A Level Sociology

Beliefs in Society

Topic 6

Religion in a Global Context

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Objectives:

Understand some of the ways in which religion interacts with its global context Identify the role of religion in economic development in a globalising world Evaluate explanations of the nature of religious fundamentalism and the role of

religion in an international context

Globalisation:

Globalisation refers to the growing magnitude, speeding up and deepening impact of transcontinental flows and patterns of social interaction. Human organisation and power relations are crossing the world’s regions and continents.

It is not, however, a harmonious world society and hasn’t developed a universal process of global integration in which there is a growing union of cultures and civilisations. As a growing interconnectedness creates new animosities and conflicts.

Globalisation is the process by which the world is becoming increasingly interconnected as a result of massively increased trade and cultural exchange.

Globalisation has been taking place for hundreds of years, but has speeded up enormously over the last half-century.

Factors influencing globalisation include (the three t’s):

Technology TV, telephony and the internet have allowed information and ideas to travel quickly. UK businesses can have a call centre in India answering calls from UK customers.

Transport has become cheap and quick. UK people now holiday all over the world. People from other countries can travel to the UK to seek better-paid jobs. Businesses can ship products and raw materials all over the world more easily - making products and services from all over the globe available to UK customers.

Trade liberalisation Laws restricting trade and foreign investment have been relaxed. Some governments even offer grants and tax incentives to persuade foreign companies to invest in their country. The idea that there should be no restrictions on trade between countries is known as free trade.

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Although globalisation is probably helping to create more wealth in developing countries - it is not helping to close the gap between the world's poorest countries and the world’s richest.

THE IMPACT OF GLOBALISATION IN RELIGION:

As societies come in to closer contact with one another, there is potential for religious conflict and for religious diversity and change

When one society or state dominates another, people may use religion to explain and resist this domination

Cultural and social changes brought by globalisation may threaten cherished values and lead some to turn to the certainties promised by fundamentalism

Religious ideas lead some people to act in new ways that encourage economic development in less developed societies

Religious fundamentalism:

In a global context, the issue of religious fundamentalism has emerged as a major area of media and political concern in recent decades, notably in relation to international Islamist terrorism. However, the term fundamentalism has also been applied to followers of other religions, including Protestant Christians.

Fundamentalists appeal to tradition and often look back to a supposed golden age in the past. They seek to return to the basics or fundamentals of their faith. Fundamentalism arises when traditional beliefs and values are threatened or challenged by modern society and especially the impact of an increasingly globalised economy.

The characteristics of fundamentalists include:

An authoritative sacred text – for Christian fundamentalists every word of the Bible is literally true, its truths are valid for all eternity, and it contains the answers to all life’s important questions, from politics to family life. The text is not open to questioning

An ‘us and them’ mentality – fundamentalists separate themselves from the rest of the world and refuse to compromise with it. They seek to establish islands of certainty against what they see as cultural chaos

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Use of modern technology – although fundamentalists oppose modern culture, which they see as corrupted by secularism, liberalism, materialism, permissiveness and promiscuity, they are keen to use modern technology to achieve their aims – from computers and the internet to televangelism and military weaponry

Patriarchy – fundamentalists favour a world in which control over women’s sexuality, reproductive powers, and their social and economic roles, is fixed for all time by divine decree

Prophecy – Christian fundamentalists proclaim the relevance of biblical prophecies to contemporary events. They believe that the ‘last days’ will soon be upon us, when the faithful dead will be resurrected and transported to heaven

Conspiracy theories – fundamentalists are attracted to conspiracy theories: the idea that powerful, hidden, evil forces and organisations are in control of human destiny

Summarise the views of the New Christian Right:

Fundamentalism and modernity:

Giddens argues that fundamentalism is a relatively new concept that has grown as the result of globalisation. In today’s ‘late modern’ society, individuals are constantly faced with choice, uncertainty and risk. The attraction of fundamentalism and its rigid, dogmatic beliefs is the certainty that it promises in an uncertain world.

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It is a retreat into faith based answers and away from the risks and uncertainties of a globalising world. He identifies fundamentalist versions of several major religions, including Islam, Christianity and Hinduism.

Giddens contrasts fundamentalism with cosmopolitanism – a way of thinking that embraces contemporary society and is in keeping with today’s globalising world.

