A Master’s Project - Adler Graduate School Logas... · 2017-02-10 · Increasing Eudaimonia Using Volunteering as a Therapeutic Intervention A Master’s Project Presented to

Running head: SUPPORTED SOCIAL INTEREST 1

Supported Social Interest:

Increasing Eudaimonia Using Volunteering as a Therapeutic Intervention

A Master’s Project

Presented to

The Faculty of the Adler Graduate School

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In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree of Master of Arts in

Adlerian Counseling and Psychotherapy

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By:

Linnea Marie Stirratt Logas

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Chair: Nicole Randick

Reader: Liza Finlay

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September 2016

SUPPORTED SOCIAL INTEREST

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Abstract

Encouraging clients to become more socially minded is an important step in increasing tolerance,

social connection, and overall well-being. Research demonstrates this connection, and suggests

volunteerism can be used as an effective tool for increasing social interest and thus overall well-

being, yet few tools exist to practitioners to capitalize on this relationship. The following paper

identifies the variables involved in the relationship between volunteering, well-being, and

resilience. This information will be used to create a proposal for a business that capitalizes on

the interest people have in volunteerism to provide liaison services between individuals or

families and volunteer opportunities.

Keywords: Eudaimonia, social interest, voluntourism


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Table of Contents

Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 2

Theoretical Background .................................................................................................................. 5

Individual Psychology ................................................................................................................. 6

Development Theory ................................................................................................................... 7

Family Systems Theory ............................................................................................................... 8

Gestalt Theory ............................................................................................................................. 9

Review of the Literature ............................................................................................................... 10

Well-being and Social Interest .................................................................................................. 10

Community Connection ............................................................................................................ 12

Family Connection .................................................................................................................... 13

Limitations and Future Considerations ......................................................................................... 15

Volunteering as a Therapeutic Intervention .................................................................................. 18

Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 19

References ..................................................................................................................................... 22

Appendix ....................................................................................................................................... 27


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Supported Social Interest:

Increasing Eudaimonia Using Volunteering as a Therapeutic Intervention

Psychotherapy is not an easy profession, and ‘Therapist’ is not a title one takes on lightly.

This title comes with the responsibility for caring deeply for (potentially) hundreds of people

over one’s career. Some people are drawn to psychotherapy because they have a profound need

to be listened to; others take on the role because it brings a sense of significance to be seen as an

expert. Many of us, I suspect, go through the emotional trials to become a therapist because we

have a deep desire to compassionately give-back to our community. We see something valuable

and worthwhile in serving the individuals hurting in our world, often believing that by increasing

the well-being of a single individual, that individual will go forth and benefit others with whom

s/he has contact. We sacrifice time, energy, and comfort in order to fulfill this calling, because

we find a higher purpose in doing so.

One of the challenges we face as therapists, is helping our clients become more socially

minded so that they really do impact their communities in a positive way. Although we might

wholeheartedly believe in the importance of this mission, the number of tools available to

practitioners to increase a client’s motivation for community involvement and tolerance of others

is limited. High levels of anxiety and depression stemming from hidden traumas and hurts keep

people from becoming more involved outside their home, while a fear of their own emotions

keeps them from connecting to their authentic self and the values that might provide the intrinsic

motivation to communally connect (van der Kolk, 2014). The irony is that increased social

connectedness and connection to the authentic self are often the antidotes needed to combat the

very struggles the individual is in therapy for (Lantz, 1981; Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956, p.

156).


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When considering the platforms for community involvement, volunteerism is a natural

prospect. Research suggests there is a significant correlation between volunteering and overall

physical and mental wellbeing, and that those who volunteer demonstrate increased levels of

social interest values than non-volunteers (Hettman & Jenkins, 1990, p. 300). Volunteerism

provides the opportunity for an individual or family to find a sense of belonging within a group,

practice skills that can contribute to a sense of safety within that group, and to find a sense of

meaning outside of the self which contributes to an individual’s sense of significance within the

community, all of which are protective factors that increase an individual’s overall resilience to

life stressors (Wong, Fong & Lam, 2015).

Although some therapists encourage clients to volunteer as a part of treatment, there is

little support for therapists on specific techniques and interventions to capitalize on the

relationship between wellbeing and social interest. The purpose of this paper is to review the

literature regarding volunteerism, specifically as it is used as a social interest intervention within

a therapeutic setting, explore the research correlating volunteering and better mental health and

wellbeing, and the specific variables for obtaining the most benefit from volunteering. Major

terms will be defined and explored, such as volunteerism, Eudaimonia (or wellbeing), and social

interest. This information will be used to inform a business proposal to provide liaison services

between clients and volunteer opportunities.

Theoretical Background

Early Influence

To understand the cultural and individual importance of social interest, we must

understand the history of where it originated. Aristotle, a Greek philosopher who lived around

300 BC, had an important influence on our understanding of ethics, morality, relationships, and


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virtues. His work was adapted by Thomas Aquinas, a Catholic saint from around 1250 AD, who

is still considered one of the church’s greatest theologians, and who heavily influenced the

medieval Christian church in the West. In turn, Rome and the church heavily influenced the

modern western world (Mclerny & O’Callaghan, 2014). Much of what Aristotle wrote about has

become incorporated into basic western culture. For example, the idea of a government led by a

group of civilians who work towards that which is best for the population as a whole, a value

system adopted by The United States of America, stems from the work of Aristotle and his

teacher Plato (Mclerny & O’Callaghan, 2014). Cultural values are often at the root of our own

individual values, which make up our authentic selves. Harmony with one’s authentic self is at

the root of well-being. This important concept will be defined and explained next.

