A LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF …

ALITERATUREREVIEWONTHECONCEPTUALIZATIONOFWOMEN’SEMPOWERMENT

by

EllyArnoff

ApaperpresentedtothefacultyofTheUniversityofNorthCarolinaatChapelHillinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthe

degreeofMasterofPublicHealthintheDepartmentofMaternalandChildHealth.

ChapelHill,N.C.

April18,2011 Approvedby:

1stReader

2ndReader(Advisor)

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ABSTRACT

Thisliteraturereviewstartsoutbydiscussingtherelevancyofwomen’s

empowermentasanapproachtoaddressgenderinequalityinsocieties.Itthengoes

ontoillustratethreestrongmodelsofwomen’sempowermentincontemporary

developmentliterature,breakingdowntheprocessbyfundamentalconceptsand

phases.Theframeworksservetoeducatedevelopmentactorsonhowtobetter

measuretheprocessandidentifyprogramsandpoliciesthatpromotethe

empowermentapproach.Afterlookingattheframeworks,thereviewaddresses

keymeasurementconsiderations,suchasdimensionsofwomen’sempowerment

andlevelsofdataaggregation,aswellascross‐culturalconcernsinutilizinga

universalempowermentapproach.

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TABLEOFCONTENTS

Introduction……………………………………………………..……………………………………4

DefiningWomen’sEmpowerment…………………………………………………………7

ConceptualizingWomen’sEmpowerment……………………………………………..8Kabeer’sThreeDimensionalModel…………………………………………………………….8

Resources(preconditions)………………………………………………………………………10

Agency(process)……...........…...........…...........…...........…...........…...........…...........…........10

Achievements(outcomes)………...........…...........…...........…...........…...........…...........…...11

TriangulatingTheDimensions……...........…...........…...........…...........…...........…........…11

TheCommissiononWomenandDevelopment’sConceptualFramework…..12CoreConcepts……...........…...........…...........…...........…...........…...........…...........…...........…13

Power…..…...........…...........…...........…...........…...........…...........…...........…...........…..............14

TheWorldBank’sAgency&OpportunitystructureModel…................................15

TheInfluenceofPovertyandGenderNorms…................................................17

MeasurementConsiderations…............................................................................19

LevelsandDimensions…………………………………………………………………………….19MeasuringaProcess….……………………………………………………………………………21

Conclusion…............................................................................….................................22

References….…............................................................................................................24

AliteratureReviewontheConceptualizationofWomen’sEmpowerment

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INTRODUCTION

Genderisasocialconstructthatdefineswhatitmeanstobeamanora

womaninagivensociety.Genderoftenprescribesrolesformenandwomen,

dealingwithdivisionoflabor,responsibilitiesandrights.Theserolesvaryby

cultureandmaychangeovertime.(1)Insocieties,genderstructureshavethe

potentialtoproduceinstitutionalizedinequalitiesbetweenmenandwomen(12)

(i.e.genderinequality).Inthesecontexts,womenareoftenmoresusceptibletoand

aredisproportionatelyeffectedbytheseinequalities.(1)Oneapproachtochallenge

genderinequalityisthroughwomengainingpowerthroughaprocessofwomen’s

empowerment.(12)Empowermentisunderstoodastransformatoryinthatithas

thepotentialtochallengesocietalinequities,suchasconditionsrootedingender

inequality.(8)

Overthelastcoupledecades,theinternationaldevelopmentcommunityhas

increasinglyfocuseditseffortsonpromotinggenderequalityasameanstobetter

social,economicandhealthoutcomes,butalsoasanendinitself.(19)In2000,

developmentleadersgatheredattheUnitedNationsheadquartersinNewYorkto

developgoalstoreducepovertyby2015.Theseeightgoals,knownasthe

MillenniumDevelopmentGoals,guideinternationaldevelopmentactorsonstrategy

andprojectgoals.Goalthreeisto“promotegenderequalityandempower

women.”(18)

Additionally,in2010,theUnitedNationsDevelopmentFundforWomen

(UNIFEM)wasre‐brandedastheUNEntityforGenderEqualityandthe

EmpowermentofWomen(UNWomen)(17).Theintentionbehindthiswastomake


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theorganizationamoreindependentandwell‐resourcedagency.(5)TheWorld

Bankisalsoanadvocateforwomen’sempowerment.IntheirGenderActionPlan,

women’seconomicempowermentisprioritizedasamainobjective(20)andhas

beenincludedinover1,800WorldBank‐aidedprojects.(12)TheWorldBank

assertsthatinvestinginwomenunleasheseconomicpotentialandisgoodfor

economicgrowthandpovertyreduction.(5)

Women’sempowermentispromotedforeconomicrationalesaswellasa

meanstoachievepositivehealthoutcomesforwomenandchildren.Demographers

havenotedthatchangesingendersystems,suchaswomen’sempowerment,can

bringaboutdemographicchange,specificallywithregardstofertilityandmortality.

