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2014-05-23 1
A Preliminary Assessment of Water Security
and its Nexus to Energy in Korea
J. H. Ahn, H. J. Kim and E. S. Cho
2
1. Water resource overview
Figures from Korean Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MOLIT). http://english.molit.go.kr/USR/cyberJccr/m_32375/lst.jsp#mltm
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200
400
600
800
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.
To
tal P
recip
itati
on
(m
m)
런던
0
200
400
600
800
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.
To
tal P
recip
itati
on
(m
m) Tokyo
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200
400
600
800
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.
To
tal P
recip
itati
on
(m
m)
Seoul (2010) ■
Seoul (1971~2010) ■
서울 / 동경
Average precipitation :
1.6 times higher than
the world average.
Annual precipitation per
capita : just 1/6 of the
global average.
74% of rainfall is
concentrated from June
to September.
Seoul/Korea London/UK
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3
1. Water resources overview
Uneven availability of water: Four rivers and 114 watersheds
High population density and complex riparian relations require strong pollution control
High competition for water: priority to domestic consumption
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
1965 1980 1990 1994 1998 2003 2007
An
nu
al w
ith
dra
wa
ls, km
3/y
ear
Domestic Industrial Agricultural Water reservoirs
3
4
1. Water resource overview
Water use is heavily dependent on surface
water and is susceptible to the change in
river flow.
Total renewable water resource
129.7 bn. m3/year (100%)
Available flow
75.3 bn. m3 (58%)
Loss (evaporation
etc.)
54.4 bn. m3 (42%)
Flood flow
56 bn. m3 (43%)
Normal flow
19.3 bn. m3 (15%)
Discharge to ocean
42 bn. m3 (32%)
River water abstraction
10.8 bn. m3 (8%)
Abstraction from dams
18.8 bn. m3 (15%)
Groundwater abstraction
3.7 bn. m3 (3%)
Total water usage: 33.3 bn. m3/year (26%) Data from National Comprehensive
Water Resource Plan – 2nd Revision
(2011-2020) by MOLIT
Water Stress (OECD, 2012)
4
5
1. Water resource overview
WSS sector achievements GNI, US$ Coverage
• Water supply coverage: from 17% (1961) to 98% (2010) • Wastewater services coverage: from 2% (1961) to 92% (2010) • Wastewater collection and treatment >95% wastewater collected • Proper accounting of all costs and revenues of the sector since early reform • Population concern on environmental pollution forced immediate actions
5
6
2. Vulnerability of WSS Category Sub-category (14) Proxy indicator Impact type WF
Exposure
Available water resources Surplus/deficit + 1.1
Source water quality Dissolved oxygen Suspended solids Total coliforms
+ + +
1.23
Sensitivity
Abstraction facilities Abstraction capacity % of own water resource Operating ratio
- - +
0.98
Pipelines
Conveyance Length % of old pipes Length-weighted avg. pipe age % of GIS implementation
+ + + -
0.89 0.91 0.92 1.03
Transmission
Distribution
Watering
Treatment facilities
Capacity % of own water abstraction Operating ratio Maximum water transmission amount Unit electricity use
- - + - +
1.14
Water distribution facilities Design capacity Pumps density in pipeline
- - 0.97
Watering Regional water supply ratio % of own production Water supply ratio
- - -
0.91
Leakage
Estimated leakage in transmission Estimated leakage in distribution Estimated leakage in watering Estimated leakage at taps
+ + + +
1.07
Failure (cut off) Total no. of events Total elapsed time
+ + 0.91
Adaptive capacity
Budgets and human resources
O&M cost Construction cost % of Risk Mgmt. budget Man-power per amount of water supplied
- - - -
1.03
Water reuse Amount of water reuse - 0.97
Exposure
Potential
Impacts
Adaptive
Capacity
Vulnerability to
Climate Change
Sensitivity
Assessment Framework
6
7
2. Vulnerability of WSS
Sanitation/WW
Finance
Water use/Runoff
O&M
Utility Capacity
Water Supply
Economic Risk
Natural Resources (Water supply / Surface runoff)
Utility Capacity
Utility O&M
Benchmark
[ Assessing Adaptive Capacity ]
7
SEOUL
8
2. Vulnerability of WSS
Metropolitan cities
such as Seoul and
Busan are more
resilient to climate
change.
Vulnerability Scores of Water Supply Security
Vulnerability score
More
Vulnerable
More
Resilient
Local districts at
inland or coastal
areas are more
vulnerable.
Vulnerability score
Pop. Density (people per km2)
Lev
el
of
cust
om
er
com
pla
ints
(#
of
com
pla
ints
pe
r 1
,00
0 c
ust
om
ers
)
Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient
Vulnerability score
Level of customer complaints
0.34 (p<0.01, n=164)
Population density
-0.54 (p<0.01, n=164)
8
9
2. Vulnerability of WSS
Intrinsic problems of small water supply
system would result in high vulnerability.
