologized over military excesses in Aceh, but refused Gen. Wiranto apologized over military excesses in Aceh, but refused to acknowledge the scale and magnitude of the abuses to acknowledge the scale and magnitude of the abuses

Military intervention in East Timor further eroded its credibilityMilitary intervention in East Timor further eroded its credibility

REFORMASIREFORMASI ““New Paradigm” advanced- envisions a professional military New Paradigm” advanced- envisions a professional military

cushioned from politics and concerned more on external cushioned from politics and concerned more on external defensedefense

Reforms implemented Reforms implemented -Reduction of military officers in electoral and govt seats -Reduction of military officers in electoral and govt seats -Active military officers to divest from running for elections or -Active military officers to divest from running for elections or

taking govt seatstaking govt seats-Disassociation of the military from Golkar, the political party of -Disassociation of the military from Golkar, the political party of

Suharto, and observance of neutrality during electionsSuharto, and observance of neutrality during elections-Police separated from military and internal security considered a -Police separated from military and internal security considered a

police matterpolice matter-From Dept of Defense and Security to Dept of Defence to stress -From Dept of Defense and Security to Dept of Defence to stress

new focusnew focus-Acceptance of the concept of civilian supremacy among the -Acceptance of the concept of civilian supremacy among the

military ranks; civilian as new Minister of Defence military ranks; civilian as new Minister of Defence -Pres. Wahid conducted reshuffling of military commands to place -Pres. Wahid conducted reshuffling of military commands to place

reform-minded officers in the best positions to effect changereform-minded officers in the best positions to effect change-Gen Wiranto dismissed from Cabinet and made to face charges -Gen Wiranto dismissed from Cabinet and made to face charges

of abuses during the East Timor campaign of abuses during the East Timor campaign

CHALLENGES TO THE CHALLENGES TO THE REFORM PROCESSREFORM PROCESS

Army’s territorial structureArmy’s territorial structure Identified as prone to abuse and an obstacle to full Identified as prone to abuse and an obstacle to full

democratizationdemocratization Reduction in the no. of territorial command troops proposedReduction in the no. of territorial command troops proposed

SARASARA Military is recognized as the most effective force to deal Military is recognized as the most effective force to deal

with ethnic, social, religious and regional conflict with ethnic, social, religious and regional conflict Military can be called on during times of crisisMilitary can be called on during times of crisis

Military prerogatives Military prerogatives Many in the military believed that their duty to protect their Many in the military believed that their duty to protect their

country, at times, may justify their going above the lawcountry, at times, may justify their going above the law In instances when stability, national unity and public order In instances when stability, national unity and public order

is at stake, some argue that they can supersede civilian is at stake, some argue that they can supersede civilian institutionsinstitutions

THESISTHESIS

If the economy became better, social If the economy became better, social order maintained and political order maintained and political institutions are functioning well, there institutions are functioning well, there will be lesser justification for military will be lesser justification for military intervention intervention

The return of the military will be met The return of the military will be met with strong public oppositionwith strong public opposition

Strengthening of political parties Strengthening of political parties centered on policies and platforms as a centered on policies and platforms as a possible antidote against military possible antidote against military adventurism adventurism

CRITIQUE AND REACTION CRITIQUE AND REACTION Police is still inadequate to maintain peace and order in the Police is still inadequate to maintain peace and order in the

archipelago considering its sheer size archipelago considering its sheer size No guarantee that the replacement of military by police will No guarantee that the replacement of military by police will

amount to lesser cases of human rights violations amount to lesser cases of human rights violations Military presence is crucial in maintaining the territorial Military presence is crucial in maintaining the territorial

integrity of the country amidst separatist aspirations by integrity of the country amidst separatist aspirations by some ethnic-based movements (i.e. GAM in Aceh, Papua)some ethnic-based movements (i.e. GAM in Aceh, Papua)

Military presence is also critical in staving off ethnic, social Military presence is also critical in staving off ethnic, social and religious conflicts and religious conflicts

What will happen to military men made redundant by the What will happen to military men made redundant by the reforms (i.e. troop reduction)?reforms (i.e. troop reduction)?

How will the military face the specter of losing their How will the military face the specter of losing their opportunities for material advancement that they use to opportunities for material advancement that they use to enjoy abundance? enjoy abundance?

Despite the inroads of the reforms, few higher ranking Despite the inroads of the reforms, few higher ranking military gets punished for war crimes or abusesmilitary gets punished for war crimes or abuses

No thorough investigations on alleged military excesses were No thorough investigations on alleged military excesses were mademade