(12)Internationalprogramevidencesupportsthatempowermentdoesinfactlead

topositivereproductivehealthoutcomes.Rigorousevaluationsofempowerment

programs,suchastheBRACmicrocreditprograminBangladesh(15),Ishraq

(“Englightenment”)programinEgypt,andtheSouthAfricanInterventionwith

MicrofinanceforAIDSandGenderEquity(IMAGE)(19),providesuchevidence.

TheevaluationoftheBRACprogramfoundthatexpandingawoman’s

economicchoicesthroughmicrocreditwasassociatedwithincreasedcontraceptive

useaswellashigherlevelsofwomen’sempowerment,measuredbyphysical

mobility,economicsecurity,autonomousdecision‐making,exposuretoviolence,

politicalandlegalawareness,andpoliticalparticipation.(15)

TheIshraqprogramprovidedliteracyclasses,life‐skillsandlivelihood

trainings,andphysicalactivitytopromotesocialnetworksandindividualself‐

confidence.Theprogramcontributedtoadeclineinsupportforviolenceagainst


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women,includingfemalegenitalcutting,aswellastoareductioninchildmarriage.

Thus,theprogram’seffortstopromotewomen’sempowermentcontributedtomore

gender‐equitableattitudes,aswellashealthierfertilitybehaviors.(19)

Andlastly,theIMAGEprograminSouthAfricaincorporatedamicro‐lending

componentandalifeskillsprogramtoadvancegenderandHIVawareness.The

programdecreasedintimatepartner‐violence,whichislinkedtoHIV/AIDSstatus,

andincreasedwomen’seconomicwell‐beingandempowerment,measuredbyself‐

confidenceandfinancialconfidence,attitudestowardgendernorms,autonomous

decision‐making,householdcommunication,partnerrelationships,and

participationinsocialgroups,andcollectiveaction.(19)Theseevaluations

demonstratethepotentialwomen’sempowermentcanhaveforthehealthandwell‐

beingofwomenindevelopingcountires.

Whilewomen’sempowermenthasbeenpromotedasacentraldevelopment

issue(5),developmentactorsdonotalwaysusethetermappropriately,(3)let

alonemeasureitaccuratelyorconsistently.Thoseseekingtopromotewomen’s

empowermentormeasureit,mustfirstbefamiliarwithhowitisconceptualizedby

developmentacademicsandexperiencedprofessionals.Thisliteraturereview

servestoillustratehowacademicsanddevelopmentprofessionalsconceptualize

anddefinewomen’sempowermentincontemporarydevelopmentliteratureandto

highlightconceptualconsiderationsforhowtheconceptismeasuredand

operationalizedinprograms.


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DEFININGWOMEN’SEMPOWERMENT

Inwomen’sempowermentliterature,outdatedacademictheoriesandideas

stillflourishinpolicydiscourse.(5)Termslikeautonomy,power,status,agencyare

usedinterchangeablywithwomen’sempowerment.(10)However,therearesubtle

differencesthatresearchers,evaluatorsandprogrammersmustacknowledge,such

asthedistinctionbetweenautonomyandempowerment.Autonomysignifies

independenceandismoreofastaticconcept,whereasempowermentcaninclude

interdependenceaswellasandreferstoaprocess.(11)Batliwalacontendsthat“of

allthebuzzwordsthathaveenteredthedevelopmentlexiconinthepast30years,

empowermentisprobablythemostwidelyusedandabused.”(3)

Theconceptofempowermenthashistoricalfoundationsinseveralcollective

strugglesforsocialjustice,suchastheProtestantReformation,Quakerism,

Jeffersoniandemocracy,capitalism,theblack‐powermovement.Inthemid‐1980s,

thenotionofwomen’sempowermentemergedasawaytochallengepatriarchy.

And,inthe1990s,thetermwasbroadenedfromthinkingofitascollectiveprocess

toalsounderstandingitasanindividualprocessofself‐transformation.(3)

Atthe1995FourthWorldConferenceinBeijing,women’sempowerment

wasintroducedtoanexpandedaudienceofstateactorsandgovernments.The

signatoriesoftheconferencepledgedtoadvancewomen’sempowerment

worldwide.(16)Theirvisionofwomen’sempowermentstressedthreemain

fundamentals:

• Itwasasocio‐politicalprocess;

• Powerwasthecriticaltoempowerment;and


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• Theprocesspromotedshiftsinpolitical,social,andeconomicpowerbetween

andacrossindividualsandgroups.(3)

Thesefundamentalnotionsofempowermentwereincorporatedintothegrowing

literatureontheconceptualizationofwomen’sempowerment.