In Aristotle’s work titled Nicomachian Ethics, he asserted that Eudaimonia, which might

be best translated as well-being, life-satisfaction, or resilience (contrary to the popular translation

of ‘happiness’; Wong, 2011) depends on the cultivation of virtues, the knowledge of which are

not innately possessed by individuals, but must instead be learned and perfected through habit

(Aristotle, trans. 1996, p. 1103a:25). One such virtue is the pursuit of friendship. In his book

Politics, Aristotle wrote that human beings are social animals, and that, “he who is unable to live

in society, or who has no need because he is sufficient for himself, must either be a beast or a

god” (Aristotle, Ed. 2008, p. 1243a25-29). Without connection through relationships,

eudaimonia is unattainable.

Individual Psychology

Alfred Adler, an Austrian medical doctor and psychotherapist practicing in the early

1900’s, is known as the founder of Individual Psychology, and as one of the most influential

individuals on modern psychology (Alfred Adler, 2016). One of the defining tenants of


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Individual Psychology is that all people strive to belong, feel significant, and feel safe within a

community. When individuals attempt to achieve these things without cooperating with her/his

community but instead work against the other individuals also striving for these three needs,

Individual Psychology deems the individual unwell. Individual Psychology asserts that wellness

is achieved through social cooperation, or what Adler termed social interest (Alfred Adler,

2016).

The belief that social interest must be learned, and that Eudaimonia depends on its

acquisition, shows up over 2,000 years after Aristotle in the writings of Alfred Adler. In The

Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler, a collection of Alfred Adler’s works edited by Heinz

Ansbacher and Rowena Ansbacher (1956), Adler is quoted as saying, “The ability to identify

must be trained, and it can be trained only if one grows up in relation to others and feels a part of

the whole” (p. 136). Further, he explained that one’s ability to identify with people is the

necessary basis for friendship and social interest, “and can be practiced and exercised only in

conjunction with others” (p. 136). Adler taught that the root of mental illness is a failure by the

individual to be socially interested through what he believes is an erroneous (but correctable)

attitude (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956, p. 91). To this end, he recommended therapists practice

being socially interested with clients in order to encourage the development of social interest in

clients, with the end goal of obtaining holistic wellness.

Development Theory

Moral Cognitive Developmental theory, a modern theory developed by Lawrence

Kohlberg, understands individual development as an attempt to interact competently within one’s

environment and maintains that well-being (Eudaimonia) and psychological health are dependent

on an individual’s ability to connect and relate to oneself and others through each stage of


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development (Brown & Gilligan, 1993; Romer, 2001; Ryan & Deci, 2000). The act of relating

or connecting to others must be done in conjunction with maintaining one’s own voice and sense

of autonomy, or well-being cannot be achieved (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 75). Furthermore, a

failure to maintain this balance between self and others results in a decreased ability to bounce

back from adversity. Current research shows that the resilience of the individual depends on the

learned ability to find the “free-flowing connections with oneself, with others and the world”

(Brown & Gilligan, 1993, p. 13); to see the future ideal held by our larger community,

understanding that we must each individually add our voice to that ideal in order to make it a

reality. According to Carol Gilligan’s Stages of Moral Development theory, when we do our

part to live up to that ideal within our authentic self (not the perfectionistic ideal that our

inauthentic-self strives for) we find wellness and resilience within ourselves, leaving little room

for illness (Brown & Gilligan, 1993).

Family Systems Theory

Family Systems theory maintains that all people are influenced by the systems of which

they are a part. Families establish rules and expectations of individual family members while

larger community systems influence the rules and expectations of families (Broderick, 1993).

Each individual therefore responds to the individuals around them in the attempt to maintain

homeostasis, or the status quo of those rules and expectations.

Family Systems theory sets the framework for understanding family patterns. By

understanding the status quo the family members are attempting to maintain, the purpose of their

behavior can be better understood (Broderick, 1993, p. 8). Understanding the purpose of the

behaviors in relation to the family then allows the practitioner to bring awareness of the current

homeostasis to the family, allowing the therapist to align with the family in the shared goal of


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changing the status quo and thus changing the individual behaviors maintaining it (Broderick,

1993).

Because family systems theory believes all families are a part of a wider community, it

maintains that the vertical ordering of power and privilege within the society not only affects the

family, but affects the power and privilege dynamics of each individual within the family

(Broderick, 1993). By connecting the family to the wider community, a therapist can help the

family find a place within the community, helping to eliminate the vertical ordering negatively

affecting family dynamics (p. 51).

Gestalt Theory

Gestalt therapy is based on the belief that an individual’s reflection on her/his

experiences from moment to moment are crucial for the development and understanding of the

authentic self (Gilsdorf, 1997). Gestalt theory maintains that a therapist can help a client gain a

deeper understanding of an issue through experiential contact with the presenting problem or

access their subconscious through the use of creative, and often spontaneous, therapeutic

activities (p. 135). Experiential therapy conducted outside an office setting draws heavily on the

influence of Gestalt theory, believing in the power of spontaneous interactions to provide the

setting for developing a deeper awareness of the authentic self and of an individual’s subjective

understanding of her/his relationship to the past, present, and future world (p. 136).

Wilderness Therapy is one such out-of-office model for psychotherapy that has roots in

Gestalt theory and family systems theory. Both Gestalt and family systems theories maintain

that the whole is more than the sum of its parts. In relation to families, this refers to the

interconnection between individuals and all the various systems the individual is a part of. In

Gestalt theory, this phrase refers to the interconnection between all the systems (thinking,


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feeling, sensing, needing etc) within a single individual (Gilsdorf, 1997, p. 137). Wilderness

therapy integrates these two approaches to holism, incorporating bodily and mental experiences

for the individual and group with emotional awareness of the experiences. This might include

rope courses, spelunking, or hiking with a focus on teamwork and problem solving, with time to

process the experience as a group or individually afterward (New Vision Wilderness, n.d.).

