A More Perfect Union - Boone County Schools 07.pdf · 1777–1790 Why It Matters When the American colonies broke their political ties with Great Britain, they faced the task of forming

190

A More Perfect Union

1777–1790Why It Matters

When the American colonies broke their political ties with Great Britain, they faced the task of forming independent governments at both the state and national levels.

In 1788 the Constitution became the official plan of American government.

The Impact TodayCreated to meet the needs of a changing nation, the Constitution has been the

fundamental law of the United States for more than 200 years. It has served as a model for many constitutions all over the world.

The American Republic to 1877 Video The chapter 7 video, “Discovering Our Constitution,” examines how the Constitution has preserved our government and the rights of citizens for over two hundred years.

1777• Articles of

Confederation written

1778• France goes to

war against Britain 1780• League of ArmedNeutrality formed

1784• Russians found colony on

Kodiak Island, Alaska

1783• Treaty of Paris

CHAPTER 7 A More Perfect Union

1776 1779 1782

191

1787• Shays’s Rebellion

• U.S. Constitutionsigned

• Northwest Ordinance passed

1785• First hot air balloon

crosses English Channel

1789• French Revolution

begins

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit and click on Chapter 7—Chapter Overviews to pre-view chapter information.

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George Washington Addressing the Constitutional Convention by J.B. Stearns The Constitution created the basic form of American government.


1785

1788• British establish penal

colony in Australia

1788 1791

Washington1789–1797

1788• U.S. Constitution

ratified

Step 1 Fold a sheet of paper from side to side,leaving a 2-inch tab uncovered along the side.

Step 2 Turn the paper and fold it into thirds.

Step 3 Unfold and cut along the two insidefold lines.

Step 4 Label the foldable as shown.

Fold it so theleft edge lies2 inches fromthe right edge.

Cut along thetwo folds on

the front flap tomake 3 tabs.

Comparison Study Foldable Make thisfoldable to help you compare the Articles ofConfederation to the U.S. Constitution.

Reading and Writing As you read the chapter,write what you learn about these documentsunder the appropriate tabs.

A More Perfect UnionArticles of

Confederation BothU.S.

Constitution

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1777Articles of Confederationare written

1781All states approve Confederation government

1783Treaty of Paris officiallyends American Revolution

1787Northwest Ordinanceis passed

Main IdeaThe leaders of the new United States worked to define the powers of government.

Key Termsconstitution, bicameral, republic, petition, ordinance, depreciate

Reading StrategyOrganizing Information As you readthe section, re-create the diagrambelow and in the ovals list the powersyou think a national governmentshould have.

Read to Learn• how the weaknesses of the Articles

of Confederation led to instability.• how Congress dealt with the west-

ern lands.

Section Theme Government and Democracy Atboth state and national levels, thegovernment of the United States triedto define its powers.

The Articles of Confederation

Many Americans, from colonial times on, spoke out for liberty. One who lent hervoice to the pursuit of freedom was poet Phillis Wheatley. Celebrated as the founder ofthe African American literary tradition, Wheatley wrote many poems supporting thecolonists in the Revolutionary War. For many Americans, like Wheatley, the end of theRevolution was a reason for joy. American liberty had survived the challenge of war.But could it meet the demands of peace?

Thirteen Independent StatesAlthough the Americans won their independence, they had trouble winning

Britain’s respect. Ignoring the terms of the Treaty of Paris, the British kept troopsat frontier posts in American territory. The British believed the new Americangovernment was weak and ineffective. While Americans were fighting for theirindependence on the battlefield, they were also creating new governments. Afterrejecting British rule, they needed to establish their own political institutions.

192 CHAPTER 7 A More Perfect Union

Powers of government

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

✦1775 ✦1780 ✦1785 ✦1790

Phillis Wheatley

193CHAPTER 7 A More Perfect Union

State ConstitutionsIn May 1776 the Continental Con-

gress asked the states to organizetheir governments, and each movedquickly to adopt a state constitution,or plan of government. By the end of 1776, eight states had drafted con-stitutions. New York and Georgia followed suit in 1777, and Massachu-setts in 1780. Connecticut and RhodeIsland retained their colonial chartersas state constitutions.

Their experience with British rulemade Americans cautious about plac-ing too much power in the hands of asingle ruler. For that reason the statesadopted constitutions that limited thepower of the governor. Pennsylvaniaeven replaced the office of governorwith an elected council of 12 members.

Limiting PowerThe states took other measures

against concentration of power. Theydivided government functions betweenthe governor (or Pennsylvania’s coun-cil) and the legislature. Most states establishedtwo-house, or bicameral, legislatures to dividethe power even further.

The writers of the constitutions not onlywanted to prevent abuses of power in the states,but they also wanted to keep power in the handsof the people. State legislators were popularlyelected, and elections were frequent. In moststates, only white males who were at least 21years old could vote. These citizens also had toown a certain amount of property or pay a cer-tain amount of taxes. Some states allowed freeAfrican American males to vote.

The state constitutions restricted the powersof the governors, which made the legislaturesthe most powerful branch of government. Thestate legislatures struggled to make taxes morefair, but there were many disagreements. Goingfrom dependent colonies to self-governingstates brought new challenges.

Explaining Why did some stateschoose a bicameral legislature?

Forming a RepublicFor Americans, establishing separate state

governments was a much easier task than creatinga central government. They agreed that theircountry should be a republic, a government inwhich citizens rule through elected representa-tives. They could not agree, however, on theorganization and powers of their new republic.

At first most Americans favored a weak cen-tral government. They assumed the stateswould be very much like small, independentcountries—similar to the way that the colonieshad been set up. The states would act independ-ently on most issues, working together througha central government only to wage war and han-dle relations with other nations.

Planning a New GovernmentIn 1776 the Second Continental Congress

appointed a committee to draw up a plan for a new government. The delegates in the Congressrealized they needed a central government to


Surveying the Land

When the Revolution began, only a few thou-sand white settlers lived west of the AppalachianMountains. By the 1790s their numbers hadincreased to about 120,000. Through the Ordi-nance of 1785, Congress created a system for sur-veying––taking a detailed measurement of anarea of land––and selling the western lands.

The Ordinance at first applied only to what was then called the Northwest Territory––present-day Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, and Wisconsin. It established a system of land survey and settlement that we still use today.

coordinate the war effort against Britain. Aftermuch debate the Congress adopted the commit-tee’s plan, the Articles of Confederation, inNovember 1777.

The Articles, America’s first constitution, pro-vided for a new central government under whichthe states gave up little of their power. For thestates, the Articles of Confederation were “a firmleague of friendship” in which each state retained“its sovereignty, freedom and independence.”

Under the Articles of Confederation, the gov-ernment—consisting of the Congress—had theauthority to conduct foreign affairs, maintainarmed forces, borrow money, and issue currency.Yet it could not regulate trade, force citizens tojoin the army, or impose taxes. If Congressneeded to raise money or troops, it had to ask thestate legislatures—but the states were notrequired to contribute. In addition the govern-

ment lacked a chief executive. The Confederationgovernment carried on much of its business, suchas selling western lands, through congressionalcommittees.

Under the new plan, each state had one votein Congress, regardless of its population, and all states had to approve the Articles as well asany amendments. Despite this arrangement, thelarger states believed that their population war-ranted having more votes. The states were alsodivided by whether or not they claimed land inthe West. Maryland refused to approve the Articles until New York, Virginia, and otherstates abandoned claims to lands west of theAppalachian Mountains. Finally the states settled their differences. With Maryland’s ratifi-cation, all 13 states had approved the Articles.On March 1, 1781, the Confederation formallybecame the government of the United States.

194

The Land Ordinance led to thesale of large amounts of land

and speeded settlement of the Northwest Territory.


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The Confederation GovernmentThe years between 1781 and 1789 were a crit-

ical period for the young American republic.The Articles of Confederation did not provide agovernment strong enough to handle the prob-lems facing the United States. The Congress hadlimited authority. It could not pass a law unlessnine states voted in favor of it. Any attempt tochange the Articles required the consent of all 13states, making it difficult for the Congress topass laws when there was any opposition.Despite its weaknesses, the Confederation didaccomplish some important things. Under theConfederation government, Americans wontheir independence and expanded foreign trade.The Confederation also provided for settlingand governing the nation’s western territories.

Explaining What powers did theConfederation government have?

New Land PoliciesAt the beginning of the Revolutionary War,

only a few thousand settlers lived west of theAppalachian Mountains. By the 1790s the num-ber was approaching 120,000. These western set-tlers hoped to organize their lands as states andjoin the union, but the Articles of Confederationcontained no provision for adding new states.Congress realized that it had to extend itsnational authority over the frontier and bringorder to this territory.

During the 1780s all of the states except Geor-gia gave up their claims to lands west of theAppalachians, and the central government tookcontrol of these lands. In 1784 Congress, under

Northwest TerritoryPresent-day state boundaries

The Northwest Territory was dividedinto townships, each with 36 sections.

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Township: American Building BlockWestern lands north of the Ohio River were dividedinto townships six miles to a side. Each township con-tained 36 square miles, or “sections.”

The Northwest Territory MotionIn

SOUTHCAROLINA

VIRGINIA

CONNECTICUT

DELAWARE

GEORGIA

MARYLAND

MASSACHUSETTS

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NEW JERSEY

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PENNSYLVANIA

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Confederation

a plan proposed by Thomas Jefferson, dividedthe western territory into self-governing dis-tricts. When the number of people in a districtreached the population of the smallest existingstate, that district could petition, or apply to,Congress for statehood.