CONCEPTUALIZINGWOMEN’SEMPOWERMENT

KABEER’STHREEDIMENSIONALMODEL

Oneoftheleadingandfrequentlycited(4,5,12,13,15)conceptualthinkers

onthistopicsisNaliaKabeer,aDFIDSeniorResearchFellowwhoworkson

developingframeworksandmethodologiesforintegratinggenderconcernsinto

policyandplanning.(6)Kabeerdefinespowerastheabilitytomakechoices.

Therefore,thosewhoaredisempoweredareeitherdeniedorarelimitedintheir

choices.Empowermentisaprocessthatgivespowertothedisempoweredand

increasestheirabilitytomakestrategicchoices.Peoplewhoareabletomake

strategiclifechoices,butwhowereneverdisempowered,aremerelypowerful,not

empowered.(7)

Kabeer’sdefinitionisparalleltotheWorldBank’sunderstandingthat

empowermentenhancesan“individual’sorgroup’scapacitytomakechoicesand

transformthosechoicesintodesiredactionsandoutcomes.”(10)Masonrefersto

thisabilityasmakingeffectivechoices.(12)Empowermentisaprocessthatoccurs

overtime,makingwomenagentswhoformulatechoices,controlresources,and

makestrategiclifechoices.(10)


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Thus,existenceofviablechoicestoachievedesiredoutcomesiscentraltothe

conceptofempowerment.Inorderforchoicetoexist,theremustbeapossibilityof

alternatives.Onemustperceiveandbeabletochoosealternativeoptions.Kabeer

explainsthatsomechoiceshavegreatersignificanceintermsofconsequencesthan

otherchoices(7)andmakesadistinctionbetweenfirst‐andsecond‐orderchoices.

Firstorderchoicesarestrategiclifechoicesthatarecriticaltohowwewantour

lives,suchasthechoiceoflivelihood,who/iftomarry,whethertohavechildren,etc.

Second‐orderchoicesareoftenframedbyfirst‐orderchoicesandareless

consequential.Theyareimportantforlifequality,butdonotdefinelife’s

parameters.(8)Kabeeralsoexplainsthatexercisingstrategicchoicesshouldnot

limitone’sabilitytomakefuturedecisions.(7)

Kabeeroutlinesthreedimensionsofempowerment,explainingthesearethe

pathwaysthroughwhichempowermentoccurs.(7)Thefirstofthesethree

dimensionsisresources,whichcanbeunderstoodastheconditionsofchoice,

meaningoneperceivesandisabletochoosealternativeoptions,orasthisreferred

toinKabeer’sdiagram,pre‐conditions.Theseconddimensionisagency,whichisa

processbywhichonedistinguishesbetweenstrategiclifechoicesandsecond‐order

choicesandmakeschoicesineitherarena.(8)Resourcesandagencyarethoughtof

ascatalystsforempowerment.Insomeoftheotherliterature,thesetermsareoften

referredtoascontrol,awareness,orpower.(11)Andlastly,thethirddimensionis

achievements,whichreferstotheconsequencesofthechoicesmade.(8)Changein

onedimensioncanleadtochangesintheothers.(7)Thesethreedimensionscanbe

seenasinteractinginFigure1below.


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Resources(preconditions)

Kabeercharacterizesresourcesasmaterial,humanorsocialinform.

Resourcesincreasetheabilitytoexercisechoice(8)andarethemeansthrough

whichagencyiscarriedout.Theyareattainedbywayofsocialinstitutionsand

relationshipsinsociety.Whensocialinstitutionsandrelationshipspromotemale

authorityandendorsegenderinequality,womenbecomelimited,relativetomen,in

theirabilitiestoaccessresources.(7)

Agency(process)

Havingaccesstoresourcesisanecessarypre‐conditionofempowerment,

howeveraccessaloneisdifferentthanhavingcontrol.Thisisoftenthecasein

contextswherethereisagapbetweenpracticeandthelaw,suchaswithproperty

rightsinmanycountries.Forthatreason,accesstoresourcesisnotsufficient;

womenmustalsohavetheabilitytoidentifyandutilizethoseresources.(11)

Kabeerreferstothisasagency,explainingonehasthepowerwithintodefineone’s

owngoalsandactuponthem.Thisisoftenoperationalizedthroughdecision‐

makingabilities.(8)Howoneseesitself(i.e.theirsenseofself‐worth)isthe

foundationofempowerment.Thisisoftenreliantonhowtheyareseenbyothers.