- rely on small streams, valley flows and shallow
groundwater, which are very susceptible to
meteorological and climate change.
Making the system more resilient by
consolidating service providers and enhancing efficiency .
-
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2006
Overcapacity, Water
Capacity, 000 m3/day Production, 000 m3/day
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
Metropolitan cities Cities Guns
Co
st r
eco
very
, %
Production cost (US$/m3) Cost recovery, %
Water production cost and cost recovery by scale of operations
Over-decentralization
Low technical capacity and inefficiency of small providers
Growing cost of operations
Water pollution remains a big problem
Over-reliance on subsidy for operations
No direct connection between water demand and water resources
9
10
3. Energy use in water sector Every step of water supply requires energy, and electricity is the primary energy
source.
Water treatment plants of metropolitan cites and K-water exhibited higher energy efficiencies than those of local provinces.
Sectors
Water
Intake/production
(million m3/year)
Electricity Use
(GWh/year)
Water Intake
Facilities 6,846 1,475.4
Water Treatment
Plants
(Domestic Use)
5,639 1,101.7
Water Treatment
Plants
(Industrial Use)
427 104.7
Un
it E
lect
rici
ty U
se (
kW
h/m
3)
Metropolitan cities
Multi-regional
Waterworks
Regional Waterworks
(local provinces)
Unit Electricity Use at Water Treatment Facilities
10
11
3. Energy use in water sector Electricity is the primary energy source in
Publicly Owned Treatment Works (POTWs),
and it shares about 0.49% of the national
electricity use.
Electricity cost in POTWs has increased by
about 10% every year due to service expansion and
stricter regulation.
-
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
-
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
120,000
140,000
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Tota
l Ele
ctrici
ty U
se in P
OTW
s (G
Wh)
Annual Ele
ctrici
ty C
ost
(m
illion K
RW
)
Annual Electricity Cost (million
KRW)
Data from Korean Ministry of Environment (2008)
Energy Recovery from Sewage Sludge & Food Waste
11
12
3. Energy use in water sector In WWTs, aeration blower and induction pump consume 40.1% and 21.3% of electricity, respectively.
Those two facilities will be the major target for energy management.
413,558 m3/day of digestion gas is mainly used for digester heating.
In 2007, only 59 of 347 WWTs utilized digestion gas.
Data from Korean Ministry of Environment (2008)
Induction
pump; 21.3%
Sludge transfer;
3.6%
Thickener
pump; 0.8% Digester
pump; 0.5%
Discharge
pump; 2.3%
Filter press
washing pump;
1.0% Aeration blower;
40.1%
Digester gas
mixer; 1.4%
Dewatering
facility; 6.4%
Miscellaneous;
22.6%
Electricity Use in Each Unit Utilization of Digestion Gas
Digester heating
75%
Dryer fuel
4%
Power
generation
5%
Discard after
digestion
13%
Miscellaneous
3%
12
13
3. Energy use in water sector
Sludge Utilization
13
Anaerobic Digestion
Dry Fuel
T-P removal Conventional Treatment Thickening
Recyling/Reuse
Dewatering/Dry
Sludge minimization: 10,179 t/d 8,250t/d(digester) 4,425 t/d (dry
fuel)
Energy recovery: 423 GWh/yr (digester) + 1,289 GWh/yr (dry fuel)
0.32% of total electricity use
Recycling/Reuse: p-fertilizer, construction material , composting
IEMS ① Energy Network Monitoring ② Assessing Energy Use & Production
Tertiary
Energy Saving Strategy
Energy Production Strategy
Sewage Potential Energy (196 kWh/pe/yr) vs. Energy Consumption
(49kWh/pe/yr)
2030년 Goal: Energy Net Consumption 18 kWh/pe/yr (less than EU
level)
50% Energy Efficiency in WWTs
Energy Efficiency
14
3. Energy use in water sector Introducing FWD and Energy Recovery
WWT Energy Consumption (2009) = 2,452 GWh/yr FWD 18% penetration rate (2030) Potential Energy Savings = 42 kWh/pe·yr
- Kroiss H (2010)., Kroiss H (2011), Herramos Lecture, IWA WWC, Montreal. - 2050 Sewerage Policy (MOE, 2012)
14
disposer
15
4. Water use in energy sector The share of hydropower generation is very low in Korean power generation portfolio.
Hydro- and pumped storage power generation is just 0.8% and 0.7% of the total electricity generation, respectively, in 2012.
Major power generation plants are located in coastal areas, and use seawater as cooling water.
Hydropower cannot be overlooked in the electricity grid management because of shorter start-up time during the peak demand.