The Ordinance of 1785In 1785 the Confederation Congress passed an

ordinance, or law, that established a procedurefor surveying and selling the western landsnorth of the Ohio River. The new law dividedthis massive territory into townships six mileslong and six miles wide. These townships wereto be further divided into 36 sections of 640 acreseach that would be sold at public auction for atleast a dollar an acre.

Land speculators viewed the law as an oppor-tunity to cheaply accumulate large tracts ofland. Concerned about lawless people movinginto western lands, Richard Henry Lee, the pres-ident of Congress, urged that “the rights ofproperty be clearly defined” by the government.Congress drafted another ordinance to protectthe interests of hard-working settlers.

The Northwest OrdinanceThe Northwest Ordinance, passed in 1787,

created a single Northwest Territory out of thelands north of the Ohio River and east of theMississippi River. The lands were to be dividedinto three to five smaller territories. When thepopulation of a territory reached 60,000, thepeople could petition for statehood. Each newstate would come into the Union with the samerights and privileges as the original 13 states.

The Northwest Ordinance included a bill ofrights for the settlers, guaranteeing freedom of religion and trial by jury. It also stated, “Thereshall be neither slavery nor involuntary servi-tude in said territory.” This clause marked theUnited States’s first attempt to stop the spread of slavery.

The Confederation’s western ordinances hadan enormous effect on American expansion anddevelopment. The Ordinance of 1785 and theNorthwest Ordinance opened the way for settle-ment of the Northwest Territory in a stable andorderly manner.

Explaining What was the purposeof the Northwest Ordinance?


Trouble on Two FrontsDespite its accomplishments, the Confeder-

ation government had so little power that itcould not deal with the country’s financialproblems. It also failed to resolve problemswith Britain and Spain.

EconomicsFinancial Problems

By 1781 the money printed during the Revo-lutionary War had depreciated, or fallen invalue, so far that it was almost worthless.Unable to collect taxes, both the ContinentalCongress and the states had printed their ownpaper money. No gold or silver backed up thesebills. The value of the bills plummeted, whilethe price of food and other goods soared.Between 1779 and 1781, the number of Conti-nental dollars required to buy one Spanish silverdollar rose from 40 to 146. In Boston and someother areas, high prices led to food riots.

Fighting the war left the Continental Con-gress with a large debt. Congress had borrowedmoney from American citizens and foreigngovernments during the war. It still owed theRevolutionary soldiers their pay for military serv-ice. Lacking the power to tax, the Confederation

$

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C07-06P


could not pay its debts. It requested funds fromthe states, but the states contributed only a smallportion of the money needed.

Robert Morris’s Import TaxIn 1781, faced with a total collapse of the

country’s finances, Congress created a depart-ment of finance under Philadelphia merchantRobert Morris. While serving in Congress, Mor-ris had proposed a 5 percent tax on importedgoods to help pay the national debt.

The plan required that the Articles of Confed-eration be changed to give Congress the powerto levy the tax. Although 12 states approved theplan, Rhode Island’s opposition killed the meas-ure. A second effort in 1783 also failed to winunanimous approval. The financial crisis onlyworsened.

Problems with BritainThe weaknesses of the new American gov-

ernment became more evident as the UnitedStates encountered problems with other coun-tries. In the Treaty of Paris of 1783, Britain hadpromised to withdraw from the lands east ofthe Mississippi River. Yet British troops contin-ued to occupy several strategic forts in theGreat Lakes region.

Robert MorrisContinental currency

Pennsylvania merchant and banker RobertMorris became Superintendent of Finance inMay 1781. What reform did Morrispropose to help the nation’s finances?

History

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Use each of these terms

in a complete sentence that will helpexplain its meaning: constitution,bicameral, republic, petition, ordinance, depreciate.

2. Reviewing Facts Describe the coun-try’s financial problems after the Revolutionary War.

Reviewing Themes3. Government and Democracy Why

did most states limit the power oftheir governors and divide the legis-lature into two bodies?

Critical Thinking4. Predicting Consequences What

effect do you think the NorthwestOrdinance had on Native Americans?

5. Organizing Information Re-createthe diagram below and summarizethe strengths and weaknesses of theConfederation government.

Analyzing Visuals6. Geography Skills Study the material

on pages 194 and 195 about the Ordi-nance of 1785. Then answer thesequestions. What present-day stateswere created from the Northwest Ter-ritory? How many sections are in atownship?

Problems With SpainIf American relations with Great Britain were

poor, affairs with Spain were worse. Spain,which held Florida as well as lands west of theMississippi River, was anxious to halt Americanexpansion into the territory it claimed. As aresult, Spain closed the lower Mississippi Riverto American shipping in 1784. Western settlersdepended on the Mississippi River for commerce.As John Jay, the American secretary of foreignaffairs, had noted a few years earlier:

“The Americans, almost to a man, believed thatGod Almighty had made that river a highway for the people of the upper country to go to sea by.”

In 1786 American diplomats reached an agree-ment with Spain. Representatives from theSouthern states, however, blocked the agreementbecause it did not include the right to use theMississippi River.

The weakness of the Confederation and itsinability to deal with problems worried manyleaders. George Washington described the gov-ernment as “little more than the shadow withoutthe substance.” Many Americans began to agreethat the country needed a stronger government.

Analyzing Why did Spain close thelower Mississippi River to American trade?

British trade policy caused other problems.American merchants complained that theBritish were keeping Americans out of the WestIndies and other profitable British markets.

In 1785 Congress sent John Adams to Londonto discuss these difficulties. The British, how-ever, were not willing to talk. They pointed tothe failure of the United States to honor itspromises made in the Treaty of Paris. The Britishclaimed that Americans had agreed to pay Loy-alists for the property taken from them duringthe Revolutionary War. The Congress had, infact, recommended that the states pay the Loy-alists, but the states had refused.


Citizenship Imagine you are anAmerican citizen in the 1780s. Createa poster that defends the Articles ofConfederation. Be sure to includereasons the Confederation Congressis needed.

The Forgotten President? Who was the first president of the United States? Was it George Washington—or JohnHanson? Some historians consider Hanson the first UnitedStates president because he was the first to serve in theoffice in 1781 under the Articles of Confederation. Otherhistorians argue that Hanson was the head of Congress,but not until George Washington began his term in 1789did the nation have a “true” president.

John Hanson


Strengths Weaknesses

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199

1784Rhode Island passesplan to end slavery

May 1787Delegates meet to reviseArticles of Confederation

September 1787Delegates sign draftof Constitution

September 1786Daniel Shays leadsrebellion

Main IdeaThe new Constitution corrected theweaknesses of government under theArticles of Confederation.

Key Termsdepression, manumission, propor-tional, compromise

Reading StrategyOrganizing Information As you readthe section, re-create the diagrambelow. In the boxes, describe the roleeach individual played in creating thenew plan of government.

Read to Learn• how the Constitutional Convention

broke the deadlock over the formthe new government would take.

• how the delegates answered thequestion of representation.

Section ThemeGroups and Institutions Nationalleaders worked to produce a newconstitution for the United States.

Convention and Compromise


By 1786 many Americans observed that the Confederation was not working. GeorgeWashington himself agreed that the United States was really “thirteen Sovereigntiespulling against each other.”

In the spring of 1787, Washington joined delegates from Virginia and 11 other stateswho gathered in Philadelphia to address this problem. Rhode Island decided not to par-ticipate. The delegates came “for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articlesof Confederation.”

Economic DepressionThe call to revise the Articles of Confederation came while the young nation

faced difficult problems. Many Americans believed that the Confederation gov-ernment was too weak to deal with these challenges.

After the Revolutionary War ended, the United States went through adepression, a period when economic activity slowed and unemployment

George Washington

Role

Edmund Randolph

James Madison

Roger Sherman

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

✦1783 ✦1785 ✦1787 ✦1789

increased. Southern plantations had been dam-aged during the war, and rice exports droppedsharply. Trade also fell off when the Britishclosed the profitable West Indies (Caribbean)market to American merchants. What littlemoney there was went to pay foreign debts, anda serious currency shortage resulted.

Difficult Times for FarmersAmerican farmers suffered because they

could not sell their goods. They had problemspaying the requests for money that the stateslevied to meet Revolutionary War debts. As aresult state officials seized farmers’ lands to paytheir debts and threw many farmers into jail.Grumblings of protest soon grew into revolt.

Shays’s RebellionResentment grew especially strong in Massa-

chusetts. Farmers viewed the new governmentas just another form of tyranny. They wanted thegovernment to issue paper money and makenew policies to relieve debtors. In a letter to stateofficials, some farmers proclaimed:

“Surely your honours are not strangers to thedistresses [problems] of the people but . . .know that many of our good inhabitants arenow confined in [jail] for debt and taxes.”

In 1786 angry farmers lashed out. Led by DanielShays, a former Continental Army captain, theyforced courts in western Massachusetts to closeso judges could not confiscate farmers’ lands.

In January 1787 Shays led more than 1,000farmers toward the federal arsenal in Spring-field, Massachusetts, for arms and ammuni-tion. The state militia ordered the advancingfarmers to halt, then fired over their heads. Thefarmers did not stop, and the militia firedagain, killing four rebels. Shays and his follow-ers scattered, and the uprising was over.