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Whiletheselfdrivesempowerment,societalvaluesandnormsoftenshape

inequalitiesinsociety.(7)

Kabeermakesnoteofafewdistinctionsandnuancesregardingagency.She

distinguishesbetweenpassiveandactiveagency,notingpassiveagencyiswhenan

actionistakenundercircumstanceswithfewrealizableoptions,whereasactive

agencyreferstopurposefulbehavior.Kabeeralsodifferentiatesbetweenagency

thatiseffectiveandagencythatistransformative.Effectiveagencyprovideswomen

withgreaterefficiencyincarryingouttheirroles,whereastransformativeagency

giveswomentheabilitytochallengetherestrictivenatureoftheirroles.

Transformativeagencyprovideswomenwithgreaterabilitytoconsiderand

respondtothepatriarchalconstraintsintheirlives.(7)

Achievements(outcomes)

Kabeerdepictsachievementsastheextenttowhichone’scapabilities(i.e.

resourcesandagency)arerealized.Thesecanbeunderstoodasoutcomes.(7)Itis

criticaltonotewhetherdifferencesachievementsarebecauseofone’sabilityto

challengeinequalities,ratherthanadifferenceinpersonalpreference(8)or

individualcharacteristics,suchaslaziness,wherepowerisnotanissue.(9)

TriangulatingTheDimensions

ThethreedimensionsdescribedabovemakeupKabeer’sconceptual

understandingofempowerment.Kabeerarguestheymustbeconsideredindivisible

whenitcomestodevelopingmeaningfulandvalidmeasuresofempowerment.(8)


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Thevalidityofeachdimensionmeasureisdependentuponothers.Consequently,

Kabeermakesacasefortriangulatingdatafromeachdimensionwhenconstructing

empowermentmeasures,explaining,“themoreevidencethereistosupportthese

assumptions,themorefaithwearelikelytohaveinthevalidityoftheindicatorin

question.”(8)

THECOMMISSIONONWOMENANDDEVELOPMENT’SCONCEPTUALFRAMEWORK

Belgium’sgovernmentalinternationalaidagency,theDirection‐Généralede

laCoopérationauDéveloppement(DGCD),taskedtheCommissiononWomenand

Developmenttodesignanempowermentmethodologytobeusedforprogram

development.Indoingso,theywerefirstfacedwithconceptualizingtheterm.The

Commission’sconceptionwasinfluencedbyKabeer,aswellasothertheorists1and

theDAWNwomen’smovement(4);howevertherearesubtlenuancesand

additionalinsightsthatmakethismodelvaluabletoexamine.

Theguidedescribesempowermentasprovidinggreatercontrolofresources,

increasingone’sownpowerandintroducingmoresocio‐politicalspaces.

Empowermentoccursattwolevels:theindividualandthecollectivelevel.Atthe

individuallevel,oneacquiresgreaterindependence,enhancescapacityforself‐

determination,andincreasesopportunities.Atthecollectivelevel,groupsincrease

theirabilitiestoinfluencesocialchange.However,thismodelprimarilyhighlights

theindividualaspectsofempowerment.(4)

1SarahLongwez,JoRowlandsandMagdalenaLéon


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CoreConcepts

Thismodelindentifiesfourcoreconceptsofempowerment‐assets,

knowledge,will,andcapacity–andarguesthattheyareusefulwhenassessingthe

outcomesandimpactofempowermentprograms.Thisbreakdownissimilarto

Kabeer’smodel,butnotidentical.Onenoticeablenuanceisthatthismodelsplits

Kabeer’sresourcesintotwoseparateconcepts–assetsandknowledge.Assetsare

definedasthematerialresourcesthatgiveonegreatereconomicpower.These

includeincome,land,tools,technology,betterhealth,moretime,accesstoservices,

informationandtraining,healthcentersandmarketsetc.Knowledgeprovides

peoplewithtechniques,training,literacy,andcriticalanalysisskills.Itpromotes

leadershipandenablesanindividualoracommunitytotakeadvantageof

opportunities.(4)

Willisthethirddimensionlistedinthismodel.Itisdefinedasthe

psychologicalstrengthorthepowerwithintomakeone’sownchoices.Thisisquite

similartoKabeer’sagency;howeverthismodelcategorizeswillasaresource.The

guidealsoexplainsthatone’svalues,fears,self‐confidenceandself‐perceptionaffect

one’swill.Thefourthdimensiontheguidediscussesiscapacity,whichisdescribed

ashavingtheopportunitiestouseresources(assets,knowledge,will),make

decisions,andtakeonresponsibility.(4)Decision‐makingmaybehelpfulin

operationalizingcapacity.