Cosmopolitanism is:

Tolerant of the views of others and open to new ideas Constantly reflecting and modifying its beliefs in the light of new information –

reflexive thinking A way of thinking which requires people to justify their views by the use of rational

arguments and evidence rather than appealing to sacred texts A type of religion which emphasises the pursuit of personal meaning and self-

improvement rather than submission to authority

Summarise the two below:

Fundamentalism Cosmopolitanism

Responses to postmodernity:

Bauman

Fundamentalism as a response to post-modernity Post-modern society brings freedoms, choice, uncertainty and risk In this situation whilst some embrace the new freedom, others are attracted to

fundamentalism by its claim of absolute truth and certainty

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Castells

He distinguishes between two responses to post-modernity

Resistant identity – defensive reaction of those who feel threatened and retreat into fundamentalist communities

Project identity – the response of those who are forward thinking and engage with social movements such as feminism and environmentalism

Using page 40 of the text book identify the key criticisms of these theories:

Monotheism and fundamentalism:

Bruce argues that fundamentalism is confined to monotheistic religions – that is religions believing in a single almighty God – such as Judaism, Islam and Christianity

Polytheistic religions that believe in many Gods, such as Hinduism, are unlikely to produce fundamentalism

This is because monotheistic religions are based on a notion of God’s will revealed through a single, authoritative sacred text such as the Qu’ran or the Bible

This is believed to be the actual word of God and it lays down specific rules for believers to follow

Polytheistic religions however, lack a single all-powerful deity and a single authoritative text, so there is much more scope for different interpretations

Bruce argues that different fundamentalist movements may have different origins. Some are triggered by changes taking place within their own society, while others are responses to changes being thrust upon a society from the outside.

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1. In the West – fundamentalism is often a reaction to a change taking place within society. For example the New Christian Right in America has developed in opposition to family diversity, sexual ‘permissiveness’ and abortion rights. Its aim is to reassert ‘true’ religion and restore it to the public role where it can shape the laws and morals of wider society

2. In the Third World – fundamentalism is usually a reaction to changes being thrust upon a society from the outside, as in the case of the Islamic revolution in Iran. It is triggered by modernisation and globalisation, in which ‘Western’ values are imposed by foreign capitalism or by local elites supported by the West. Here fundamentalism involves resistance to the state’s attempts to sideline it and confine it to the private sphere

Questions:

1. What is monotheism?

2. What is polytheism?

3. What different origins did Bruce state that fundamentalist groups have?

4. Discuss how fundamentalism develops in the West

5. How do fundamentalist groups develop in the Third World?

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Secular fundamentalism:

Davie argues that recent decades have seen the emergence of secular forms of fundamentalism. She links this to changes in the nature of modern society. She distinguishes between two phases of modernity.

The first phase gave rise to religious fundamentalism – this was a reaction to the secularisation process that occurred in the 1960s. The enlightenment philosophy had an optimistic secular belief in the certainty of progress based on the power of science and human reason to improve the world. This undermined religious certainties.

The second phase is giving rise to secular fundamentalism – since the 1970s the optimism of the enlightenment project has come under attack. This has led to a loss of faith in the major secular enlightenment ideologies whose claims to truth and belief in progress has been undermined. These secular ideologies are struggling for survival, just like traditional religion. And as with religion when it comes under attack, some supporters of secular ideologies such as nationalism have also been attracted to fundamentalism.

Davie argues that both religious and secular movements can become fundamentalist as a result of greater uncertainties of life.

The ‘clash of civilisations’:

Religion has been at the centre of a number of global conflicts. These include the ‘9/11’ Islamist attacks in the United States and subsequent bombings in Madrid, Bali and London. In the view of the American neo-conservative thinker Samuel Huntington such conflicts have intensified since the collapse of communism in 1989 and are symptoms of what Huntington sees as a wider ‘clash of civilisations’.

He identifies seven civilisations; Western, Latin American, China, Japanese, Islamic, Hindu and Slavic-Orthodox (Russia and Eastern Europe). Most civilisations are larger than a single nation. Each has a common cultural background and history and is closely identified with one of the world’s great religions. Shared religion creates social cohesion within civilisations, but can also create conflict. This is particularly true in today’s globalised world.

With the fall of communism, political differences between nations have become less important as a source of identity

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Globalisation has made nation states less significant as a source of identity, creating a gap that religion has filled

Globalisation makes contact between civilisations easier and more frequent, increasing the likelihood of old conflicts re-emerging

Religious differences are creating a new set of hostile ‘us and them’ relationships, with increased competition between civilisations for economic and military power. He sees religious differences as harder to resolve than political ones because they are deeply rooted in culture and history.

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JACKSON CRITIQUE - Huntington’s work as an example of orientalism – a western ideology that stereotypes Eastern nations and people (especially Muslims) as untrustworthy, inferior or fanatical ‘Others’ and serves to justify exploitation and human rights abuses by the West

CASANOVA CRITIQUE – Huntington ignores important religious divisions within the ‘civilisations’ he identifies, for example between Sunni and Shi’a Islam

ARMSTRONG CRITIQUE – the hostility towards the West does not stem from fundamentalist Islam but is a reaction to Western foreign policy in the Middle East. The West has propped up oppressive regimes and continues to support Israel despite its aggressive treatment of Palestinians

Cultural defence:

Bruce sees one function of religion in today’s world as that of cultural defence. This is where religion serves to unite a community against an external threat. In such situations, religion has special significance for its followers because it symbolises the group of society’s collective identity. Defending the community against a threat often gives religion a prominent role in politics.

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POLAND – 1945 TO 1989

IRAN – 1979

Religion and development:

For secularisation theory, modernisation undermines religion. The importance of science and technology in economic development, and the rational worldview on which they depend, are seen as destroying belief in the supernatural. On the other hand, religion may contribute to development, as Weber argued in the case of the Protestant Ethic. More recently, sociologists have examined the role religion may play in development in today’s globalised world.

God and globalisation in India

Globalisation has brought about rapid economic growth and has seen India become a more important player on the world political stage. It has also brought about rising prosperity to the middle class in India. Meera Nanda’s book (2008) ‘God and Globalisation’ examines the role of Hinduism, the religion of 85% of the population, in legitimating both the rise of a new Hindu ‘ultra-nationalism’ and the prosperity of the Indian middle class.

Globalisation has created a huge and prosperous, scientifically educated, urban middle class in India, whom work in industries associated with the global economy. These are precisely the people who secularisations theorists predict will be the first to abandon religion in favour of a secular world view. However, a vast majority tend to believe in the supernatural. Increased interest in religion has been reflected by a dramatic growth of religious tourism, such as visits to shrines and temples. Nanda notes that is now becoming fashionable to be religious.

Nanda questions why the urban middle classes continue to believe in the supernatural. She dispels the idea of poverty and existential security as a reason, because they are not poor. She also rejects the idea that their religiosity is a defensive reaction to modernisation and Westernisation. Nanda argues that the main reason for the increasing religiosity is a result of their ambivalence about their newfound wealth. This ambivalence stems from a tension between the traditional Hindu beliefs in the rejection of materialism and the new prosperity of the middle class. They turn to the modern holy men and tele-gurus who dispense business friendly versions of Hinduism that take the edge off the guilt by teaching that middle-class consumerism can be ‘spiritually balanced’ by paying for the performance of appropriate and often extravagant rituals.

Modern versions of Hinduism therefore legitimate the position of the middle class and allow them to adjust to globalised consumer capitalism.

SUMMARY

Globalisation has created a huge and prosperous scientifically educated urban middle class in India who use the religion of Hinduism to justify their spending. Modern holy-gurus preach the message that desire is not bad and take the edge off the guilt by teaching them that consumerism can be spiritually balanced. Hinduism has changed to meet a global world.

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Questions:

1. What is consumerism?

2. Who are the urban middle class?

3. In what way has religion developed within India?

4. What does Nanda discuss?

5. Why are the middle classes continuing to believe in the supernatural?

6. What reasons does Nanda suggest are not true?

Hindu ultra-nationalism

Nanda also examines the way in which Hinduism promotes and legitimates:

A triumphalist version of Indian nationalism

93% of Indians – more than any other country – agreed with the statement that ‘out people are not perfect, but our culture is superior to others’.

Nanda notes that India’s success in the global market is attributed to the superiority of Hindu values.

Hinduism is the essence of Indian culture and identity. In this Hindu ultra-nationalism, the worship of Hindu gods has become the same as worshipping the nation of India. Hinduism has become a civil religion.

Which two theorists have we looked at:

1) Discusses notions of worshipping society as opposed to God?

2) Looks at the idea of civil religion?

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However, Nanda argues that this is causing a gulf between the Hindu community and the non-Hindu minorities.

Hinduism has also penetrated public life, so that the supposedly secular state is increasingly influenced by religion. For example, ‘Hindu sciences’ such as astrology are being taught as an academic subject in universities and being used supposedly to predict natural disasters. Meanwhile, the Ministry of Defence is sponsoring development of weapons with magical powers mentioned in the ancient Hindu texts, and the Health Ministry is investing in development and sale of cow urine (cows being sacred animals) as a cure for ailments from AIDS to TB.

Further case studies

Use page 44 of your booklet to complete the grid below:

Capitalism in East Asia

Pentecostalism in Latin America

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Key concepts:

KEY CONCEPT DEFINITION Globalisation

Secularisation

Hindu ‘ultra-nationalism’

Cosmopolitanism

Religious fundamentalism

Post-modernity

Monotheism

Cultural defence

Clash of civilisations

Resistant identity

Project identity

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Exam technique:

Outline and explain two ways religion and development may be related in a global world (10 marks)

POINT ONE

POINT TWO

Item A

Religion can be used to unite a community against an external threat. Some countries have used religion in defence of their national identity against both Soviet Communism and Western culture and capitalism.

Applying material from Item A, analyse two examples of how religion can be used as a form of cultural defence (10 marks)

POINT ONE

POINT TWO

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Item B

Religious fundamentalists seek to return to what they regard as the basics of their faith. Fundamentalists believe unquestioningly in the literal truth of their faith’s sacred text. They are intolerant of the views of others, believing that their view of the world is the only true one. The growth of fundamentalism is often seen as a response to the threat posed by modern society, which challenges and undermines the values and certainties offered by traditional religion.

Applying material from Item A and your knowledge, evaluate the view that fundamentalism is a response to modern society (20 marks)

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