Shays’s Rebellion frightened many Ameri-cans. They worried that the government couldnot control unrest and prevent violence. Onhearing of the rebellion, George Washingtonwondered whether “mankind, when left tothemselves, are unfit for their own govern-ment.” Thomas Jefferson, minister to France atthe time, had a different view. “A little rebellion,now and then,” he wrote, “is a good thing.”

The Issue of SlaveryThe Revolutionary War brought attention to

the contradiction between the American battlefor liberty and the practice of slavery. Between1776 and 1786, 11 states—all except South Car-olina and Georgia—outlawed or heavily taxedthe importation of enslaved people.

Although slavery was not a major source oflabor in the North, it existed and was legal in allthe Northern states. Many individuals andgroups began to work to end the institution ofslavery. In 1774 Quakers in Pennsylvania organ-ized the first American antislavery society. Six


Only through donations was Massachusettsable to raise a militia to defeat Shays. Whydid Shays’s Rebellion frighten manyAmericans?

History

years later Pennsylvania passed a law that pro-vided for the gradual freeing of enslaved people.

Between 1783 and 1804, Connecticut, RhodeIsland, New York, and New Jersey passed lawsthat gradually ended slavery. Still, free AfricanAmericans faced discrimination. They werebarred from many public places. Few states gavefree African Americans the right to vote. The chil-dren of most free blacks had to attend separateschools. Free African Americans established theirown institutions—churches, schools, andmutual-aid societies—to seek opportunity.

The states south of Pennsylvania clung to theinstitution of slavery. The plantation system ofthe South had been built on slavery, and manySoutherners feared that their economy couldnot survive without it. Nonetheless, an increas-ing number of slaveholders began freeing the enslaved people that they held after the war. Virginia passed a law that encouragedmanumission, the freeing of individualenslaved persons, and the state’s population offree African Americans grew.

The abolition of slavery in the North dividedthe new country on the critical issue of whetherpeople should be allowed to hold other humanbeings in bondage. This division came at the timewhen many American leaders had decided thatthe Articles of Confederation needed strengthen-ing. In the summer of 1787, when state represen-tatives assembled to plan a new government,they compromised on this issue. It would takeyears of debate, bloodshed, and ultimately a warto settle the slavery question.

Explaining Why didSouthern states support slavery?

A Call for ChangeThe American Revolution had

led to a union of 13 states, but it hadnot yet created a nation. Some lead-ers were satisfied with a system ofindependent state governmentsthat resembled the old colonialgovernments. Others saw a

strong national government as the solution toAmerica’s problems. They demanded a reformof the Articles of Confederation.

Two Americans active in the movement forchange were James Madison, a Virginia planter,and Alexander Hamilton, a New York lawyer. InSeptember 1786, Hamilton proposed calling aconvention in Philadelphia to discuss trade issues.He also suggested that this convention considerwhat possible changes were needed to make

“the Constitution of the Federal Governmentadequate to the exigencies [needs] of theUnion.”

At first George Washington was not enthusi-astic about the movement to revise the Articlesof Confederation. When he heard the news ofShays’s Rebellion, Washington changed hismind. After Washington agreed to attend thePhiladelphia convention, the meeting took ongreater significance.

Evaluating Why did Madison andHamilton call for a convention in 1787?

201

Philadelphia preachers RichardAllen (left) and Absalom Jones(right) founded the Free AfricanSociety and later set up the first African American churches.What challenges did freeAfrican Americans face?

History

The Constitutional ConventionThe Philadelphia meeting began in May 1787

and continued through one of the hottest sum-mers on record. The 55 delegates includedplanters, merchants, lawyers, physicians, gener-als, governors, and a college president. Three ofthe delegates were under 30 years of age, andone, Benjamin Franklin, was over 80. Many werewell educated. At a time when only one whiteman in 1,000 went to college, 26 of the delegateshad college degrees. Native Americans, AfricanAmericans, and women were not consideredpart of the political process, so none attended.

Several men stood out as leaders. The pres-ence of George Washington and BenjaminFranklin ensured that many people would trustthe Convention’s work. Two Philadelphians alsoplayed key roles. James Wilson often readFranklin’s speeches and did important work onthe details of the Constitution. GouverneurMorris, a powerful speaker and writer, wrotethe final draft of the Constitution.

From Virginia came Edmund Randolph andJames Madison. Both were keen supporters of astrong national government. Madison’s carefulnotes are the major source of information aboutthe Convention’s work. Madison is often called

the Father of the Constitution because he wasthe author of the basic plan of government thatthe Convention adopted.

OrganizationThe Convention began by unanimously

choosing George Washington to preside over themeetings. It also decided that each state wouldhave one vote on all questions. A simple major-ity vote of those states present would make deci-sions. No meetings could be held unlessdelegates from at least seven of the 13 stateswere present. The delegates decided to closetheir doors to the public and keep the sessionssecret. This was a key decision because it madeit possible for the delegates to talk freely.

The Virginia PlanAfter the rules were adopted, the Convention

opened with a surprise. It came from the Vir-ginia delegation. Edmund Randolph proposed

America’s Architecture

Independence Hall The Pennsylvania State House,later known as Independence Hall, was the site of thesigning of the Declaration of Independence and of theConstitutional Convention. Independence Hall wasrestored in 1950 and is now maintained as a museum.Why do you think this site was used for many important events?


that the delegates create a strong national government instead of revising the Articles of Confederation. He introduced the VirginiaPlan, which was largely the work of JamesMadison. The plan called for a two-house legislature, a chief executive chosen by the leg-islature, and a court system. The members ofthe lower house of the legislature would beelected by the people. The members of theupper house would be chosen by the lowerhouse. In both houses the number of represen-tatives would be proportional, or correspon-ding in size, to the population of each state.This would give Virginia many more delegates than Delaware, the state with thesmallest population.

Delegates from Delaware, New Jersey, andother small states immediately objected to theplan. They preferred the Confederation systemin which all states were represented equally.

Delegates unhappy with the Virginia Plan ral-lied around William Paterson of New Jersey. OnJune 15 he presented an alternative plan thatrevised the Articles of Confederation, which wasall the convention was empowered to do.

The New Jersey PlanThe New Jersey Plan kept the Confederation’s

one-house legislature, with one vote for eachstate. Congress, however, could set taxes andregulate trade—powers it did not have under theArticles. Congress would elect a weak executivebranch consisting of more than one person.

Paterson argued that the Convention shouldnot deprive the smaller states of the equalitythey had under the Articles. Thus, his plan wasdesigned simply to amend the Articles.

Explaining Why did some dele-gates criticize the Virginia Plan?

Compromise Wins OutThe convention delegates had to decide

whether they were simply revising the Articlesof Confederation or writing a constitution for anew national government. On June 19 the statesvoted to work toward a national governmentbased on the Virginia Plan, but they still had toresolve the thorny issue of representation thatdivided the large and small states.

James Madison, only36 at the time of the Con-stitutional Convention,was the best prepared ofthe delegates. In themonths before the con-vention, he had made adetailed study of govern-ment. He read hundredsof books on history, poli-tics, and economics. Healso corresponded withThomas Jefferson.

Madison looked forways to build a strong butfair system of government.He knew that republicswere considered weakerthan monarchies becausekings or queens could use their authority to actquickly and decisively.Who would provide thesame leadership in arepublic? At the sametime, Madison was con-

cerned about protectingthe people from misuse ofpower. As he searched forsolutions, Madisonworked out a new planthat included a system ofbalances among differentfunctions of government.The delegates adoptedmany of Madison’s ideasin what would becomethe United States Consti-tution.

Discussion and DisagreementAs the convention delegates struggled to deal

with difficult questions, tempers and tempera-tures grew hotter. How were the members ofCongress to be elected? How would state repre-sentation be determined in the upper and lowerhouses? Were enslaved people to be counted aspart of the population on which representationwas based?

CitizenshipThe Great Compromise

Under Franklin’s leadership, the conventionappointed a “grand committee” to try to resolvetheir disagreements. Roger Sherman of Con-necticut suggested what came to be known asthe Great Compromise. A compromise is anagreement between two or more sides in whicheach side gives up some of what it wants.

Sherman proposed a two-house legislature. Inthe lower house—the House of Representa-tives—the number of seats for each state wouldvary according to the state’s population. In theupper house—the Senate—each state wouldhave two members.

The Three-Fifths CompromiseAnother major compromise by the delegates

dealt with counting enslaved people. Southernstates wanted to include the enslaved in theirpopulation counts to gain delegates in theHouse of Representatives. Northern statesobjected to this idea because enslaved peoplewere legally considered property. Some dele-gates from Northern states argued that theenslaved, as property, should be counted forthe purpose of taxation but not representation.However, neither side considered givingenslaved people the right to vote.

The committee’s solution, known as theThree-Fifths Compromise, was to count eachenslaved person as three-fifths of a free personfor both taxation and representation. In otherwords, every five enslaved persons would equalthree free persons. On July 12 the conventiondelegates voted to approve the Three-FifthsCompromise. Four days later, they agreed thateach state should elect two senators.

204 CHAPTER 7 A More Perfect Union7 A More Perfect Union

Delegates to the Constitutional Conventionmet in this room at Independence Hall. Howmany states had to ratify the Constitu-tion before it went into effect?

