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IrisVarner ' .'.Professor Emerita, Illinois State]" , *J '>%'=^University ' '"': :['/?&':-££

Linda Beamer ^5ftEmerita Professor, Califiimia-State'li'J • £|"University, Los Angeles - ' i!. •?;V?'-i

McGraw-HillIrwin

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ContentsPreface to the Fifth Edition iv

About the Authors vii

Acknowledgments ix

Introduction x

Chapter 1Culture and Communication 1

The Importance of Learningabout Cultures 2

Making Sense of Our World 3The World Is Becoming Increasingly Diverse 4People around the World ARE Different 4Preventing Mistakes 4Responding to Different Cultures 6Hostility to Difference 6Curiosity about Difference 7Denying Difference 7Cooperating with Difference 8

Understanding Culture 9Culture Is Coherent 10Culture Is Learned 11Culture Is the View of a Group of People 11Culture Ranks What Is Important 12Culture Furnishes Attitudes 13Culture Dictates How to Behave 13Onstage and Backstage Elements of Culture 14Transactional Cultures 15Adopting Another Culture's Behavior 16Self-Knowledge and Understanding One s OwnCulture 19Cultural Intelligence 23

The Question of Change in Cultures 24Are Cultures Merging into One Global\Culture? 24Ever-Changing Popular Taste 25The Study of Communication across

" Cultures 26

Three Characteristics of the Disciplineof Cross-cultural Communication 27Study of the Communication ofGroups versus the Study ofIndividuals' Communication 2 7lntercultural and Cross-culturalCommunication Study 27Two Broad Approaches to CommunicationResearch in the Social Sciences 29Study of Culture and Communication:Individuals or Cultures 34lntercultural Business Communication 35Perception and Communication 35A Schemata Model for lnterculturalCommunication 36

Chapter 2The Role of Language in lnterculturalBusiness Communication 43

The Relationship between Languageand Culture 44

Language as a Reflection of the Environment 46Language as a Reflection of Values 46The Meaning of Words 47Changes in Language 48Acronyms 51Implications of the Language Barrier 51

Selection of the Right Language 52Linguistic Considerations 52Business Considerations 54Political Considerations 56The Appropriate Level of Fluency 56

The Company Language 58Choosing a Company Language 58Using Additional Foreign Language Expertise 63

The Role of the Interpreter 64The Importance of Choosing a Good Interpreter 66The Effective Use of an Interpreter—SomeGuidelines 67

Contents xxi

Communication with Normative Speakers 70Effective Face-to-Face Communication 70Effective Written Communication 73

The Impact of Technology on Oral and WrittenCommunication 80

Some Guidelines for Communicating withBusinesspeople from Different Cultures 86Communication with a Multicultural Workforce 88

Chapter 3Getting to Know Another Culture 93

Ways to Study Culture 94Research Approaches to Studying Cultures 94Studying Whole Cultures 94Cultural Generalizations 95Hofstede s Research and Other Studies 96The GLOBE Study 97Studying Individuals 98Culture as a Theoretical Construct ^98Generalizations and Stereotypes 99High-context Communication and Low-contextCommunication 100The Cultural Dimensions Approach inThis Book 103Where Can Information about CulturesBe Found? 104

Category 1: Thinking and Knowing 106Does Knowing Come from Conceptsor Experience? 106Does Learning Come from Asking Questions orMastering Received Wisdom? 107Does Knowledge Have Limits? 108How Do People Reason ? 109

Category 2: Doing and Achieving 112Is Doing Important or Is Being Important? 112Are Tasks Done Sequentially or Simultaneously? 112Do Results or Relationships TakePriority? 113Is Uncertainty Avoided or Tolerated? 115Is Luck an Essential Factor or anIrrelevance? 115Are Rules to Be Followed or Bent? 118

Category 3: The Big Picture 118Do Humans Dominate Nature or Does NatureDominate Humans? 119

Are Divine Powers or Humans at the CenterofEvents? 120How Is Time Understood, Measured,and Kept? 130Is Change Positive or Negative? 132Is Death the End of Life or Part of Life? 133

Chapter 4The Self and Groups 139

Category 4: The Self and Self-identity 140Self-identity—A Social PsychologyApproach 141Self-identity—A Communication Approach 141Self-identity—A Critical Approach 141Self-identity and Cultural Value Dimensions 142Self-construal: Independent andInterdependent 142The Basic Unit of Society: The Individual or theCollective? 143Obligation and Indebtedness: Burdensor Benefits? 147 .Age: Is Seniority Valued or Discounted? 150Gender: Are Women Equals or Subordinates? 151

Category 5: Social Organization 156Group Membership: Temporaryor Permanent? 156Form: Important or Untrustworthy? 161Personal Matters: Private or Public? 163Social Organizational Patterns: Horizontalor Hierarchical? 165Approach to Authority: Direct or Mediated? 167

Conclusion 169

Chapter 5Organizing Messages to OtherCultures 173

Review of the Communication Model 174Meaning and the Communication Model 174Why: The Purpose and Factorsof Communication 176Who in Business Communication 179Where: Channels of Communication 179When: Time and Timing ofCommunication 181

xxii Contents

Organizing Routine Messages 181The Direct Plan 181The Indirect Plan 182

Organizing Persuasive Messages andArgumentation 186

Argumentation and Logic 187Persuasion Tactics 191

Organizing Unwelcome Messages 192Communicating about Problems 192 'Saying No 194

Organizing Problem-Solving Messages 195Storytelling 195Analogy 197Syllogistic and Inductive Reasoning 198Bargaining Discourse 199