Figure2illustrateshowtheempowermentprocesscanbeacatalystfor

socialchange.Itdepictswill,assetsandknowledge–allconceptsKabeerrefersto

asresources–inconcentriccirclessurroundedbypower.Italsoillustratesthe


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institutionalcontext(family,theState,religiousestablishments,educational

establishments,themedia,NGOs,etc.)inwhichanindividualoragroupresides.

Institutionshavethepotentialtoaffectwill,assetsand/orknowledgeandvisaversa,

asillustratedbythearrowspointingin‐andoutward.One’scapacityfor

empowermentislinkedtotheinstitutionsandlawsinsociety.However,itis

importanttonotethatnotallofthesearrowsarethesameinweightandthatthe

modelislimitedinthatnotallrelationshipsofinfluenceareshown.(4)

Power

Powerisanothercriticalelementoftheempowermentprocess.Theguide

delineatesdifferentwaysinwhichindividualsandgroupsyieldpower.Thefirstis

havingpoweroversomeone,whichimpliespowerislimited.Thesecondisthe

powertomakedecisionsandsolveproblems.Thisisrelatedtoassetsand

knowledge,suggestingthatthistypeofpowerutilizesthoseresources.Thethirdis


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thepowerwithothers,referringtothepoweronehasinthesocialandpolitical

spheres.Thus,thereispowerincollectivity,wherebyhavingacommonpurpose

andtheabilitytogatherarepre‐requisites.Thisislinkedtothecapacitydimension

discussedabove.Andlastly,asdiscussedabove,powerwithinisanotheraspect,

whichreferstoone’sidentityandassertiveness.(4)Itenablesindividualsto

influencetheirownlives,andthus,isassociatedwiththewillandcapacityconcepts.

THEWORLDBANK’SAGENCY&OPPORTUNITYSTRUCTUREMODEL

Thelastframeworkthatisincludedinthisreviewisonepresentedby

authors,RuthAlsop&NinaHeinsohn,underthedirectionoftheWorldBank.The

model,asshowninFigure3,highlightsagencyandopportunitystructureasthetwo

mainfactorscontributingtoempowerment.Thecapacitytomakeeffectivechoices

isdependentonthesetwoconcepts.(2)


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Similartothepreviousmodels,agencyisone’scapacitytomakemeaningful

andpurposivechoices.However,inthismodeltheauthorssuggestthatassetsare

indicatorsofagency,whereastheprevioustwomodelsdepictassetsasapre‐

conditionforagency.Assetsarecharacterizedaspsychological,informational,

organizational,material,social,financial,orhumaninnature,makingsomeassets

arehardertomeasurethanothers.Forexample,itishardertoquantify

psychologicalassets(e.g.capacitytoenvision)andsocialassets(e.g.socialcapital)

thanitistomeasurehumanassets(e.g.knowledge,literacy,etc.).Therefore,a

mixed‐methoddatacollectionisrecommendedhereformeasurement.(2)

Theotherpre‐conditioninthismodelistheopportunitystructure.The

authorsdefineopportunitystructureastheinformalandformalinstitutionsinwhich

theindividualsandthegroupspartake.Theseincludelaws,regulatoryframeworks,

andnormsgoverningbehavior,arguingthattheopportunitystructuredetermines

whohasaccesstoassetsandwhethertheycanusetheirassets.Therefore,any

measurementofthiselementneedstolookathowformalandinformalinstitutions

operateinsociety.(2)

Theseauthorshypothesizethatagencyandopportunitystructureare

associatedwiththedegreesofempowermentindividualsandgroupsenjoy.The

authorscontendthattherearedifferentdegreesofempowermentandsuggestthat

thesedegreescanbemeasuredby“theexistenceofchoice,theuseofchoice,andthe

achievementofchoice.”(2)ThisisverysimilartoKabeer’sconceptualization,but

byusingtheworddegree,thismodelfurtheremphasizesthenecessityforpre‐


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conditionsandtheprogressivenatureofempowerment.Therefore,changesin

assetsortheopportunitystructurewillinfluencethedegreetowhichoneis

empowered.Theauthorsrevealthatthesedegreesofempowermentwillinturn

influencedevelopmentoutcomes.(2)

THEINFLUENCEOFPOVERTYANDGENDERNORMS

Whileempowermentisaconstructiveapproachforaddressinggender

inequalitiesinsocietyandenablingwomentoachievedesiredoutcomes,itis

essentialtorealizeotherfactorsthatmayinhibitorhinderthisprocess.Gender

inequalitiesareoftenexacerbatedbyadditionalfactorsthatlimitwomen’spower.