History

Slave TradeThe convention needed to resolve another dif-

ficult issue that divided the Northern and South-ern states. Having banned the slave trade withintheir borders, Northern states wanted to prohibitit throughout the nation. Southern states consid-ered slavery and the slave trade essential to theireconomies. To keep the Southern states in thenation, Northerners agreed that the Congresscould not interfere with the slave trade until1808. Beginning that year Congress could limitthe slave trade if it chose to.

Bill of RightsGeorge Mason of Virginia proposed a bill of

rights to be included in the Constitution. Somedelegates worried that without the protection of abill of rights the new national government mightabuse its power. However, most of the delegatesbelieved that the Constitution, with its carefullydefined listing of government powers, providedadequate protection of individual rights. Mason’sproposal was defeated.

Approving the ConstitutionThe committees finished their work on the

Constitution in late summer. On September 17,1787, the delegates assembled in the Philadelphia

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Use the terms that follow

to write a newspaper article about themain events of the ConstitutionalConvention: depression, manumis-sion, proportional, compromise.

2. Reviewing Facts Explain whatcaused Shays’s Rebellion. What wasone effect?

Reviewing Themes3. Groups and Institutions How did

the Great Compromise satisfy boththe small and the large states on thequestion of representation?

Critical Thinking4. Summarizing Information You are

asked to write a 30-second newsbroadcast to announce the agree-ment made in the Great Compro-mise. What would you include in the broadcast?

5. Analyzing Information Re-createthe diagram below and identify argu-ments for and against ratifying theConstitution.

Analyzing Visuals6. Picturing History Examine the

images that appear on pages 202and 204. What do they show? Whereare they located? Why are theseplaces important in the nation’s history?

CHAPTER 7 A More Perfect Union 205

Government Create a politicalcartoon that illustrates the view ofeither the Northern states or theSouthern states on how enslavedpeople should be counted for representation.

State House to sign thedocument. Franklincalled for approval:

“ I consent to thisConstitution because I expect no better, andbecause I am not sure,that it is not the best.”

Three delegates refused to sign—Elbridge Gerryof Massachusetts, and Edmund Randolph andGeorge Mason of Virginia. Gerry and Masonwould not sign without a bill of rights. Randolphcalled for a second constitutional convention.

The Confederation Congress then sent theapproved draft of the Constitution to the statesfor consideration. To amend the Articles of Con-federation had required unanimous approval ofthe states. Getting a unanimous vote had provedslow and frustrating. Therefore, the delegatesagreed to change the approval process for theConstitution. When 9 of the 13 states hadapproved, the new government of the UnitedStates would come into existence. ; (See pages232–253 for the entire text of the Constitution.)

Analyzing Who refused to sign theConstitution? Explain why.

HISTORY

Student Web ActivityVisit and click on Chapter 7—Student Web Activitiesfor an activity on the Con-stitutional Convention.

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Ratification

Arguments for Arguments against


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Making ComparisonsWhy Learn This Skill?

Suppose you want to buy a portable compact disc(CD) player, and you must choose among threemodels. You would probably compare characteristicsof the three models, such as price, sound quality,and size, to figure out which model is best for you.When you study American history, you often comparepeople or events from one time period with thosefrom a different time period.

Learning the SkillWhen making comparisons, you examine two or

more groups, situations, events, or documents. Thenyou identify similarities and differences. For exam-ple, the chart on this page compares two documents,specifically the powers each gave the federal govern-ment. The Articles of Confederation were imple-mented before the United States Constitution, whichreplaced the Articles.

When making comparisons, you first decide whatitems will be compared and determine which char-acteristics you will use to compare them. Then you identify similarities and differences in thesecharacteristics.

Practicing the SkillAnalyze the information on the chart on this page.Then answer the following questions.

1 What items are being compared?

2 Which document allowed the government toorganize state militias?

3 Which document allowed the government tocoin money? Regulate trade?

4 In what ways are the two documents different?

5 In what ways are the two documents similar?

Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking

Articles of United States Confederation Constitution

Declare war; make ✔ ✔peace

Organize a court ✔system

Call state militias for ✔service

Take other necessary ✔actions to run thefederal government

Manage foreign ✔ ✔affairs

Establish a postal ✔ ✔system

Coin money ✔ ✔

Impose taxes ✔

Regulate trade ✔

Protect copyrights ✔

Powers of the Federal Government

Applying the SkillMaking Comparisons On the editorial page ofyour local newspaper, find two letters to the editorthat express different viewpoints on the sameissue. Read the letters and identify the similaritiesand differences between the two points of view.

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder InteractiveWorkbook CD-ROM, Level 1, providesinstruction and practice in key social studies skills.

207

1689English Bill of Rightsestablished

1690Locke publishes Two Treatises of Civil Government

1748Montesquieu writes The Spirit of Laws

1787Constitutional Conventionmeets in Philadelphia

Main IdeaThe United States system of govern-ment rests on the Constitution.

Key TermsEnlightenment, federalism, article,legislative branch, executive branch,Electoral College, judicial branch,checks and balances, ratify, Federal-ist, Antifederalist, amendment

Reading StrategyOrganizing Information Re-createthe diagram below. In the boxesexplain how the system of checks andbalances works.

Read to Learn• about the roots of the Constitution.• how the Constitution limits the

power of government.

Section ThemeCivic Rights and ResponsibilitiesThe Constitution outlines the respon-sibilities and the limits of the threebranches of the national government.

A New Plan of Government


As Benjamin Franklin was leaving the last session of the Constitutional Convention,a woman asked, “What kind of government have you given us, Dr. Franklin? A republicor a monarchy?” Franklin answered, “A republic, Madam, if you can keep it.” Franklin’sresponse indicated that a republic—a system of government in which the people electrepresentatives to exercise power for them—requires citizens to take an active role.

Roots of the ConstitutionAfter four long and difficult months, Franklin and the other delegates had

produced a new constitution. The document provided the framework for astrong central government for the United States.

Although a uniquely American document, the Constitution has roots in manyother civilizations. The delegates had studied and discussed the history of polit-ical development at length—starting with ancient Greece—so that their newgovernment could avoid the mistakes of the past.

Washington’s chair, Constitutional Convention

Has check or Examplebalance over:

President

CongressSupremeCourt

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

✦1680 ✦1720 ✦1760 ✦1800

Many ideas embedded in the Constitutioncame from the study of European political institu-tions and political writers. British ideas and insti-tutions particularly influenced the delegates.

The Framers who shaped the document werefamiliar with the parliamentary system ofBritain, and many had participated in the colo-nial assemblies or their state assemblies. Theyvalued the individual rights guaranteed by theBritish judicial system. Although the Americanshad broken away from Britain, they respectedmany British traditions.

British System of GovernmentThe Magna Carta (1215) had placed limits on

the power of the monarch. England’s lawmakingbody, Parliament, emerged as a force that theking had to depend on to pay for wars and tofinance the royal government. Like Parliament,the colonial assemblies controlled their colony’sfunds. For that reason the assemblies had somecontrol over colonial governors.

The English Bill of Rights of 1689 providedanother important model for Americans. ManyAmericans felt that the Constitution also neededa bill of rights.

Framers of the Constitution got many ideason the nature of people and government fromEuropean writers of the Enlightenment. TheEnlightenment was a movement of the 1700sthat promoted knowledge, reason, and scienceas the means to improve society. James Madisonand other architects of the Constitution werefamiliar with the work of John Locke and Baronde Montesquieu (MAHN•tuhs•KYOO), twoimportant philosophers.

Locke, an English philosopher, believed that allpeople have natural rights. These natural rightsinclude the rights to life, liberty, and property. Inhis Two Treatises of Civil Government (1690), hewrote that government is based on an agreement,or contract, between the people and the ruler.Many Americans interpreted natural rights tomean the rights of Englishmen defined in theMagna Carta and the English Bill of Rights. TheFramers viewed the Constitution as a contractbetween the American people and their govern-ment. The contract protected the people’s naturalrights by limiting the government’s power.

In The Spirit of Laws (1748), the French writerMontesquieu declared that the powers of gov-ernment should be separated and balancedagainst each other. This separation would keepany one person or group from gaining too muchpower. The powers of government should alsobe clearly defined and limited to prevent abuse.Following the ideas of Montesquieu, theFramers of the Constitution carefully specifiedand divided the powers of government.

Describing How did the English Billof Rights influence Americans?

The Federal SystemThe Constitution created a federal system of

government that divided powers between thenational, or federal, government and the states.Under the Articles of Confederation the statesretained their sovereignty. Under the Constitu-tion the states gave up some of their powers tothe federal government while keeping others.

Shared PowersFederalism, or sharing power between the fed-

eral and state governments, is one of the distinc-tive features of the United States government.


“[E]very manhas a propertyin his own per-son. This nobodyhas any right tobut himself.”

—John Locke, The SecondTreatise of Government

(1690)

Under the Constitution, the federal governmentgained broad powers to tax, regulate trade, con-trol the currency, raise an army, and declare war.It could also pass laws that were “necessary andproper” for carrying out its responsibilities.

However, the Constitution left importantpowers in the hands of the states. The states hadthe power to pass and enforce laws and regulatetrade within their borders. They could alsoestablish local governments, schools, and otherinstitutions affecting the welfare of their citi-zens. Both federal and state governments alsohad the power to tax and to build roads.

The Constitution BecomesSupreme Law of the Land

The Constitution and the laws that Congresspassed were to be “the supreme law of theland.” No state could make laws or take actionsthat went against the Constitution. Any disputebetween the federal government and the stateswas to be settled by the federal courts on thebasis of the Constitution. Under the new federalsystem, the Constitution became the final andsupreme authority.