The Role and Force of Words 199The Relative Importance of Encoding Messages inWords 199The Role of Words in Arabic Cultures 200The Role of Words in Japanese Culture 202The Role of Words in English-SpeakingCultures 203The Effect of Language s Structure 203

Channels of Business Messages 206Internal Channels for Written Messages 206External Channels for Written Messages 208Structured Behavior Channels 209Oral Channels 209

Communication Style 210Formal or Informal: Hierarchical or Horizontal 210Framed Messages 211-

Chapter 6

Nonverbal Language in lnterculturalCommunication 217

Paralanguage 220Vocal Qualifiers 220Vocalization 220

Nonverbal Business Conventions in Face-to-FaceEncounters 221

Eye Contact 221Facial Expressions 223Gestures 226Timing in Spoken Exchanges 228

Touching 230The Language of Space 234Appearance 244Silence 247

Chapter 7

Cultural Rules for EstablishingRelationships 251

Respect for Authority and the Structuringof Messages 252

Signals of Respect 252Positions of Authority 254Dress as a Symbol of Authority 256

Power Distance and Symbols of Powerand Authority 258

Tone and Behavior of Power and Authority 259Language as an Indicator of PowerandAuthority 264Family and Societal Structures as Indicatorsof Power 267

Assertiveness vs. Harmony 268Standing Up for One's Rights 268Preserving Harmony 2 70

Recognition of Performance as a Signalof Authority 271

Monetary Recognition 271Nonmonetary Rewards 272

The Role of Social Contacts in lnterculturalBusiness 274

Conventions for Extending Invitations 274Mixing Social Engagements and Business 2 76Appropriate Behavior for Hosts and Guests 276Gift Giving 278Dealing with Controversy in Social Settings 280Holiday Greetings 281

Ethical Considerations in lnterculturalEngagements 282

Chapter 8

Information, Decisions, and Solutions 289

The Nature of Business Information 291The Impact of Culture on What ConstitutesInformation 291The Assessment of Information 291

Contents xxiii

The Possession of Information 292Formal and Informal Information 295Soft vs. Hard Data 297Criteria for Business Information 298

Sources of Business Information 299Formal Sources 299Informal Sources 300-

Information and Knowledge Management 301Decision Making 303

Making Decisions Based on Ends 304Making Decisions Based on Means 305

Problem Solving and Conflict Resolution 308Defining Problems and Dealing withThem 309Managing Conflicts 310Conflict Management Modes 312Conflict Communication Modes 316Communicating about Conflicts between Membersof Different Cultures 320

Chapter 9lntercultural Negotiation Teams 329

lntercultural Negotiation 331What Really Happened with Canwallin China? 332How Knowledge of Culture Can Help 334

Factors in the Negotiation Task 342Expectations for Outcomes 343Orientation of the Negotiating Team 345The Physical Context of the Negotiation 349Communication and Style of Negotiating 352

The Phases of Negotiation 356The Development of a Relationship 356Information Exchange about the Topic underNegotiation 357Persuasion 358Concession and Agreement 361

Chapter 10

Legal and Governmental Considerationsin lntercultural BusinessCommunication 365

Communication and Legal Messages 367Specific Legal Systems 371

Code Law 371Anglo-American Common Law 372Islamic Law 373Socialist Law 374

Dispute Settlement 375Direct Confrontation and Arbitration 375Communication with Agents 377Trademarks and Intellectual Property 3 79

International Enterprise and the NationalInterests 381

Legal Issues in Labor and ManagementCommunication 385

Labor Regulations 386Employment Communication 386Laws for Safety on the Job 388Equal Opportunity 390

Legal Considerations in MarketingCommunication 391

Investment Attitudes and the Communicationof Financial Information 394

Chapter 11

The Influence of Business Structuresand Corporate Culture on lnterculturalBusiness Communication 403

Corporate Culture and lnterculturalCommunication 405

Stages in Internationalization 409The Import-Export Stage 410

Reasons for Exporting 410Communication in the Import-ExportEnvironment 412

The Multinational Corporation 415The National Subsidiary 415The International Division 417

The Global Firm 426The Structure of a Global Firm 426Communication in a Global Organization 427

Implications of Cultural Aspects of BusinessStructures for Communication in anInternational Firm 433

Communication in an Organization Basedon Credentials 433Communication in an Organization Basedon Context 435

xxiv Contents

Communication in an Organization Basedon Family Orientation 438Communication in an Organization Basedon Political Principles 440

Chapter 12lntercultural Dynamics in theInternational Company 447

Cultural Issues in the DaimlerChryslerMerger 450

Preparation and Training 451Attitudes toward Management 452Attitudes toward Compensation 453Regulatory Issues 454Reports on the Merger 455

lntercultural Business Communication as aStrategic Tool for Success 458

The Process of lntercultural BusinessCommunication 458Dynamics of Culturally Diverse Teams 463

Culture in the Context of Corporate Strategy 471When Teams Are Not Effective 476

Try to Adapt to Each Other's Expectations 476Specific Abilities that Make up Teamwork CQ 476Subdivide the Team and Tasks 480Have a Manager Intervene 480Remove Member(s) or Disband the Team 481

Applying Your Cultural Knowledge to BusinessSituations 481

AppendixCase 1: What Else Can Go Wrong? 485Questions for Discussion 488Case 2: Hana, a Joint Venture Between HealthSnacks and Toka Foods 488Questions for Discussion 494

Index 494