Thesefactorsmayincludeclassorcaste,ethnicity,wealth,ageandculturalvalues.

(14)

Poverty,inparticular,isonefactorthatneedstobegreatlyconsidered,

especiallyindevelopingcountrycontexts.Anessentialelementofempowermentis

theabilitytorealizealternativechoices.Whenpeopleareimpoverished,theyare

unabletomeettheirbasicneeds,andtherefore,oftenlackthemeansorresourcesto

doso.Additionally,insocietieswheregenderinequalityisheightened,poverty

impactswomendisproportionately,makingitharderforwomentoembarkonthe

empowermentprocess.(7)

Anothercriticalfactortoconsideristhegendernormsofthesociety.In

manycultures,genderrolesareoftenentrenchedandacceptedasan

uncompromisingrealityorGod‐given.(14)Culturalvaluesmayevendenythatsuch


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inequalitiesexistorthattheyareunjust.Insuchacontext,womeninsubordinate

rolesarelikelytoaccepttheirpositionsandnotquestionthoseinpower.(7)Thatis

whyinsomesocieties,womendonotquestiontheirsecondaryclaimstohousehold

resourcesortheirexposuretoviolence,thereby,underminingtheirownwellbeing.

Somemayarguethatthiskindofacceptancereflectstheirchoice,however,

Kabeerexplainsthatitisimportanttonotjustlookatagencyandchoice,butalso

thekindofchoiceswomenmake,assomechoicesservetoreinforcewomen’s

subordinateandoftenpowerlessroles.Poweroversomeonecannotonlyhappen

throughcoercionandforce,butitcanalsohappenthroughconsentandcomplicity.

(8)Therefore,inlookingatwomen’sempowerment,itisessentialtolookatgender

relationsandhowpowerrelationsbetweenthemenandwomenareconstructed

andreproduced.(14)

Itisalsonecessarytolookatthenormativestructuresinwhichgender

operates.Notonlydoindividualsandgroupsneedtorealizetheirpower,butthey

alsoneedtoconfronttheideologicalsystemsinwhichtheirlivestakeplace.(13)

Kabeernotesthatinsocietieswherefamilyandtogethernessaredominantvalues,

genderrolesmaybemorenarrowlydefinedandhouseholdresourcesareoften

controlledbythemalehead.Womenmaynotseekoutpowerorresourcesseparate

fromtheirmalecounterpart,becauseitisnotsociallyacceptableorpersonally

desired.Instead,womenmayinvesttheireffortsinstrengtheningthecooperative

aspectsoftheirmarriageandfamilylife.Inthesecontexts,theempowerment

approachmayhavelessresonance.(8)Therefore,itisimportanttonotethat

women’sempowermentmaydifferbycountryandcommunitybasedonthegender


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valuesofthesociety.Masonmeasuredgender‐rolenormsinIndia,Malaysia,

Pakistan,thePhilippinesandThailandbyaggregatingnormativeattitudesofwomen

andfoundthatthegendernormsinthosecommunitiesexplainatleasttwo‐thirdsof

thecommunity’svariationinwomen’sempowerment.(13)

Whenstructuralinequalities,suchasgender,existandconstrainwomen’s

abilitiestomakestrategiclifechoices,theindividualwomen’sempowerment

approachmaynotbesufficientalone.Evidencehasshownthatindividualwomen

maygoagainstsocietalnorms,buttheirimpactongenderequalitywillbelimited

andtheymayevenhavetomakeconsiderablesacrificestoexercisetheirnewly

recognizedautonomy.Onewaytocounteractthismaybetofocusempowerment

effortsonthecollectivesolidarityofwomenandutilizewomen’sorganizations,as

wellassocialmovements,tocreateconditionsforchangeandreducethecosts

womenmayhavetopayforexercisingtheirautonomy.(8)Additionally,

empowermenteffortsshouldtargetinformalandprivatesectorsrelatingto

women’slivesaswellasthemorepublicandformalsettings.(7)

MEASUREMENTCONSIDERATIONS

LEVELSANDDIMENSIONS

Usingthewomen’sempowermentframeworkscanbeusefulinstartingto

thinkaboutmeasurement,butitisalsoimportanttothinkabouthowtheprocessof

empowermentactuallyrelatestothevariousareasofone’slife.Malhotraetal.

identifythefollowingdimensionsinwhichtheempowermentprocessshouldbe


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measured.Theseincludepsychological,familial/interpersonal,legal,political,

economicandsocio‐culturaldimensions.Onecanbecomeempoweredinoneor

multiplespheresoflifeandwomenmaybeempoweredwithinonesphereandnot

inanother.(11)However,itisalsopossiblethatinequalitiesinonedimensionmay

bereproducedinotherdimensions.(7)

Additionally,Malhotraetal.notethatmeasuringempowermentindicatorsin

thesevariousdimensionsshouldhappenatdifferentlevelsofsocialaggregation,

suchasthehousehold,communityandbroaderareas(i.e.regional,nationaland

global).(11)Alternativeterminologytorefertothesamelevelsofsocial

aggregation,arethemicroorlocallevel,theintermediarylevelandthemacrolevel.