Describing What is the principle offederalism?

The Organization of Government

Influenced by Montesquieu’s idea of a divi-sion of powers, the Framers divided the federalgovernment into three branches—legislative,executive, and judicial. The first three articles,or parts, of the Constitution describe the powersand responsibilities of each branch.

The Legislative BranchArticle I of the Constitution establishes Con-

gress, the legislative branch, or lawmakingbranch, of the government. Congress is com-posed of the House of Representatives and theSenate. As a result of the Great Compromisebetween large and small states, each state’s rep-resentation in the House is proportional to itspopulation. Representation in the Senate isequal—two senators for each state.

The powers of Congress include collectingtaxes, coining money, and regulating trade. Congress can also declare war and “raise andsupport armies.” Finally it makes all lawsneeded to fulfill the functions given to it as statedin the Constitution.

The Executive BranchMemories of King George III’s rule made

some delegates reluctant to establish a powerfulexecutive, or ruler. Others believed that the

America’s Architecture

The Old Senate Chamber The U.S. Senate met in the OldSenate Chamber from 1810 until 1859. The two-story chamber issemicircular in shape and measures 75 feet long and 50 feet wide.Two visitors galleries overlook the chamber. After the Senatemoved to its present location, the room was occupied by theSupreme Court, from 1860 to 1935. What branches of govern-ment conducted business in the chamber?

Confederation had failed, in part, because itlacked an executive branch or president. Theyargued that a strong executive would serve as acheck, or limit, on Congress.

Article II of the Constitution established theexecutive branch, headed by the president, tocarry out the nation’s laws and policies. Thepresident serves as commander in chief of thearmed forces and conducts relations with for-eign countries.

The president and a vice president areelected by a special group called the ElectoralCollege, made up of presidential electors. Eachstate’s voters select electors to cast their votesfor the president and vice president. Each statehas as many electors as it has senators and rep-resentatives in Congress. The president andvice president chosen by the electors serve afour-year term.

The Judicial BranchArticle III of the Constitution deals with the

judicial branch, or court system, of the UnitedStates. The nation’s judicial power resides in“one supreme Court” and any other lower fed-eral courts that Congress might establish. The

Supreme Court and the federal courts hear casesinvolving the Constitution, laws passed by Con-gress, and disputes between states.

System of Checks and BalancesThe most distinctive feature of the United

States government is the separation of powers.The Constitution divides government poweramong the legislative, executive, and judicialbranches. To keep any one branch from gainingtoo much power, the Framers built in a systemof checks and balances. The three branches ofgovernment have roles that check, or limit, theothers so that no single branch can dominate thegovernment.

Both the House and the Senate must pass a billfor it to become law. The president can checkCongress by vetoing, or rejecting, the bill. How-ever, Congress can then check the president byoverriding, or voting down, the veto. To overridea veto, two-thirds of the members of both housesof Congress must vote for the bill.

The system of checks and balances alsoapplies to the Supreme Court. The presidentappoints Supreme Court justices, and the Senatemust approve the appointments.


The Supreme Court has the final sayin deciding what the Constitutionmeans. What types of cases doesthe Supreme Court hear?

History

Great Seal of the United States

The Great Seal and the number thirteen

The Great Seal of the United States is the official seal of the United States government. The seal appears on important government documents. First adopted in 1782, it remains in use today. The face of the seal shows an American eagle with its wings spread. The seal also includes the motto E pluribus unum (“From many, one”). Most Americans don’t know it, but they often carry

around the seal. The one-dollar bill has both sides of the

Great Seal on its back.

The United States has had several versions of the Great Seal.

13 letters in the motto above the eye, Annuit Coeptis

13 letters in E Pluribus Unum

13 olives and leaves in the eagle’s right claw

13 arrows in the eagle’s left claw

13 stripes on the eagle’s shield

13 stars in the crest above the eagle

On the Great Seal are


Over time, the Court became a check on Con-gress and the president by ruling on the consti-tutionality of laws and presidential acts. Thesystem has been successful in maintaining a bal-ance of power among the branches of the federalgovernment and limiting abuses of power.

National CitizensThe Constitution created citizens of the

United States. It set up a government in whichthe people choose their officials—directly orindirectly. Officials answer to the people ratherthan to the states. The new government pledgedto protect the personal freedoms of its citizens.

With these revolutionary changes, Americansshowed the world that it was possible for a peo-ple to change its form of government throughdiscussion and choice—rather than throughchaos, force, or war. The rest of the worldwatched the new nation with interest to seewhether its experiment in self-governmentwould really work.

Explaining Why does the Constitu-tion divide government power among the legislative, execu-tive, and judicial branches?

Citizenship

The Constitutional DebateThe delegates at Philadelphia had produced

the Constitution, but its acceptance dependedupon the will of the people. Gaining approval ofthe Constitution, with its radical new plan ofgovernment, was not going to be easy. Support-ers and opponents prepared to defend theirpositions.

Before the Constitution could go into effect,nine states needed to ratify, or approve, it. Statelegislatures set up special ratifying conventionsto consider the document. By late 1787 theseconventions started to meet. Rhode Island stoodapart. Its leaders opposed the Constitution fromthe beginning and therefore did not call a con-vention to approve it.

A great debate now took place throughout thecountry. In newspapers, at public meetings, and inordinary conversations, Americans discussed thearguments for and against the new Constitution.

211

FederalistsSupporters of the new Constitution were

called Federalists. Better organized than theiropponents, Federalists enjoyed the support oftwo of the most respected men in America—George Washington and Benjamin Franklin.

had some dedicated supporters. They respondedto the Federalists with a series of their ownessays, now known as the Antifederalist Papers.Their main argument was that the new Constitu-tion would take away the liberties Americanshad fought to win from Great Britain. The Con-stitution would create a strong central govern-ment, ignore the will of the states and the people,and favor the wealthy few over the commonpeople. Antifederalists preferred local govern-ment close to the people. An energetic centralgovernment, they feared, would be governmentby a small, educated group of individuals. Theyagreed with Patrick Henry, who warned that theConstitution was “incompatible with the geniusof republicanism.”

Protecting RightsPerhaps the strongest criticism of the Consti-

tution was that it lacked a bill of rights to protectindividual freedoms. Antifederalists believedthat no government could be trusted to protectthe freedom of its citizens. Several state conven-tions took a stand and announced that theywould not ratify the Constitution without theaddition of a bill of rights.

Mercy Otis Warren, a Massachusetts oppo-nent of the Constitution, expressed the problemfaced by many Antifederalists. She admitted theneed for a strong government but feared it.

“We have struggled for liberty and made costlysacrifices . . . and there are still many among uswho [value liberty] too much to relinquish . . . therights of man for the dignity of government.”

In many ways the debate between Federal-ists and Antifederalists came down to their dif-ferent fears. Federalists feared disorderwithout a strong central government. Theybelieved that more uprisings like Shays’sRebellion would occur. They looked to theConstitution to create a national governmentcapable of maintaining order. The Antifederal-ists feared oppression more than disorder. Theyworried about the concentration of power thatwould result from a strong national government.

Explaining According to theAntifederalists, why was a bill of rights important?


Three of the nation’s most gifted politicalthinkers—James Madison, Alexander Hamilton,and John Jay—also backed the Constitution.

Madison, Hamilton, and Jay teamed up towrite a series of essays explaining and defendingthe Constitution. These essays appeared innewspapers around the country and werewidely read by Americans of every persuasion.Called The Federalist Papers, they were later pub-lished as a book and sent to delegates at theremaining ratifying conventions. ; (See pages614–615 of the Appendix for excerpts from The Federalist Papers .)

Jefferson described the series of essays as

“the best commentary on the principles ofgovernment which was ever written.”

AntifederalistsThe Federalists called those who opposed rat-

ification Antifederalists. Although not as wellorganized as the Federalists, the Antifederalists

Antifederalist Mercy Otis Warren feared that theConstitution would make the central governmenttoo powerful. What was the biggest criticismof the Constitution by Antifederalists?

History

That left three states—New York, North Car-olina, and Rhode Island—to ratify. In July 1788,New York finally ratified it by a narrow margin.North Carolina ratified in November 1789, andRhode Island ratified in May 1790.

After ratification came the celebrations.Boston, New York, and Philadelphia held bigparades accompanied by cannon salutes andringing church bells. Smaller celebrations tookplace in hundreds of American towns.

The task of creating the Constitution hadended. The Bill of Rights would be added in1791, after the new government took office.Now it was time for the nation to elect leadersand begin the work of government.

Explaining Why was the support ofNew York and Virginia vital to ratifying the Constitution?

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Define the following

terms: Enlightenment, federalism,article, Electoral College, checksand balances, ratify, Federalist,Antifederalist, amendment.

2. Reviewing Facts What influence did John Locke have on Americangovernment?

Reviewing Themes3. Civic Rights and Responsibilities

Why did the Framers of the Constitu-tion believe that a division of powersand a system of checks and balanceswere necessary in a government?

Critical Thinking4. Finding the Main Idea What do you

think was the most important reasonfor establishing a strong central gov-ernment under the Constitution?

5. Comparing Re-create the diagrambelow. Describe the differencesbetween Hamilton’s and Henry’sviews on the Constitution.

Analyzing Visuals6. Political Cartoons Study the politi-

cal cartoon on this page. Thenanswer the questions that follow.What do the pillars represent? Howdo the last two pillars appear?