Nuclear
29.5%
Thermal
(Coal)
35.5%
Thermal (Oil)
9.5%
Thermal(LNG)
22.4%
Pumped-
storage
hydropower
0.7%
Renewable
(except
hydropower)
2%
Renewable
(hydropower)
0.8%
Electricity Generation by Source (2012)
Data from Korean Power Exchange (2013)
Location of Power Generation Plants in Korea
Kim Y.J. (2005). http://mdcl.snu.ac.kr 15
5. Policy Initiatives
Ko ea gove e t p epa ed Co p ehe sive Cli ate Cha ge Adaptatio Pla Acco di g to Framework Act on Low Carbon and Green Growth , the atio al adaptatio p og a s
were drawn up for 6 sectors including water.
The Act also requires mayors and province governors to work out the implementation
plans every 5 year.
Comprehensive Climate Change Adaptation Plan (2009-2030)
Target
Short-term (to 2012) - Urgent tasks such as vulnerability assessment
Long-term (to 2030) – Programs to mitigate the impacts by climate change and to take
advantage of business opportunities
Plan Scope
Monitoring & forecasting of climate change, assessing impacts & vulnerability, adaptation
programs
16
5. Policy Initiatives
The national adaptation plan addresses several measures for water sector as follows.
Area Specific Measures
Water Resource Mgmt.
- Updating Comprehensive Water Resource Mgmt. Plan (2011)
- Updating National Waterworks Plan to secure water supply (2014)
- Establishing integrated dam operation (2011)
- Networking regional & local waterworks for emergency mgmt.
- Expanding wastewater reuse and rainwater harvesting
- Water demand mgmt. (water saving)
Water Quality Mgmt.
- Nonpoint source control during floods
- Point source control (esp. phosphorus) and algal monitoring
- Monitoring aquatic ecology in rivers and lakes
- Restoring impaired rivers
Flood control
- Preparing and Updating Watershed Flood Mitigation Plan (2008)
- Revising the design standard of flood-control structures (2009)
- Upgrading existing dams against extreme floods (2015)
- Advancing flood forecasting system and making national flood map (2012)
17
5. Policy Initiatives
Multi-regional waterworks operated by K-water were designated as a GHG reduction
target.
K-water declared to reduce the GHG emission from their facilities by 30% by 2020 compared to a
BAU scenario.
To meet the target, K-water will expand the renewable energy production (indirect reduction) and
improve the process efficiencies (direct reduction).
0
100,000
200,000
300,000
400,000
500,000
600,000
0
200,000
400,000
600,000
800,000
1,000,000
1,200,000
1,400,000
to 2009 2010 2011 2012 20132014 to 20192020
Cu
mu
lati
ve G
en
era
tin
g C
ap
aci
ty (
kW
)
Cu
mu
lati
ve I
nve
stm
en
t C
ost
(mil
lio
n K
RW
)
Generating Capacity
Investment Cost
GH
G e
mis
sio
n &
re
du
ctio
n
(tC
O2)
Projected GHG emission
GHG reduction target
Investment Plan for Renewable Energy by K-water GHG emission mgmt. target of K-water
Data and figures from K-Water Long-term Green Project Plan (2010) 18
5. Policy Initiatives
Korean Ministry of Environment published Master Pla for E ergy “elf-sufficiency of
“ewage Treat e t Pla ts in 2010.
By 2030, the renewable energy source will meet 50% of the total energy demand of public-owned
treatment waterworks (POTWs).
POTWs will improve the process efficiency, increase the use of digestion gas, and expand solar-
and wind-power generation at their facilities.
18%
30%
50%
2010 to 2015 2016 to 2020 2021 to 2030
Energy Self-sufficiency Target of POTWs
- Use of digestion gas (16.4%) and
small hydropower (0.6%)
- Energy saving and wind-power
generation (1%)
E. saving (2%), wind-power
(5.4%) and solar-power (4.6)
generation
E. saving (2%) and
solar-power generation (18%)
Data from Korean Ministry of Environment (2010)
19
6. Concluding Remarks
Framework Act on Low Carbon, Green Growth e ui es atio al a d local governments to prepare or update the water-related plans considering the impact of
climate change.
It can guide the governments to mainstream the climate change in their works.
Still, most of the related activities place focus on flood & disaster mgmt., and lack of the efforts to
integrate various areas of water management.
Waterworks including K-Water and POTWs endeavor to reduce the GHG emissions
and enlarge the share of renewable energy sources.
However, few studies have been carried out in the freshwater use in energy sector in Korea.
More investigation is necessary to understand the impact of climate change on the hydropower
generation and the national power supply.
20
6. Concluding Remarks
The high uncertainty in the climate change projection and the fragmented institution
of water mgmt. are often referred as the major problems in Korea.
Interdisciplinary studies such as water security or water-energy nexus cannot be encouraged
under such circumstances.
Interdisciplinary collaboration for data collection could be the first move to solve
those problems.
More or better data accumulated by the collaboration can help reduce the uncertainty of the
climate change projection.
Such collaboration can also facilitate more comprehensive water management.
21