Masonexplainsthat“acertaindegreeofempowermentatoneleveldoesnot

necessarilyreflectthesamedegreeofempowermentatotherlevels.”(12)The

authorsoftheWorldBankconceptualmodelarguethatitisattheintersectionof

thesedimensionsandlevelsofaggregation,onecanmeasuretheextenttowhicha

womanisempowered.Thisisreflectedintheirmodelshowinghowindividuals

experiencedifferentdegreesofempowerment.(2)

Measuringatspecificlevelsoftenservesonedimensionbetterthananother.

Forinstance,withinthepoliticalandlegaldimensions,measuringindicatorsat

higherlevelsofaggregation,suchasregionalornational,ismorefitting;whereas

withinthefamilial/interpersonal,social,andeconomicdimensions,indicatorsare

accumulatedattheindividualorhouseholdlevels,andsometimesatthecommunity

level.Malthotraetal.notethatonelimitationofthepastempowermentevaluations

isthatthepsychologicaldimensionisrarelyoperationalizedatanylevel.Theyalso


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observethatpaststudiesarelimitedinusingindicatorsattheintermediateor

communitylevel.Empowermentstudieswouldbenefitbylookingathowshiftsin

norms,marriagesystems,politicalprocessesinthecommunitycontributetothe

processofwomen’sempowermentandindoingso,focusonthecollectiveactionof

womenatthecommunitylevel.(11)

MEASURINGAPROCESS

Eachconceptualunderstandingdescribedabovehighlightstheprocessional

natureofempowerment.Paststudiesmeasuringempowermentaspectsheavilyuse

cross‐sectionaldata,lookingatindicatorsatastaticpointintime.Instead,studies

shouldexaminehowexperiencesandresourcesaccumulateandcontributeto

empowermentovertime.Also,evaluatorsshouldlookathowcharacteristics,such

asageandmaritalstatus,changeovertimeandhowthataffectswomen’s

empowermentcapabilities.(10)Evaluationsofempowermentarebetteroffusing

time‐seriesdatatofollowindicatorsacrossatleasttwopointsintimetocapturethe

process.(11)

Proxyvariables,suchasdecision‐makingandaccesstoandcontrolover

resources,areoftenusedtomeasureempowerment;howeverthesevariablesare

betterproxiesoftheparticularphasesofempowerment.Forexample,decision‐

makingisastrongproxyforagency,whileaccesstoandcontrolresourcesaremore

enablingfactorsorpreconditions.Therefore,itiscriticalthatevaluatorsrecognize

whentheyarelookingatsuchindicators,theyareonlyreallymeasuringonephase

oftheempowermentprocess.Whilesuchindicatorsareuseful,evaluatorsshould


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alsousequalitativedatatoinformtheirstudies,asthenatureofempowermentis

subjectiveandsometimesbestexpressedthroughnarratives.(11)

CONCLUSION

Themodelsofwomen’sempowermentdescribedinthisreviewbreakdown

theprocessbyconceptsandphases.Additionally,theyhighlightthevariouswaysin

whichpowerisexercisedbyindividualsandgroupsandreviewthedimensionsin

whichwomen’sempowermentoperates.Thereviewalsohighlightshow

experiencedempowermentresearchersstresstheimportanceofmeasuring

indicatorsalongacontinuumusingtime‐seriesdata.Andlastly,theliterature

revealsthatitisimportanttoaddressotherfactorsthatmayimpedetheabilityto

measurethetrueeffectofempowerment.(10)Theseareoftencontextualinnature

andaredeterminedbytheinstitutionalenvironmentinwhichtheindividualor

groupresides.