Citizenship Refer to the Bill ofRights on pages 244–245. Collectphotographs from newspapers ormagazines that illustrate the free-doms guaranteed in the Bill ofRights. Put your photos on a posterentitled “Pictures of Liberty.”

A cartoon published in 1788 celebrates New Hamp-shire becoming the ninth state to ratify the Constitu-tion. From the cartoon, which was the firststate to ratify?

Analyzing Political Cartoons

Views on the Constitution

Hamilton Henry

Adopting the ConstitutionOn December 7, 1787, Delaware became the

first state to approve the Constitution. On June21, 1788, the ninth state—New Hampshire—ratified it. In theory that meant that the new gov-ernment could go into effect. However, withoutthe support of the two largest states—New Yorkand Virginia—the future of the new governmentwas not promising. Neither state had ratified yet,and both had strong Antifederalist groups.

In Virginia, Patrick Henry gave fiery speechesagainst the proposed Constitution. It did not, he charged, sufficiently limit the power of thefederal government. Still, Virginia ratified theConstitution at the end of June 1788, after beingassured that the Constitution would include abill of rights amendment. An amendment issomething added to a document.


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214

Reviewing Key TermsFor each of the pairs of terms below, write a sentence orshort paragraph showing how the two are related.1. constitution, ratify2. bicameral, legislative branch3. executive branch, Electoral College

Reviewing Key Facts4. Summarize the strengths and weaknesses of the

Articles of Confederation.5. What caused the depression after the Revolution?6. How did the Northwest Ordinance provide for the

country’s expansion?7. According to the Virginia Plan, how was the legislature

to be set up?8. Who supported the New Jersey Plan?9. What was the Three-Fifths Compromise?

10. What powers did the Constitution leave in the handsof the state governments?

11. Why did some states want a bill of rights added to theConstitution?

12. How did the Federalist Papers and the AntifederalistPapers influence ideas on systems of U.S. government?

13. How does the system of checks and balances work?

Critical Thinking14. Comparing Who had the most power under the Arti-

cles of Confederation? Re-create the diagram below. Inthe boxes, describe the powers given to the state andnational governments.

15. Analyzing Themes: Groups and Institutions Werethe people who attended the Constitutional Conven-tion representative of the American public? Explain.

16. Drawing Conclusions Why did Madison want checksand balances built into the Constitution?

17. Analyzing Information Refer to the grievances listed in the Declaration of Independence on pages154–157. How were these grievances addressed in the Constitution?

A More Perfect Union

1785• The Land Ordinance provides a

method for settlement of publiclands north of the Ohio River.

1787• Congress provides for the

organization of the NorthwestTerritory and outlines the stepsthat a territory must take inorder to become a state.

• Delegates meet in Philadel-phia and draft the Constitu-tion.

• Delaware becomes the first state to ratify the Constitution.

1788• New Hampshire

becomes the ninthstate to vote for ratification.

1790• The last of the

13 states—RhodeIsland—votes for ratification.

1791• Bill of Rights is added

to the Constitution.

State Governments National Government

1777• Congress adopts the Articles of

Confederation to coordinate the war effort against Britain.

1781• The Articles of Confederation

formally become the government of the United States.

1784• Spain closes the lower Mississippi

River to American shipping.

HISTORY


Directions: Choose the best answer to the following multiple choice question.

Each of the states enacted state constitutions in thelate 1700s. All state constitutions

A established equal rights for all persons living in the state.

B set up legislative and executive branches ofstate government.

C granted women the right to vote.D agreed that states would be supervised by the

federal government.

Test-Taking Tip: Eliminate answers that do not make sense. For

example, equal rights for all (choice A) is a fairly newconcept. During the 1700s, women and enslaved

people had few rights.

Geography and History ActivityExamine the map of the Northwest Territory on page 195.Then answer the questions that follow.18. How many miles long and wide was a township?19. How many miles long and wide was a section?20. How many acres were in a section?

Practicing SkillsMaking Comparisons The two statements that follow reflectthe opinions of an Antifederalist and a Federalist toward theratification of the Constitution. Read the opinions; thenanswer the questions.

“These lawyers and men of learning, and moneyedmen . . . make us poor illiterate people swallow downthe pill, expect to get into Congress themselves; theyexpect to be the managers of this Constitution, and getall the power and all the money into their own hands,and then they will swallow up all of us little folks. . . .This is what I am afraid of.”

— Amos Singletary, farmer

“I am a plain man, and get my living by the plough. . . .I did not go to any lawyer, to ask his opinion; I formedmy own opinion, and was pleased with this Constitu-tion. . . . I don’t think the worse of the Constitutionbecause lawyers, and men of learning, and moneyedmen, are fond of it.”

— Jonathan Smith, farmer

21. Who is the Antifederalist? How do you know?22. How are the two opinions similar? How are they

different?23. In your opinion, does the Antifederalist or the Federalist

make the stronger argument? Explain.

Citizenship Cooperative Activity24. Interviewing In groups of three, interview students from

your school and adults from your community to find outwhat they know about the powers of government speci-fied in the Constitution. Prepare a list of questions to usein your interviews. To keep the interviews brief, youmight use yes/no questions, such as “Does the Constitu-tion give the government the power to regulate high-ways?” Compile the answers and present a report to your class.

Economics Activity25. For a week, keep track of the number of times that you

read about or hear about the topics of unemploymentand inflation. Write down the source from which youheard or read this information. After each entry, indicatewhether the economic news was good.

Alternative Assessment26. Portfolio Writing Activity Review the Bill of Rights

to the Constitution (first 10 amendments) on pages244–245. Summarize each in your journal. Next, choosethe amendment from the Bill of Rights that you think isthe most important. Write a paragraph in which youexplain your choice. Finally, knowing what you knowabout today’s society, write a short description of a rightyou think the Framers of the Constitution should haveincluded.

Self-Check QuizVisit and click on Chapter 7—Self-Check Quizzes to prepare for the chapter test.

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Standardized Test Practice

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The American Republic To 1877 - Kentucky EditionKentucky Core Content for Social Studies Assessment, Grade 8Table of ContentsCore Content for Social Studies Assessment, Grade 8Correlation to the Core Contents for Social Studies Assessment, Grade 8Preparing for the Kentucky Core Content Test for Social StudiesCountdown to the KCCT, Grade 8Focus on KentuckyDepth of Knowledge Levels

Table of ContentsPreviewing Your TextbookScavenger HuntHow Do I Study History?Reading Skills HandbookIdentifying Words and Building VocabularyReading for a ReasonUnderstanding What you ReadThinking About Your ReadingUnderstanding Text StructureReading for Research

National Geographic Reference AtlasUnited States PoliticalUnited States PhysicalUnited States Territorial GrowthMiddle America Physical/PoliticalCanada Physical/PoliticalMiddle East Physical/PoliticalWorld PoliticalUnited States Facts

National Geographic Geography HandbookWhat Is Geography?How Do I Study Geography?How Do I Use Maps?How Does Geography Influence History?Geographic Dictionary

Reading for InformationUnit 1: Different Worlds Meet, Beginnings to 1625Chapter 1: The First Americans, Prehistory to 1492Section 1: Early PeoplesSection 2: Cities and EmpiresSection 3: North American PeoplesChapter 1 Assessment and Activities

Chapter 2: Exploring the Americas, 1400–1625Section 1: A Changing WorldSection 2: Early ExplorationSection 3: Spain in AmericaSection 4: Exploring North AmericaChapter 2 Assessment and Activities

Unit 2: Colonial Settlement, 1587–1770Chapter 3: Colonial America, 1587–1770Section 1: Early English SettlementsSection 2: New England ColoniesSection 3: Middle ColoniesSection 4: Southern ColoniesChapter 3 Assessment and Activities

Chapter 4: The Colonies Grow, 1607–1770Section 1: Life in the ColoniesSection 2: Government, Religion, and CultureSection 3: France and Britain ClashSection 4: The French and Indian WarChapter 4 Assessment and Activities

Unit 3: Creating a Nation, 1763–1791Chapter 5: Road to Independence, 1763–1776Section 1: Taxation Without RepresentationSection 2: Building Colonial UnitySection 3: A Call to ArmsSection 4: Moving Toward IndependenceThe Declaration of IndependenceChapter 5 Assessment and Activities

Chapter 6: The American Revolution, 1776–1783Section 1: The Early YearsSection 2: The War ContinuesSection 3: The War Moves West and SouthSection 4: The War Is WonChapter 6 Assessment and Activities

Chapter 7: A More Perfect Union, 1777–1790Section 1: The Articles of ConfederationSection 2: Convention and CompromiseSection 3: A New Plan of GovernmentChapter 7 Assessment and Activities

Civics in Action: A Citizenship HandbookSection 1: The ConstitutionSection 2: The Federal GovernmentSection 3: Citizens' Rights and ResponsibilitiesHandbook Assessment

The Constitution of the United States

Unit 4: The New Republic, 1789–1825Chapter 8: A New Nation, 1789–1800Section 1: The First PresidentSection 2: Early ChallengesSection 3: The First Political PartiesChapter 8 Assessment and Activities

Chapter 9: The Jefferson Era, 1800–1816Section 1: The Republicans Take PowerSection 2: The Louisiana PurchaseSection 3: A Time of ConflictSection 4: The War of 1812Chapter 9 Assessment and Activities

Chapter 10: Growth and Expansion, 1790–1825Section 1: Economic GrowthSection 2: Westward BoundSection 3: Unity and SectionalismChapter 10 Assessment and Activities

Unit 5: The Growing Nation, 1820–1860Chapter 11: The Jackson Era, 1824–1845Section 1: Jacksonian DemocracySection 2: Conflicts Over LandSection 3: Jackson and the BankChapter 11 Assessment and Activities

Chapter 12: Manifest Destiny, 1818–1853Section 1: The Oregon CountrySection 2: Independence for TexasSection 3: War with MexicoSection 4: New Settlers in California and UtahChapter 12 Assessment and Activities

Chapter 13: North and South, 1820–1860Section 1: The North's EconomySection 2: The North's PeopleSection 3: Southern Cotton KingdomSection 4: The South's PeopleChapter 13 Assessment and Activities

Chapter 14: The Age of Reform, 1820–1860Section 1: Social ReformSection 2: The AbolitionistsSection 3: The Women's MovementChapter 14 Assessment and Activities

Unit 6: Civil War and Reconstruction, 1846–1896Chapter 15: Road to Civil War, 1820–1861Section 1: Slavery and the WestSection 2: A Nation DividingSection 3: Challenges to SlaverySection 4: Secession and WarChapter 15 Assessment and Activities

Chapter 16: The Civil War, 1861–1865Section 1: The Two SidesSection 2: Early Years of the WarSection 3: A Call for FreedomSection 4: Life During the Civil WarSection 5: The Way to VictoryChapter 16 Assessment and Activities

Chapter 17: Reconstruction and Its Aftermath, 1865–1896Section 1: Reconstruction PlansSection 2: Radicals in ControlSection 3: The South During ReconstructionSection 4: Change in the SouthChapter 17 Assessment and Activities

Unit 7: Modern America Emerges, 1877–PresentChapter 18: Reshaping the Nation, 1877–1929Section 1: The Western FrontierSection 2: Invention and IndustrySection 3: Reform at Home, Expansion AbroadSection 4: World War I and Its AftermathChapter 18 Assessment and Activities

Chapter 19: The Making of Modern America, 1929–PresentSection 1: Depression and a Second World WarSection 2: Turning PointsSection 3: Modern AmericaSection 4: The War on TerrorismChapter 19 Assessment and Activities

AppendixWhat Is an Appendix and How Do I Use One?Primary Sources LibraryPresidents of the United StatesDocuments of American HistorySupreme Court Case SummariesGazetteerGlossarySpanish GlossaryIndexAcknowledgments and Photo Credits

Feature ContentsNational Geographic Geography & HistoryPrimary Sources LibraryDocuments of America's HeritageTwo ViewpointsMore About…Technology & HistoryLinking Past & PresentWhat If…You DecideTIME NotebookWhy It MattersCauses and EffectsWhat Life Was Like…America's LiteratureSkillBuilderCritical ThinkingSocial StudiesStudy & WritingTechnology

People in HistoryFact Fiction FolklorePrimary Source QuotesCharts and GraphsNational Geographic Maps

Student WorkbooksActive Reading Note-Taking Guide - Student EditionChapter 1: The First Americans, Prehistory to 1492Section 1: Early PeoplesSection 2: Cities and EmpiresSection 3: North American Peoples

Chapter 2: Exploring the Americas, 1400–1625Section 1: A Changing WorldSection 2: Early ExplorationSection 3: Spain in AmericaSection 4: Exploring North America

Chapter 3: Colonial America, 1587–1770Section 1: Early English SettlementsSection 2: New England ColoniesSection 3: Middle ColoniesSection 4: Southern Colonies

Chapter 4: The Colonies Grow, 1607–1770Section 1: Life in the ColoniesSection 2: Government, Religion, and CultureSection 3: France and Britain ClashSection 4: The French and Indian War

Chapter 5: Road to Independence, 1763–1776Section 1: Taxation Without RepresentationSection 2: Building Colonial UnitySection 3: A Call to ArmsSection 4: Moving Toward Independence

Chapter 6: The American Revolution, 1776–1783Section 1: The Early YearsSection 2: The War ContinuesSection 3: The War Moves West and SouthSection 4: The War Is Won

Chapter 7: A More Perfect Union, 1777–1790Section 1: The Articles of ConfederationSection 2: Convention and CompromiseSection 3: A New Plan of Government

Chapter 8: A New Nation, 1789–1800Section 1: The First PresidentSection 2: Early ChallengesSection 3: The First Political Parties

Chapter 9: The Jefferson Era, 1800–1816Section 1: The Republicans Take PowerSection 2: The Louisiana PurchaseSection 3: A Time of ConflictSection 4: The War of 1812

Chapter 10: Growth and Expansion, 1790–1825Section 1: Economic GrowthSection 2: Westward BoundSection 3: Unity and Sectionalism

Chapter 11: The Jackson Era, 1824–1845Section 1: Jacksonian DemocracySection 2: Conflicts Over LandSection 3: Jackson and the Bank

Chapter 12: Manifest Destiny, 1818–1853Section 1: The Oregon CountrySection 2: Independence for TexasSection 3: War with MexicoSection 4: New Settlers in California and Utah

Chapter 13: North and South, 1820–1860Section 1: The North's EconomySection 2: The North's PeopleSection 3: Southern Cotton KingdomSection 4: The South's People

Chapter 14: The Age of Reform, 1820–1860Section 1: Social ReformSection 2: The AbolitionistsSection 3: The Women's Movement

Chapter 15: Road to Civil War, 1820–1861Section 1: Slavery and the WestSection 2: A Nation DividingSection 3: Challenges to SlaverySection 4: Secession and War

Chapter 16: The Civil War, 1861–1865Section 1: The Two SidesSection 2: Early Years of the WarSection 3: A Call for FreedomSection 4: Life During the Civil WarSection 5: The Way to Victory

Chapter 17: Reconstruction and Its Aftermath, 1865–1896Section 1: Reconstruction PlansSection 2: Radicals in ControlSection 3: The South During ReconstructionSection 4: Change in the South

Chapter 18: Reshaping the Nation, 1877–1929Section 1: The Western FrontierSection 2: Invention and IndustrySection 3: Reform at Home, Expansion AbroadSection 4: World War I and Its Aftermath

Chapter 19: The Making of Modern America, 1929–PresentSection 1: Depression and a Second World WarSection 2: Turning PointsSection 3: Modern AmericaSection 4: The War on Terrorism

Activity Workbook - Student EditionLocal history activitiesActivity 1: The First AmericansActivity 2: Exploring the AmericasActivity 3: Colonial AmericaActivity 4: The Colonies GrowActivity 5: Road to IndependenceActivity 6: The American RevolutionActivity 7: A More Perfect UnionActivity 8: A New NationActivity 9: The Jefferson EraActivity 10: Growth and ExpansionActivity 11: The Jackson EraActivity 12: Manifest DestinyActivity 13: North and SouthActivity 14: The Age of ReformActivity 15: Road to Civil WarActivity 16: The Civil WarActivity 17: Reconstruction and Its AftermathActivity 18: Reshaping the NationActivity 19: The Making of Modern America

Haitian Creole SummariesChapit 1: Premye Ameriken-yo, Soti Preyistwa rive ane 1492Chapit 2: Esplore Amerik- yo, 1400–1625Chapit 3: Amerik Kolonyal la, 1587–1770Chapit 4: Koloni yo Devlope, 1607–1770Chapit 5: Sou Wout Endepandans, 1763–1776Chapit 6: Revolisyon Ameriken an, 1776–1783Chapit 7: Yon Inyon Ki Pi Pafe, 1777–1790Chapit 8: Yon Nouvel Nasyon, 1789–1800Chapit 9: Epok Jefferson nan, 1800–1816Chapit 10: Devlopman ak Ekspansyon, 1790–1825Chapit 11: Epok Jackson nan, 1824–1845Chapit 12: Manifest Destiny, 1818–1853Chapit 13: No ak Sid, 1820–1860Chapit 14: Refom la, 1820–1860Chapit 15: Nan Wout pou Ge Sivil, 1820–1861Chapit 16: Ge sivil la, 1861–1865Chapit 17: Rekonstriksyon ak Sa Ki Vin Touswit Apre l' Yo, 1865–1896Chapit 18: Chanje Figi Nasyon an, 1877–1929Chapit 19: Mete Amerik Modèn nan sou Pye, 1929–Kounye-a

KCCT Practice WorkbookContentsOverviewGuide to Analyzing GraphicsKentucky Core Content for Assessment, Grade 8Depth of Knowledge LevelsDiagnostic TextStandardized Test PracticeActivity 1: Interpreting MapsActivity 2: Interpreting DigramsActivity 3: Interpreting Maps and DiagramsActivity 4: Interpreting Primary SourcesActivity 5: Perceiving Cause-and-Effect RelationshipsActivity 6: Distinguishing Between Fact and OpinionActivity 7: Drawing ConclusionsActivity 8: Detecting BiasActivity 9: Making InferencesActivity 10: Comparing and Contrasting

Practice Test

Reading Essentials and Study Guide - Student EditionChapter 1: The First Americans, Prehistory to 1492Study Guide 1-1: Early PeoplesStudy Guide 1-2: Cities and EmpiresStudy Guide 1-3: North American Peoples

Chapter 2: Exploring the Americas, 1400–1625Study Guide 2-1: A Changing WorldStudy Guide 2-2: Early ExplorationStudy Guide 2-3: Spain in AmericaStudy Guide 2-4: Exploring North America

Chapter 3: Colonial America, 1587–1770Study Guide 3-1: Early English SettlementsStudy Guide 3-2: New England ColoniesStudy Guide 3-3: Middle ColoniesStudy Guide 3-4: Southern Colonies

Chapter 4: The Colonies Grow, 1607–1770Study Guide 4-1: Life in the ColoniesStudy Guide 4-2: Government, Religion, and CultureStudy Guide 4-3: France and Britain ClashStudy Guide 4-4: The French and Indian War

Chapter 5: Road to Independence, 1763–1776Study Guide 5-1: Taxation Without RepresentationStudy Guide 5-2: Building Colonial UnityStudy Guide 5-3: A Call to ArmsStudy Guide 5-4: Moving Towards Independence

Chapter 6: The American Revolution, 1776–1783Study Guide 6-1: The Early YearsStudy Guide 6-2: The War ContinuesStudy Guide 6-3: The War Moves West and SouthStudy Guide 6-4: The War Is Won

Chapter 7: A More Perfect Union, 1777–1790Study Guide 7-1: The Articles of ConfederationStudy Guide 7-2: Convention and CompromiseStudy Guide 7-3: A New Plan of Government

Chapter 8: A New Nation, 1789–1800Study Guide 8-1: The First PresidentStudy Guide 8-2: Early ChallengesStudy Guide 8-3: The First Political Parties

Chapter 9: The Jefferson Era, 1800–1816Study Guide 9-1: The Republicans Take PowerStudy Guide 9-2: The Louisiana PurchaseStudy Guide 9-3: A Time of ConflictStudy Guide 9-4: The War of 1812

Chapter 10: Growth and Expansion, 1790–1825Study Guide 10-1: Economic GrowthStudy Guide 10-2: Westward BoundStudy Guide 10-3: Unity and Sectionalism

Chapter 11: The Jackson Era, 1824–1845Study Guide 11-1: Jacksonian DemocracyStudy Guide 11-2: Conflicts Over LandStudy Guide 11-3: Jackson and the Bank

Chapter 12: Manifest Destiny, 1818–1853Study Guide 12-1: The Oregon CountryStudy Guide 12-2: Independence for TexasStudy Guide 12-3: War with MexicoStudy Guide 12-4: New Setters in California and Utah

Chapter 13: North and South, 1820–1860Study Guide 13-1: The North’s EconomyStudy Guide 13-2: The North’s PeopleStudy Guide 13-3: Southern Cotton KingdomStudy Guide 13-4: The South’s People

Chapter 14: The Age of Reform, 1820–1860Study Guide 14-1: Social ReformStudy Guide 14-2: The AbolitionistsStudy Guide 14-3: The Women’s Movement

Chapter 15: Road to Civil War, 1820–1861Study Guide 15-1: Slavery and the WestStudy Guide 15-2: A Nation DividingStudy Guide 15-3: Challenges to SlaveryStudy Guide 15-4: Secession and War

Chapter 16: The Civil War, 1861–1865Study Guide 16-1: The Two SidesStudy Guide 16-2: Early Years of the WarStudy Guide 16-3: A Call for FreedomStudy Guide 16-4: Life During the Civil WarStudy Guide 16-5: The Way to Victory

Chapter 17: Reconstruction and Its Aftermath, 1865–1896Study Guide 17-1: Reconstruction PlansStudy Guide 17-2: Radicals in ControlStudy Guide 17-3: The South During ReconstructionStudy Guide 17-4: Change in the South

Chapter 18: Reshaping the Nation, 1877–1929Study Guide 18-1: The Western FrontierStudy Guide 18-2: Invention and IndustryStudy Guide 18-3: Reform at Home, Expansion AbroadStudy Guide 18-4: World War I and Its Aftermath

Chapter 19: The Making of Modern America, 1929–PresentStudy Guide 19-1: Depression and a Second World WarStudy Guide 19-2: Turning PointsStudy Guide 19-3: Modern AmericaStudy Guide 19-4: The War on Terrorism

Spanish Reading Essentials and Study Guide - Student EditionCapítulo 1: Los primeros americanos, prehistoria a 1492Guía de estudio 1-1: Los primeros pueblosGuía de estudio 1-2: Ciudades e imperiosGuía de estudio 1-3: Pueblos norteamericano

Capítulo 2: La exploración de las Américas, 1400–1625Guía de estudio 2-1: Un mundo cambianteGuía de estudio 2-2: Primeras exploracionesGuía de estudio 2-3: España en AméricaGuía de estudio 2-4: Exploración de Norteamérica

Capítulo 3: La América colonial, 1587–1770Guía de estudio 3-1: Primeros asentamientos inglesesGuía de estudio 3-2: Colonias de Nueva InglaterraGuía de estudio 3-3: Colonias del CentroGuía de estudio 3-4: Colonias del Sur

Capítulo 4: Las colonias prospera, 1607–1770Guía de estudio 4-1: La vida en las coloniasGuía de estudio 4-2: Gobierno, religión y culturaGuía de estudio 4-3: Choque entre Francia e InglaterraGuía de estudio 4-4: La guerra francesa e india

Capítulo 5: El camino hacia la independencia, 1763–1776Guía de estudio 5-1: Impuestos sin representaciónGuía de estudio 5-2: Formación de la unidad colonialGuía de estudio 5-3: Un llamado a las armasGuía de estudio 5-4: Avanzar hacia la independencia

Capítulo 6: La Revolución Estadounidense, 1776–1783Guía de estudio 6-1: Los primeros añosGuía de estudio 6-2: La guerra continúaGuía de estudio 6-3: La guerra se mueve hacia el Oeste y el SurGuía de estudio 6-4: La guerra se gana

Capítulo 7: Una unión más perfecta, 1777–1790Guía de estudio 7-1: Los artículos de la ConfederaciónGuía de estudio 7-2: Convención y compromisoGuía de estudio 7-3: Un nuevo plan de gobierno

Capítulo 8: Una nueva nación, 1879–1800Guía de estudio 8-1: El primer presidenteGuía de estudio 8-2: Primeros retosGuía de estudio 8-3: Los primeros partidos políticos

Capítulo 9: La era de Jefferson, 1800–1816Guía de estudio 9-1: Los republicanos toman el poderGuía de estudio 9-2: La compra de LouisianaGuía de estudio 9-3: Una época de conflictoGuía de estudio 9-4: La guerra de 1812

Capítulo 10: Crecimiento y expansión, 1790–1825Guía de estudio 10-1: Crecimiento económicoGuía de estudio 10-2: Rumbo al OesteGuía de estudio 10-3: Unidad y seccionalismo

Capítulo 11: La era Jackson, 1824–1845Guía de estudio 11-1: Democracia jacksonianaGuía de estudio 11-2: Conflictos por la tierraGuía de estudio 11-3: Jackson y el banco

Capítulo 12: El Destino Manifiesto, 1818–1853Guía de estudio 12-1: El país de OregónGuía de estudio 12-2: Independencia para TexasGuía de estudio 12-3: Guerra con MéxicoGuía de estudio 12-4: Nuevos colonos en California y Utah

Capítulo 13: El norte y el sur, 1820–1860Guía de estudio 13-1: La economía del NorteGuía de estudio 13-2: La gente del NorteGuía de estudio 13-3: El reino sureño del algodónGuía de estudio 13-4: La gente del Sur

Capítulo 14: La era de la reforma, 1820–1860Guía de estudio 14-1: Reforma socialGuía de estudio 14-2: Los abolicionistasGuía de estudio 14-3: El movimiento femenino

Capítulo 15: El camino a la Guerra Civil, 1820–1861Guía de estudio 15-1: La esclavitud y el OesteGuía de estudio 15-2: Una nación divididaGuía de estudio 15-3: Retos para la esclavitudGuía de estudio 15-4: Secesión y guerra

Capítulo 16: La Guerra Civil, 1861–1865Guía de estudio 16-1: Los dos bandosGuía de estudio 16-2: Los primeros años de la guerraGuía de estudio 16-3: Un llamado a la libertadGuía de estudio 16-4: La vida durante la guerra civilGuía de estudio 16-5: El camino a la victoria

Capítulo 17: La Reconstrucción y sus consecuencias, 1865–1896Guía de estudio 17-1: Planes de reconstrucciónGuía de estudio 17-2: Los radicales toman el controlGuía de estudio 17-3: El Sur durante la reconstrucciónGuía de estudio 17-4: Cambio en el Sur

Capítulo 18: La reforma de la nación, 1877–1929Guía de estudio 18-1: La frontera del oesteGuía de estudio 18-2: Inventos e industriaGuía de estudio 18-3: Reforma en casa, expansión en el extranjeroGuía de estudio 18-4: La Primera Guerra Mundial y sus consecuencias

Capítulo 19: La creación de una nación moderna, 1929–presenteGuía de estudio 19-1: Depresión y una Segunda Guerra MundialGuía de estudio 19-2: Momentos decisivosGuía de estudio 19-3: El moderno Estados UnidosGuía de estudio 19-4: La guerra contra el terrorismo

Spanish SummariesCapítulo 1: Los primeros americanos, prehistoria a 1492Capítulo 2: La exploración de las Américas, 1400–1625Capítulo 3: La América colonial, 1587–1770Capítulo 4: Las colonias prospera, 1607–1770Cap