Review of the Literature

Well-being and Social Interest

Research shows a strong correlation between the act of volunteering and increased well-

being. Fewer studies show causation, although several studies have been conducted on the basis

that by measuring self-reported well-being in conjunction with a social interest activity, the value

of that activity can be assessed. For example, James Lantz (1981), an Adlerian therapist,

explored depression levels between clients suffering from depression who were exposed to social

interest interventions as a part of their treatment, and clients suffering from depression who were

not exposed to social interest interventions in treatment. Lantz (1981), used 32 clients from a

mental health clinic seeing the same therapist for each of these groups. 16 were asked to

volunteer 2 hours per week at a volunteer site of their choice as a part of their treatment (p. 114).

The other 16 randomly assigned clients were not asked to volunteer. The clients rated their

depression before the treatment and after seven sessions. Lantz found a 38% variance between

the volunteer group and the non-volunteer group, indicating a causal relationship between

volunteering and decreased levels of depression when used as a therapeutic intervention (1981,

p. 115).

In one of the few longitudinal studies exploring the relationship between volunteerism

and well-being, Pillemer, Fuller-Rowell, Reid, and Wells, (2010) monitored the physical and


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mental health of close to 7,000 individuals over a 20 year period of time. The volunteer

activities focused on those with an environmental focus, and over the 20 year period found that

those individuals engaged in volunteer activities were 50% less likely to report depressive

symptoms 20 years after the start of the study as non-volunteers and were more likely to report

themselves in good health. Even in comparison to other volunteers, environmental volunteers

reported experiencing fewer depressive symptoms, possibly because being in nature added

additional health benefits to volunteering (Pillemer et al., 2010, p. 599).

Many other studies and reports exploring the relationship between volunteerism and well-

being have found similar correlations. The health benefits most often found to be correlated with

intrinsically motivated volunteering include: development of a better understanding of the

authentic self, improved self-concept, increased social capital, self-efficacy, happiness, life-

satisfaction, self-esteem, sense of control over life, physical health; and decreased depression,

mortality, work-life conflict and burnout at work (Miller, Schleien, Rider, Hall, Roche, &

Worsley, 2002, p. 247; Ramos, Brauchli, Bauer, Wehner, & Hammig, 2015, p. 165; Miller,

Schleien, Brook, Frisoli, & Brooks, 2005, p. 20). Although none of these studies or reports

managed to show a causational effect between these benefits and volunteerism, the fact that so

many independent studies and reports have found similar findings as to the benefits associated

with volunteering, provides compelling reason to encourage volunteerism amongst individuals

and families as a means of increasing overall well-being. While the Lantz (1981) study presented

the benefits of volunteering as multidimensional, explaining that the increased social contact is

good for individuals struggling with depression, the act of volunteering is distracting from

symptoms, and that the act of volunteering allows the client to stay active in the ongoing “fight”


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against depression (p. 114), other studies attribute the benefits of volunteering to increased social

capital (Hall et al., 2014; Miller et al., 2005).

Social capital, the resource provided by social connections, continues to be strongly

correlated with well-being. In a research article written by researchers Helliwell and Putnam

(2004), the authors found that more contact with people tends to increase an individual’s trust in

people, and that trust in people is strongly associated with higher levels of subjective well-being

(Helliwell & Putnam, 2004, p. 1441). This correlation holds true even when using suicide rates

in a given population as a measure of well-being, since life-satisfaction questionnaires may

reflect temporary state of affairs or different adaptation of conditions to different populations (p.

1444). This trust is the basis for a sense of belonging in a group, a factor that has been proven to

be important for subjective well-being (Brown, Hoye & Nicholson, 2012, p. 473).

Community Connection

Volunteering is an opportunity to be a part of a group of individuals with similar values, a

quality which helps bridge the individual members and create a sense of cohesion and belonging.

Since the group is founded on a social interest activity, the group reinforces the importance of

social interest, and additionally has the opportunity to provide important emotional and tangible

supports to individuals during challenging moments in life (Haski-Leventhal & Cnaan, 2009, p.

63). In a research study conducted by Haski-Leventhal and Cnaan (2009), researchers found that

when volunteers are trained together and given the opportunity for self-disclosure throughout the

initial building of the group, an emotional intimacy is built which additionally helps to bridge the

volunteers and help them feel close (p. 72). The researchers concluded that this process helped

counter the otherwise common effects of new volunteers experiencing anxiety and a feeling of

social ineptitude, both of which lead to a suppressed sense of belonging (p. 72).


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Using volunteering as a therapeutic tool within a structured therapy format would give

clients the opportunity to build emotional intimacy through verbal processing in the group

therapy as well as through the initial training for the volunteer activity (Haski-Leventhal &

Cnaan, 2009). Additionally, some research suggested that clients from various SES and cultural

backgrounds volunteering together builds trust and tolerance amongst the volunteers

(Manatschal, 2015, p. 234). These factors are important for increasing an individual’s or

family’s support network, which as a whole increases their resilience.

Family Connection

Research on the effects of volunteering on well-being has not been limited to individuals.

Several small studies have looked at how volunteering increases the well-being of families as

well. In addition to the benefits of volunteering to the individual (increased self-esteem,

increased sense of meaning in life and increased social connection and social skills), families

who volunteer together benefit from building experiences together and increasing the number of

positive interactions they share, both of which strengthen family relationships (Lewton & Nievar,

2012, p. 696). In an exploratory study conducted by Littlepage, Obergfell and Zahin (2003), for

The Center for Urban Policy and the Environment at Indiana University-Purdue, families

reported that volunteering together contributed to feeling more like a team, realizing the

importance of each member towards their success as a family, and a higher sense of respect for

one another. Additionally, in a qualitative study done by Palmer, Freeman, and Zabriskie

(2007), the authors found that more intense family volunteer experiences had increased benefits,

including a positive effect on the families’ long-term identities, which seemed to be the result of

experiencing challenges and sacrificing of family resources for the sake of others. The authors

refer to this effect as the family deepening process (Palmer et al., 2007). In a study conducted by


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Neill and Dias (2001) on adventure education, exposure to challenge increased an individual’s

psychological resilience. The authors compare the increase in psychological resilience in the

face of challenge to the process of immunizations, “Just as immunity to infections is gained

through the controlled exposure to a pathogen…so too successful encountering of difficult

challenges can provide a form of psychological inoculation” (Neill & Dias, 2001, p. 2). The

study supports the observation made by Palmer et al., (2007) suggesting that the family

deepening referred to may be an increase in the families’ resilience as a result of the exposure to

challenge faced by the families Palmer et al. observed.

In a small study conducted by the department of social work at the University of Hong

Kong, researchers Wong, Fong and Lam (2015) used volunteering as a platform for increasing a

family or individual’s protective factors (including locus of control, meaning of life, family

cohesion, social support, and access to community resources). The study found that an

individual or family’s ability to manage difficult life circumstances and stressors was increased

when the protective factors were increased through volunteerism (Wong et al., 2015, p. 25). The

importance of this increase in resilience through volunteerism is summed up in well-known

trauma researcher Bessel van der Kolk’s (2014) book, The Body Keeps the Score. Van der Kolk

wrote, “Study after study shows that having a good support network constitutes the single most

powerful protection against becoming traumatized” (p. 212). Furthermore he asserted,

“Traumatized human beings recover in the context of relationships: with families, loved ones,

AA meetings, veteran’s organizations, religious communities, or professional

therapists…Recovery from trauma involves (re)connecting with our fellow human beings” (p.

212).


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Limitations and Future Considerations

The studies showing causational effect between volunteering and increased mental well-

being are small and have not been replicated. Due to the large number of studies showing

significant correlation between well-being and volunteerism however, many consider the current

research to have validated the theory that volunteerism promotes well-being (Son & Wilson,

2012; Miller et al., 2002). Many of the studies suffer from selection bias. For this reason, using

volunteering as an intervention would be beneficial only if the client is genuinely interested in

participating. Research suggested that individuals who are not interested in volunteering or are

forced to volunteer, benefit less from the experience than individuals who have a choice in

whether and where they volunteer (Miller et al., 2005).

In regards to family volunteerism, the biggest limitation to the current research is that a

search doesn’t yield many results, and the articles written on the topic are qualitative and rely on

small sample sizes. These findings are thus best used theoretically. Nevertheless, in an article

written by Lewton and Nievar (2012), the authors posit that family life educators can use the

findings to increase family well-being by using volunteer activities as a platform for observing

family interactions and helping them apply skills (p. 698).

Many of the studies cited above support the finding that health benefits are not universal

to everyone who volunteers. In a study conducted by Black and Living (2004), volunteers were

asked to complete surveys exploring their experiences volunteering and their motivations to

volunteer. By comparing these two variables, Black and Living (2004) concluded that

volunteers’ level of motivation to volunteer (in part determined by the individual’s interest in the

particular volunteer activity) affects the experience of volunteering overall (p. 528). Since many

of the mental health benefits associated with volunteering include opportunities (such as


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increasing self-esteem, social supports, and community engagement), the experiences of the

volunteers play a significant role in determining the benefits they gain from volunteering. Other

research has substantiated these findings. In a study conducted by Miller et al., (2002),

researchers found that the volunteers’ interest in the activity positively affected the self-reported

positive effects of the volunteer experience on well-being. When volunteers were allowed to

choose their experience or when their recreational activities were converted to volunteer

opportunities, the individuals experienced greater increases in well-being.

Group dynamics and relationships were also found to play a large role in the volunteer

experience. Haski-Levelnthal and Cnaan (2009) found that the group is what influences an

individual to volunteer in the first place, impacts how hard the volunteer works, and impacts

when the volunteer decides to leave. For this reason, the group dynamics will need to be

monitored and addressed if the volunteer group is to be used therapeutically. Each individual

will need to be selected based on how well s/he will fit in with the current group, just as is done

with any therapeutic group. This is especially important when considering that in a study

examining the relationship between subjective well-being and volunteering. Pilkington,

Windsor, and Crisp (2012) found that contact with family and friends is a more substantial

mediator of subjective well-being than contact with other community members. Furthermore, in

a study conducted by Greenfield and Marks (2004) on whether volunteering acts as a protective

factor for older adult’s psychological well-being, results indicated that when an individual has

experienced role-identity losses (such as might be lost with death or job-loss), volunteering acts

as a protective factor against the lost sense of purpose that often accompanies a role-identity loss

(p. 262). Considering that other research indicated that possessing certain roles (such as life-

partner) and increasing the number of identity-roles an individual possesses is correlated with


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heightened psychological well-being (Black & Living, 2004), building relationships amongst

volunteers as a way of increasing identity-roles may be an important mediator for well-being

(Piliavin & Siegl, 2007, p. 451).

Finally, research by Wong et al., (2015), found that debriefings of the volunteer

experienced allowed the individuals and families internalize the experience in a way that

positively impacted the well-being associated with volunteering. These debriefings also seemed

to provide individuals and families with the opportunity to increase protective factors associated

with resilience, such as increased access to community resources and bridging between social

groups (p. 673). Haski-Leventhal and Cnaan (2009) similarly found that debriefings before and

after the volunteer experience increased the deepening process amongst volunteers, increasing

the protective factor of social capital (p. 72), and Miller et al. (2005) found that the health

benefits associated with volunteering can be positively affected by checking in with the

volunteer to ensure the volunteer feels valued and comfortable (p. 24). The long-term health

benefits associated with volunteering are diminished when volunteers do not feel appreciated in

the experience (McMunn, Nazroo, Wahrendorf, Breeze, & Zaninotto, 2009).

In summery, the specific correlates for obtaining the most benefit from volunteering

include an individual’s interest in the volunteer experience, the closeness of the relationships

built within the group, and taking time before and after the experience to debrief. If volunteering

is to be used therapeutically, the model will need to include a variety of experiences for the client

to choose from, an intake interview to assess whether the individual is a good fit for the group

(someone suffering from an eating disorder who is not managing symptom use will not be a good

fit for a couple or family experience with a focus on cooking), and will need to provide time

before and after each volunteer experience for the group to connect, process, and debrief.


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Additionally, there is limited research suggesting that encountering challenges enhances

individual and potentially family resilience (Neill & Dias, 2001; Palmer et al., 2007). Physical

adventures in some of the choices can offer this challenge, while asking individuals, couples and

families to reflect on the challenges faced and overcome during the debriefings may be sufficient

to build resilience (Neill & Dias, 2001).

Volunteering as a Therapeutic Intervention

Traditional family psychotherapy takes place in an office or group room, where a

therapist can get to know the family, build rapport, understand their presenting problem, and help

the family overcome said problem. While this method is often effective and has many benefits,

it also has its downfalls (Zur, 2001). From a systems perspective, when a family presents for

therapy, the therapist is consistently looking for the systemic patterns upholding the presenting

problem. This includes (but is not limited to) the family’s decision making process, conflict

style, conflict resolution style, and communication styles (Broderick, 1993). Within an office, it

can take time for a family to reveal these patterns to a therapist, in part because an office is an

unusual setting for the family to interact (Woods, 1998). Furthermore, a family might put on a

“show” for the therapist, using different styles in the office than are typically used at home.

When a therapist gives homework, asking the family to practice a new skill, many families come

back the next session without having done said homework (Woods, 1998).

A possible solution to this set of problems is to transfer the therapy outside the office.

Therapists have found that home visits can be a more pragmatic way of connecting with a client

or family who is too unsystematic, busy, sick or impoverished to make it into an office (Zur,

2001). It also provides the therapist with the opportunity to observe the context of the family life

(Zur, 2001). While this concept is not new, it is also not widely used as a therapeutic tool.


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Instead of using the out of office experience as a tool itself, the home is instead treated as the

office in which traditional psychotherapy takes place.

There are other opportunities for increasing mental well-being outside of an office

setting. As the research above suggested, there is a significant correlation between volunteering

and Eudaimonia, which is increased when the volunteer experience is being encouraged,

processed and monitored to help ensure it is a positive experience (Neill & Dias, 2001; Haski-

Leventhal & Cnaan, 2009). Because using therapy as a means for increasing social capital is not

a new idea, the therapy office is an ideal setting for supporting volunteering as a means of

obtaining the health benefits associated with social interest tasks, such as volunteering.

Therapeutic methods such as Interpersonal Therapy and Career Counseling are proven, effective

interventions based in building social capital as a way of helping a client obtain wellness and

achieve personal goals (Swartz et al., 2008).

Not only does volunteering help the client to build social capital, it decreases stigma of

individuals with mental illness in the community, increasing the chances of the client finding a

community in which s/he feels like a valuable member. As Miller et al., (2005) point out, “There

is ‘hard evidence that our school and neighborhoods don’t work so well when community bonds

slacken, that our economy, our democracy, and even our health and happiness depend on

adequate stocks of social capital’” (p. 20).

Conclusion

One of the beautiful things about psychotherapy, and likely one of the reasons many of us

choose this field, is to help foster a (re)connection between an individual and her/his community.

A therapist helps encourage a client to connect with her/him, as a way of practicing what it

means to be vulnerable and to intimately connect with other human beings. Although an


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important starting point, connecting with one human being who is sworn to confidentiality and

who is professionally trained not to cast judgement, is a very different experience than

connecting to a varied group of community members and neighbors. Volunteering has the

unique opportunity to provide this context.

Volunteering moves beyond the boundary walls of a counseling office, proving for a

limitless intervention. Unlike a religious group, which requires a belief in a common system, or

an AA group, which requires the desire to overcome a common challenge, a volunteer group has

no condition beyond a willingness to engage in some form of work. Whereas a religious group

or a support group (such as AA) has limitations on the person in order to join, a volunteer group

has the potential to reach a wider variety of individuals with a variety of reasons for joining.

Volunteering also builds resilience by increasing one’s community and social network (Haski-

Levelnthal & Cnaan, 2009, p. 66; van der Kolk, 2014). An individual who builds community

with an individual or family from a different culture, SES, or struggling with a different set of

problems, not only builds tolerance and understanding for these differences, decreasing the

likelihood of experiencing anxiety and fear when coming into contact with individuals from

these various walks of life (Manatschal, 2015, p. 234), but is building social interest as Adler

first imagined it.

Adler asserted that social interest in its truest form is not simply a striving for community

amongst a particular political or religious group, but is at its core, “…a goal which would have to

signify the ideal community of all mankind [italicized for emphasis]” (Adler, as cited in

Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956, p. 142). Connecting to community is about feeling safe,

significant, and feeling like we belong to others’ lives and to something bigger than ourselves, all

of which play an important role in healing. The idea for Soul Support Network arose from this


21

recognized need. Despite the many benefits of volunteering, there are few resources available to

practitioners to utilize volunteering as a tool within psychotherapy. Not only do individuals,

couples, and families deserve access to all the tools available for healing, but our world and all

the individuals in it deserve access to all the untapped social interest the individuals seeking

treatment have to offer. The business I have proposed (see Appendix) aims to meet that need.

Soul Support Network will employ psychotherapists to help foster social connection and

Eudaimonia through various volunteer activities, helping individuals and families find a space

where they are challenged to grow, embraced as significant, and reminded of their belonging in

the diverse world we all call home.


22

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23

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26

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27

Appendix

Business Proposal:

Soul Support Network

Submitted by: Linnea M. S. Logas


28

Business Proposal: Soul Support Network

This is a proposal for Soul Support Network, a company dedicated to supporting social

interest outside the therapy office. This proposal will allow for the seamless integration of

volunteering as a therapeutic tool. Soul Support Network will provide the tools necessary for

therapists to be able to assess an individual’s and family’s interests and strengths, and to assess

client progress throughout the volunteer experience. These tools will include surveys to monitor

enjoyment, perceived value, and perceived appreciation of the experience, and traditional

interpersonal therapy interventions to support the continued building of social capital through the

volunteer experience. Furthermore, Soul Support Network will facilitate contact between clients

and volunteer sites and provide additional supports for clients who need extra help in order to

carry out volunteer responsibilities.

Soul Support Network will be run by a group of psychotherapists who will not only

facilitate the volunteer process, but will be onsite to observe the participating individuals and

families. This will give the therapists a unique glimpse into individual and families decision

making processes, social skills, strengths, conflict styles and resolution styles. Process time

before and after each volunteer day will give the therapists the opportunity to teach skills based

on what they have observed necessary, and will provide clients with the opportunity to process

the experience together, building bonds between the volunteers and following what research

suggests is best practice for obtaining well-being through the experience.

Similar Business Models

Adventure & Wilderness Therapy. Family Adventure Therapy and Wilderness Therapy

programs began emerging in the United States in the 1980’s as a way of building trust,

communication and problem solving skills amongst individuals and families (Neill, 2004, Family


29

Adventure Therapy). While these programs do not include volunteer components to build

resilience through social capital, they are based in many of the same theories as Soul Support

Network. New Vision Wilderness is one such organization, focused on serving underserved

youth in the Midwest and north-pacific since 2007 through a combination of psychotherapy and

adventure experiences (“New Vision Wilderness” n.d.).

Cost. New Vision Wilderness (NVW) includes family therapy at the beginning and end

of each youth’s stay with the program. The average length of stay is between 6-10 weeks, and

uses a variety of therapeutic techniques throughout the program including EMDR and art therapy

in addition to the adventure expeditions. Due to insurance not covering the entire cost of the

program, NVW has opted out of accepting insurance. The cost of the program includes an

enrollment fee of $1950 plus a daily fee of $485. This cost covers an initial assessment of the

client, treatment planning, individual therapy 3x per week as well as regular group therapy, gear

and meals for the duration of the program, adventure outings (such as kayaking, rock climbing

and fishing), and continued support through collaboration with schools and therapists after the

completion of the program (“New Vision Wilderness”, n.d.).

The model of New Vision Wilderness seems to be standard for adventure therapy

programs. The majority of programs serve at-risk youth and have some but limited contact with

family members. Equinox Counseling and Wellness Center (ECWC), founded in 2009, is

somewhat unique. ECWC offers shorter adventure therapy trips to adolescents as a part of their

overall family therapy treatment, with the intent of making the transition back to family life more

seamless than programs with long outings and no family contact during the trip. The families are

not involved in the adventure portion of the trip, but are included in the overall therapy


30

experience before and after the program (Equinox Counseling and Wellness Center, 2016).

Despite contacting ECWC multiple times, I was unable to obtain information on client costs.

Family Service Vacations. Volunteer tourism has its roots in the aftermath of WWII,

when organizations began to form to bring individuals to other regions and countries to aid in

clean-up efforts. In the 1960’s, President John F. Kennedy started the Peace Corps, a federal

organization to encourage students to be worldwide ambassadors to developing nations

(“Volunteer Tourism Views”, 2013). It wasn’t until 1971 when the first paid-for service vacation

model was created by Earthwatch Institute (“Earthwatch Institute”, 2014). Since that time, many

more organizations have capitalized on the trend of volunteer tourism, with an estimated 800

tourist organizations offering service trips to individuals and families (“What is the size of the

Voluntourism Market”, 2013), and Travel Agent journal reporting volunteer tourism as one of

the fastest growing areas of tourism (Rogers, 2007).

Cost. On average, a week-long domestic service trip through the Sierra Club focusing on

environmental stewardship costs $620 per person (“Sierra Club Outings”, 2016) and a domestic

trip through Global Citizens focusing on community outreach costs $1,000, with children’s costs

averaging 30% less for both organizations (“Global Citizens Network”, 2016). These prices are

consistent with other non-service oriented tourist businesses. Wilderness Inquiry averages $725

for a week long expedition to the boundary waters (“Wilderness Inquiry”, 2015). International

service trips through Global Citizens average $3,000 for a two week trip, while Wilderness

Inquiry averages $3,900 (“Global Citizens Network”, 2016; “Wilderness Inquiry”, 2015).

After reading about the success these various adventure therapy programs and volunteer

tourism agencies have had over the last 10-20 years, I developed my business plan for Soul

Support Network with some important changes to what seems to be the current standard business


31

model. Unlike other adventure therapy programs, Soul Support Network will include couples and

families throughout the entire experience, will have a focus on volunteering instead of adventure

(although adventure will be a part of some of the offered experiences), and will cater to all

families, not just families with youth at-risk. The business model reflects the interest people have

in volunteer tourism, while using best practices suggested by research to ensure lasting and

meaningful change for the individuals and families participating in the programs.

Mission Statement

Soul Support Network is a non-profit organization run by a dedicated group of therapists

who believe strongly in the healing capacity of community. Through a variety of enriching

volunteer experiences, individuals and families are given the opportunities and supports needed

to strengthen relationships, fortify emotional and mental well-being, and build community.

Objectives

To facilitate individuals’ and families’ goals towards well-being, including but not

limited to increased self-esteem, increased self-efficacy, increased life-satisfaction, and

decrease in self-reported depression and anxiety

To increase individuals’ and families’ resilience through increased protective factors

including social skills, social networks, and community resources

To increase individuals’ and families’ access to populations diverse from their own as a

means of building tolerance and social connection

Services

Individuals, families and couples who are looking for reconnection or struggling with

depression, a sense of meaninglessness, or anxiety are best fit for the treatment provided in this

program. Due to the lack of insurance coverage, the first phases of this program will cater to


32

higher SES populations, with the goal of increasing the SES range as grants and scholarships

become available. Clients will not be asked to participate in a set number of programs, but will

instead be able to choose the program that best fits their needs. Upon the initial intake session

with a therapist, clients may be advised to consider participating in one program over another

depending on goals and treatment needs. Research shows that the increase in well-being is not

determined by the number of hours spent volunteering, but is determined the time allocated to

building social bonds between the volunteers (Haski-Levelnthal & Cnaan, 2009).

In order to ensure the best possible success for the groups as a whole, individuals

struggling with eating disorders, high levels of social anxiety, suicidal ideation, and unmanaged

narcissism, borderline, and bi-polar will not be eligible. Once symptoms are being managed,

these individuals are welcome to participate.

Staffing

See Start Up Costs for specific FTE’s. There will be a psychotherapist present at every

group therapy session for every two families or couples present, or for every 6 people in the

group, with a minimum of two psychotherapists for any volunteer excursion. All

psychotherapists will be licensed in the state of Minnesota, and will only treat individuals,

couples and families living in Minnesota. Two staff members will be present for all non-

therapeutic, planned group activities for every two families or couples present, or for every 6

people in the group.

Space

The space needed for the program to run is minimal. A group room, a kitchen, a private

admin office, and an office space to hold several staff will be needed. Before and after

excursions, clients will be invited to meet at a central office space at Aslan Institute, 4141 Old

Sibley Memorial Hwy Eagan, MN 55122, to do any psychoeducation needed around the trip, go


33

over group norms and expectations, de-brief after the outing, and to process as a group. On the 1-

2 week long trips, clients will be expected to meet every morning and every night to debrief and

process.

Program Timeline

Phase 1

o Weekend volunteer opportunities with a small group. Individuals, couples or

families will be provided a therapy session at the beginning of the weekend to

address any concerns and establish goals with the therapist, in addition to group

therapy provided throughout the weekend.

Local: Cooking classes with families or couples where the meal made

together is enjoyed as a group, and where extra is made and brought to

community members in need

Environmental: Weekend excursion to a state or national forest to

volunteer clearing trails, picking up trash, taking water samples, or

anything else the park service needs at that time

Cultural: Weekend trip to White Earth Reservation in north-central

Minnesota to tutor children, work in the community gardens, or help

refurbish historical buildings. History about the reservation and the

Anishinaabe will be included as a part of the experience.

Phase 2

o 1-2 Week long volunteer opportunities with a small group, paid for out of pocket

or through insurance as an outpatient program. Individuals, couples or families

will be provided therapy sessions 2-3x per week in addition to the group therapy


34

provided daily. Each individual, couple or family will also have an initial hour

and a half long intake before the week commences to establish a treatment plan.

Local: Work with the Minnesota Food Network to gather, sort, and clean

food from neighborhoods and local farms. A portion of the food gathered

will be brought to local food shelves throughout the twin cities, while a

portion of the food will be cooked into meals and served at soup kitchens

in the twin cities. Volunteers will have the opportunity to be a part of each

step of this process.

Environmental: Week long excursion to the boundary waters for couples

and families, helping the park service with trail clearing or other activities

needed at that time.

Cultural and environmental retreat: A two week long break from reality in

beautiful Hawaii, where individuals, couples, and families will participate

in art therapy, yoga, and participate in volunteer activities. These activities

might include coastal clean-up, Honu turtle preservation, tutoring in the

schools, or helping build homes for underprivileged families. Retreat will

include group outings to snorkel, whale watch, stare gaze, and learn about

Hawaii’s rich cultural heritage.

Phase 3

o Grants will be written to provide scholarships to at-risk youth and their families to

participate in the small groups. This is based on research conducted by Morrow-

Howell, Hong, & Tang (2009) who found that individuals with lower SES

reported more benefit from volunteering than their higher SES counterparts.


35

o Grants will also be written to hire bi-lingual psychotherapists to give multi-

cultural families the opportunity to be involved in the small groups.

Phase 4

o Tailor specific groups to specific challenges clients are facing. For example,

individuals overcoming an eating disorder and their families will be invited to

participate in an outing as a group. This could include individuals suffering from

anxiety, marital or family distance and conflict, depression, addiction, feelings of

meaninglessness, families or individuals looking for support after a serious illness

such as cancer, or grief support.

Reimbursement

Soul Support Network will be in-network with most major insurance companies as long

as the insurance company deems the need for this alternative therapy necessary and relevant.

Insurance is reserved for medically necessary treatment, so while research supports the medical

benefits of volunteering, insurance is unlikely to reimburse for the entirety of this program. If an

individual is seeking treatment for a diagnosable mental-health illness, insurance may cover the

psychotherapy portion of the program depending on the individual’s insurance plan. Insurance

may also cover specific interventions, such as art therapy sessions and yoga sessions. Family

therapy and couple’s therapy will be out-of-pocket unless the family is seeking supportive

treatment for one individual in the family with a diagnosable mental-health illness. The cost of

travel, lodging, food, and extra activities will be covered out-of-pocket.

For individuals and families who cannot afford the cost out-of-pocket but who still wish

to participate, health care lending companies such as Prosper will be presented as options. Grants

written in the final phases of Soul Support Network will also help provide scholarships for


36

individuals and families who cannot afford services otherwise. There will also be a sliding scale

fee. This sliding fee will be put into effect the second year of operation in order to ensure the

financial stability of the business. The sliding scale fee will be described as stated below:

For some individuals it is financially difficult to make use of self-pay therapy. If you feel

you cannot afford the full fee per session, then calculate the sliding fee for each session

as follows: divide your annual gross income for all wage earners in the household during

the most recent tax year by the number 500. This will give you an approximation of the

sliding fee for each session. Example: if the gross annual income for all wage earners in

the household is $50,000, then divide it by 500, and the sliding fee is $100 for each

session. A minimum fee of $80 is requested per session. If $80 is still too high, there are

scholarships available to cover or help off-set the cost. While groups cannot be offered on

a discount at this time, there are scholarships and lending options available for qualifying

individuals. We can discuss these options when you come in for your first session or free

phone consultation.

After the first year, the number to divide income by will increase to 1000, with a minimum fee of

$40 in order to make services more accessible to a wider group of clients. Scholarships will

continue to be offered to these individuals to help offset the $40 fee if this is still too high.

Startup Costs

Startup costs are determined by costs associated with phase 1. Subsequent phases will be

incorporated in years to come as Soul Support Network establishes revenue, a client base, and

works out the inevitable kinks that come with starting a business. Expenditures and revenue

sources will both change with each phase, but the baseline for both will be those established in

phase 1. The following startup budget outlines one-time expenditures associated with the initial


37

startup, anticipated monthly expenditures associated with the first year of phase 1, and

anticipated monthly revenue associated with the first year of phase 1.

Table 1

Start Up Costs: Soul Support Network

Expense Category

Expense Category

Expense Category

Expense Category

Expense Category

Expense Category

(A) Staff and Personnel

("Wilderness Therapy Jobs", 2016; "Catering & Chef Services,

2016).

2 Weekday therapists

Conduct individual and family therapy sessions 3-4 days per week for 50 minute sessions $80.00 224 $17,920.00

2 Weekend (1 day) event therapists

Pay per day, operates 1x per month $300.00 2 $600.00

2 Full Weekend (2 day) event therapists

Pay per day, operates 2x per month $300.00 8 $2,400.00

Chef

Teaches one weekend cooking class per month (3 hours + 2 hours prep and clean up + 1 hour shopping) 1 hour planning the month's event meals $60.00 7 $420.00

Prep cook Shopping and assembling weekend meals $18.00 12 $216.00

FICA & Medicare (7.65% salary)

$1,649.03

(Paycor, 2016).


38

Expense Category

Expense Category

Expense Category

Expense Category

Expense Category

Expense Category

Total Monthly Payroll Expenses $23,205.03

(B) Monthly Office & Admin Costs

Business Insurance

$250 1 $250

("Business Insurance Cost

Analysis", 2016).

Workman's Comp

Includes liability insurance for therapists and workman’s comp for all non-therapist employees $50 1 $50

("Business Insurance Cost

Analysis", 2016).

Rent Office space for two therapists weekly $900 1 $900

(B. Lahn, personal

communication, July 21, 2016).

Rent

Retreat spaces including kitchen space and group room $200 1 $200

(B. Lahn, personal


Website Hosting

$25 1 $25 (Palmer, 2014).

HIPPA compliant Software $36 1 $36

(Centore, 2016).

Email Host HIPPA Compliant $4 1 $4 (Palmer, 2014).

Phone/Internet

$40 1 $40 (Palmer, 2014).

Public Utilities Shared amongst all renters $100 1 $100

(B. Lahn, personal


Office Supplies Tissues, coffee & tea, printer paper $25 1 $25

(Centore, 2016).

Van Payments

Van for transport for weekend events $350 1 $350

("Used Full Size Van For Sale",

2016).


39

Expense Category

Expense Category

Expense Category

Expense Category

Expense Category

Expense Category

Gas

400 miles 1x per month + 100 miles 1x per month, 16 gallons per mile, average gas cost of $3. 25 per gallon $300 1 $300

Food Costs

Food for cooking class and meals for weekend events $500 1 $500

(R. Logas, personal

communication, August 12,

2016).

Lodging

One night tent rental in state park, two night lodge rental at White Earth Reservation $880 1 $880

("Outfitting and Rental", 2016;

"Cabins & Rates", 2015).

Total Monthly Office/Admin Expenses $3,660

Total Monthly Expenses

$26,865.19

(B) One-time startup costs

Office decor & signage

$1,000 1 $1,000 (Centore,

2016).

Rent deposit

$800 1 $800

(B. Lahn, personal


Legal Fees Incorporating business through Legalzoom.com $1,500 1 $1,500

(Centore, 2016; R. Logas, personal

communication, August 12,

2016).

Business cards and brochures $400 1 $400 ("MOO", n.d.).

Website Design

$600 1 $600 (Katkin, 2015).


40

Expense Category

Expense Category

Expense Category

Expense Category

Expense Category

Expense Category

Printer

$200 1 $200 (Palmer, 2014).

One time miscelanious

$1,000 1 $1,000 (Centore,

2016).

1x startup costs: Total

$5,500

Projected Expenses for the first month: Total $32,365.19

Projected Revenue Source

Description Monthly Total

Wkly Tx, Pd by Client or Ins

$120/Session, 28 sessions/wk per therapist $26,880

Cooking Class $215.5/person, 8 people, 1 class per month $1,724

Environmental Outing

$350/person, 8 people, 1 class per month $2,800

Cultural Outing $400/person, 8 people, 1 class per month $3,200

Total Monthly Revenue

$34,604

Total Projected Expenses for the first month $32,365.19

Total Surplus, first month

$2,238.81

Total Projected Expenses after first month $26,865.19

Projected Surplus, after 1st mo. - Total $7,738.81


41

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amenities/

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and-chef-services/

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counselor-in-private-practice-make/

Earthwatch Institute. (2014). History of Earthwatch. Retrieved from

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Gilsdorf, R. (1997, July). Gestalt and adventure therapy: Parallels and perspectives. In Exploring

the Boundaries of Adventure Therapy: International Perspectives. Proceedings of the

International Adventure Therapy Conference (Perth, AU, July, 1997), 1, 131-143.

Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED424057.pdf

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42

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A Master’s Project - Adler Graduate School Logas... · 2017-02-10 · Increasing Eudaimonia Using Volunteering as a Therapeutic Intervention A Master’s Project Presented to