Thechallengefromhereistodevelopvalidandappropriateindicatorsthat

canbeusedincross‐contextualsettings,aswellascontextspecific(intermsof

socioeconomic,culturalandpoliticaldifferences)indicatorsthatreflectunique

valuesandstructuresofaparticularcommunity.Tosomeextent,universal

indicatorsareusefulinmakingregionalcomparisonswithregardtopower,

women’sstatus,genderequityandequality,buttheymaybeinappropriateacross

allcontexts.Inviewofthat,Malhotraetal.arguethatiswhyitisimportantto

conceptualizewomen’sempowermentconsistentlyacrossevaluationsinorderto


23

measuretheeffectsofempowerment,butitisalsonecessarytodefinethekey

dimensionsoftheframeworkincontextuallyappropriatewaysanddevelopcontext

specificindicatorsthataremeaningfultothecommunity.Thelateriswhere

evidenced‐basedempowermentstudiesarecurrentlylacking.(11)

Anotherlimitationofthecurrentresearchonwomen’sempowermentisthat

iffocusesonwomeninmarriagesorpartnershipsandindicatorslargelymeasure

relationsbetweenmartialpartners.(11)Futurestudiesshoulddevelopappropriate

indicatorsforunmarriedwomen,astheytoo,areoftenexposedtogenderinequality

andtheresultingnegativehealthoutcomes.Thispopulationwouldbenefitgreatly

fromempowermentprogrammingandshouldbeaconsiderationinwomen’s

empowermentfundingschemes.

Themodelsdepictedabove,inparticularKabeer’s,areusefulinbreaking

downempowermentasaprocess.Lookingatindicatorsofthevariouscomponents

(resources,agencyandachievements)canhelpdevelopmentactorstobetter

measuretheprocessandidentifyprogramsandpoliciesthatpromotethe

empowermentapproach.


24

REFERENCES

1. AllemanP.WhatDifferenceDoesGenderMake?2010.

2. AlsopR,HeinsohnN.Measuringempowermentinpractice:structuringanalysisandframingindicators.WorldBank2005.

3. BatliwalaS.Takingthepoweroutofempowerment:Anexperientialaccount.DevelopmentinPractice2007:557‐565.

4. CommissionofWomenandDevelopment.TheWomenEmpowermentApproach:AMethodologicalGuide.2007.

5. EybenR.ConceptualisingPolicyPracticesinResearchingPathwaysofWomen’sEmpowerment.PathwaysWorkingPaper2008;1.

6. InstituteofDevelopmentStudies.Availableat:www.ids.ac.uk/go/idsperson/naila‐kabeer.

7. KabeerN.Genderequalityandwomen'sempowerment:acriticalanalysisoftheThirdMillenniumDevelopmentGoal.GenderandDevelopment2005;13(1):13‐24.

8. KabeerN.Resources,agency,achievements:Reflectionsonthemeasurementofwomen'sempowerment.DevelopmentandChange1999;30(3):435‐464.

9. KabeerN,UNResearchInstituteforSocialDevelopment.Theconditionsandconsequencesofchoice:reflectionsonthemeasurementofwomen'sempowerment.:UnitedNationsResearchInstituteforSocialDevelopment;1999.

10. Lee‐RifeSM.Women'sempowermentandreproductiveexperiencesoverthelifecourse.SocSciMed2010.

11. MalhotraA,SchulerSR,BoenderC.Measuringwomen’sempowermentasavariableininternationaldevelopment.WorldBankGenderandDevelopmentGroupBackgroundpaper.WorldBank,Washington,DC.Availableatwww.icrw.org/docs/MeasuringEmpowerment_workingpaper_802.doc2002.

12. MasonKO,InternationalUnionfortheScientificStudyofPopulation.Genderanddemographicchange:Whatdoweknow?:IUSSP;1995.

13. MasonKO,SmithHL.Women’sempowermentandsocialcontext:resultsfromfiveAsianCountries.GenderandDevelopmentGroup,WorldBank,Washington,DC2003.


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14. MosedaleS.Assessingwomen'sempowerment:towardsaconceptualframework.JournalofInternationalDevelopment2005;17(2):243‐257.

15. SchulerSR,HashemiSM.Creditprograms,women'sempowerment,andcontraceptiveuseinruralBangladesh.StudFamPlann1994;25(2):65‐76.

16. UNWomen.FourthWorldConferenceonWomenBeijingDeclaration.Availableat:www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/platform/declar.htm.

17. UNWomen.AboutUNIFEM.Availableat:http://www.unifem.org/about/.

18. UnitedNations.MillenniumDevelopmentGoals.Availableat:www.un.org/millenniumgoals/bkgd.shtml.

19. USAID&IGWG.GenderPerspectivesImproveReproductiveHealthOutcomes:NewEvidence.2009.

20. WorldBank.GenderEqualityasSmartEconomics:AWorldBankGroupGenderActionPlan(Fiscalyears2007–10).2006.

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A LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF …