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A Level And As Level Law - chatredanesh.comchatredanesh.com/download/book/zaban/4.pdf · A Level And As Level Law ˛˚ 2000 66482748 : ˘ˇ ’ ... (Hyde v. Wrench [1840]). This includes

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��� ����� �� � ����

A Level And As Level Law

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**** ��� ����� �� � ����A Level And As Level Law

����� ����� �����2000

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���� ����� : ���� ����� �����66482748 �!� "#�$ %�& '�

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A LEVEL AND AS LEVEL LAW Contract Law 9

19 Contract Law Formation of Contract19 ���*>�> IC� JK�LM� ���*>�>

Key Points� �<� N�L�

After reading, this chapter you will be able to:G� O( J� ��� ;,� KP� �)� >( ���� �>�*

Describe the rules of law relating to contractual offers ��> Q�� RN���C$ �*C� S(�$ H( �>�>���* ��D(�T,�

including (invitations to treat);H<)U G� NV> H( H<$�O$ Describe the rules of law relating to contractual acceptance; ��> Q�� RN���C$ �*C� S(�$ H( �*�>�>�� ��W*

Describe the rules of law relating to consideration; ��> Q�� RN���C$ �*C� S(�$ H( XV

Describe the rules of law relating to contractual intention; ��> Q�� RN���C$ �*C� S(�$ H( �>�>���* P�

Describe the rules of law relating to contractual capacity. ��> Q�� RN���C$ �*C� S(�$ H( �>�>���* ��<��

19- �������� ����– ������� ����� ����� �

'�� �$���R '�1 �6� CS�# D � �����R *� �%�: �'�'��1 ��"��T � �� U���� �1�34 ���3�)%� �� ���' �+67 *��+�� (V�$�' N�� �

V�$�' N�� � �'�'��1 �=�@1 �� U���� �1�34 ���3� V�$�' N�� � W�� �� U���� �1�34 ���3�

V�$�' N�� � �'�'��1 ��1 �� U���� �1�34 ���3� �� U���� �1�34 ���3�!$+�� �$�' N�� � �'�'��1.

10 Formation of Contract A LEVEL AND AS LEVEL LAW

IntroductionH$ C$

Put simply, a contract is an agreement enforceable at law. ,��Y�( �>�! �Z( �, >�>���* �$ ��( �, '��� ��U� K(�* ����*

However while All contracts are agreements, Not all agreements, [$ \��� HL���� �> H)� ���*��>�> ]�^� '��� �)� ]��� H)� N�C���

are contracts. Therefore a contract is a particular type of agreements, ]��( ���*>�> ;,��(�]( �, ���*>�> �!� �, _�� `� G� N�C���

that can be identified by certain characteristics:�? �$ ��� >� H���]� �( _�� N���P�

����� 5'�� �?� � �X(�]�(�0Y$[ �'��1 � �� ��7� S��1 �����1 Z#��8 � ' ���� .\� ' C^B�=�

��.�� Z#��8 ��'�'��1 �6� �_$=�4]�=[ �6� ��3#��8 �6� ����� '�'��1 �����8 . CD ����`���� �/ !�� Z#��8 *� �B�R )�� '�'��1 �B�R ��$B��R �� ����8'�� �.R���.

OfferA�T,�

An offer is A proposition put by one person (offeror) �, A�T,� �!� �, �>�D]M�1 �$ �>�> >� a!� �, /�b � ]�> A�T,�

to another (offeree) with an indication, that they are willing to beH( ���,> � ��� A�T,� �( �, ��Dc� HL],� �D�? ]�^� K,�$ ��

bound by its terms should the other person accept. The proposition d3<$ H( �? S��� H� ���� �> ��,> b/� >�,Ye( >�D]M�1

can be made orally, in writing or by conduct, and�$ ��� >�,Ye( N�� Z(� ���#� �W�� �Z( �, ',�f G� ����� �

A LEVEL AND AS LEVEL LAW Contract Law 11

made to a specific individual, group, or the world at large. >���( N�� H( �W^� �, _�� b/� ��� �, ��DU K�

To be regarded as an offer, it must be clear, precise ���( HL],� >� �C<� ��]O( �, A�T,� �? ,�( ��( ;��� '�*>

and capable of acceptance as it stands (Harvey v. Facey

� JK(�* +W* H� ���$G �� �? >��> >U� ����� H�<V �^�� [1893]; Gibson V Manchester C C [1979]).

1893 �^W� H�<V ��^h]$ !� !� 1979 !"#� ����� �� � �� � �� ��� ��������)����� ����� ( ����� ��)�����! ����� ("# ���� �� �

"�$ % $� &� '*+# ,- ./� �� ��� 0��# /� �1��� $��2� ���34� �$ ,- ���� �� �� . �������"# 6 �� &"��7 $ 6 �� ��� �"# / ���34� 8$ % $�9:$ ;��6 <� �� "=9� $ �/�! �� �� �� �=>� ��� �

����� 8$ % ,��? 0� �� @�A. Invitations to treat

NV> H( H<$�O$ An invitation to treat is a proposition indicating a willingness �, NV> H( H<$�O$ �!� �, >�D]M�1 �G� ��� �, K,�)�

to consider offers made , by others or to enter into negotiations.�, �!��( ��D(�T,� H��� N�� a!� ����,> �, H( � � N����Y$ >���

It is important to distinguish between offers and invitations to treat,�? �!� iD$ 3,�)�$ ;�( �D(�T,� � ��D�V> H( H<$�O$

as while an offer is Binding once accepted, an invitation

H� ��& ���� �, A�T,� �$ >� d�3�� ��? HL],� j�$ H( H���,Y1 �, NV>

to treat is not. However, this is not. always An easy distinction to make,H( H<$�O$ �^�� [$ \��� ;,� �^�� HM�)� �, ��!? 3,�)� � � Kk�*

12 Formation of Contract A LEVEL AND AS LEVEL LAW As some propositions commonly regarded as offers are, in legal ��,G ���( N�>�D]M�1 l�$)V �$ �C<� �� ��]O( A�T,� ]�^� G� C��*

terms, only invitations to treat. Two common forms of invitation to �m� aC� NV> H( H<$�O$ �> n,�� JKL� NV> H(

treat, are: H<$�O$ G� ]���WV

���$� �% �&� ����� "�$�� �� 0��B� <� "��C ��� �������� �+#�D# �� 8 E� �! 8$ % ��� �� ,����� �� � �9:

]0��B�[ "# ,� 8����3# �$�/ �� ��� .����� F�� *��B� 8 E� / �� � �� ��G &��� H�# �+#�D# �� ���� IJ# �� ����� ��! �1���"# �9:��3� '�*K� � "# $/- � ]"K/[�+#�D# �� 8 E�]F�� $ 6[ �>��. L# ,� 0M�N *��B� &O% K�]��/� F�� F[ �>�� ,��- ���B�������� "A�� ���< &8� �� P�# BE �� ,� �E

"# "Q+� ����� ��9>� �+#�D# �� 8 E� &"N QC �R� <� &�� .<� ���$�=E �+#�D# �� 8 E� S��$ 01 /�: � displays of goods for sale, either in store (Pharmaceutical J;���Y .,�)� H( o�� ���( p��� ��� �> ������� >G�!����

Society of Great Britain v. Boots Cash Chemists (Southern)

J;)T�� ��W� ������,�( H�<V q�( .� ��G�!���> �(]U

Ltd (1952]) or in a shop Window (Fisher v. >� �$ ���r^$ �( ���� 1952 �, �> �, �G�s$ ;,��,� M��� H�<V

Bell [1961]). The shop is not offering to Sell the goods but is

K( 1961 �G�s$ �^�� A�T,� ���( p��� o�� HL<( �!� inviting customers to make offers to buy.

RNV> ��,��M$ ���( >�T,� A�T,� �DU ,�� � �3! U��B� �� $� �� A &V/�: ���� W�� F9]�>7N[ ���/�:]� E�[ �/$�� FB��� �����9��� �<��

X� � �/�J# ��K Y># �� ��� ��+E ��=� U�)"� �?( ]1952[ �<�_# F��9�/ $� ��]� E�[ ��+E ���:0�]1961[ . �<�_# $�)W�� F9�3! ( ����� ���� ,���9�# <� 8 E� �1+� �>�� W�� V/�: ���� �����

��� ���A ��? �����.

A LEVEL AND AS LEVEL LAW Contract Law 13 � Advertisements (Partridge v. Crittenden [1968]). Again, store �D? �� n,���1 H�<V � ]�,�� 1968 ;�]h)� �������

the general position is that the advertiser is not offering to sell

�<� ��Ot� �!� HL],� �D? � ]�> �^�� A�T,� +�� �> ���( ;����� but is inviting offers to buy. However, An advertisement may HL<( �!� NV> +�� �> A�T,� �DU ,�� �$� �, �D? �$ ��� be regarded as an offer where it forms the basis of a

>� �C<� ��]O( �, A�T,� H� �,�U �? �> K�LM� J=�!� �, unilateral contract (see below).

HW��TL, >�>���* �]� `U� �,G

Once an offer has been made it will either beHL],� j�$ H( �, A�T,� ��( � � H��� N�� �? ]��� �, �

accepted or terminated No offer remains open indefinitely.

H���,Y1 �, �uC]$ v�� �(�T,� �)� �*�( ��$ Q�#$ >� �$�� �Z(

� "�!- ��)]� E�[ ,��9��� ��+E S�����]1968[ .( $� ����� "�!- �� ��� F�� "+� ��Db/ &F��cB��C$� �1+� �>�� V/�: ���� ����� d�C��� ���A ��? ����� �� 8 E� d . �� "��? "�!- &�#�

� ���$��N � e��� "# ��� 0�1�� �$ �=��? � "Q+� ����� � ,� �E �� ��� �). �� ���� f ?$��<(.

� ��� A "gQ�# �� / �9:��3� �� ��� �9:�! 8$ % "����� �1��� IJ# �� . $ 6 �� "����� h��"B� "N�� i 97# �/�J#�� ���#.

Termination of offer

J��uC�� A�T,�

Revocation. An offer may be revoked at any time prior to`U� �, A�T,� �$ ��� >� >��^$ �> �� ���$G G� KW*

acceptance, even where stated to be open for a certain

��W* ��� H� �,�U �$ ���( >� �$ ��( Q�#$ ���( �, _��

14 Formation of Contract A LEVEL AND AS LEVEL LAW period of time (Payne v. Cave [1789]). A promise to keep

��>w ���$G ;,�1 H�<V �� 1789 �, DO� H( ;��� D�� the offer open for a certain period is not binding unless supported

,�A�T Q�#$ ���( �, _�� ���> �^�� d�3�� ��? HL],� ��$ >� �,�)�

by consideration, i.e. it is an option purchased under a H<�!( XV �]O, �? �!� �, '� � � ��� ,�� xU)( �,

separate contract (Routledge v. Grant [1828]). For revocation to be H��� U >�>���* ���<n H�<V ���� 1828 HL],� ���( `U� ��(

effective, it must be communicated to the offeree. We should

�yz$ �� ,�( >� {B(� H( � ��� A�T,� �$ ,�(

note that the postal rule (see below) does not apply to i�]� HU� H� ��^1 � V�* H( �]� `U� �,G �)� >� +�)V� >�$ �>

letters of revocation (Byme & Co v. Leon Van Tienhoven & Co

H$�� J��� `U� i,�( � ����� H�<V �r� ��� ��� ;�� � |���� [1880]). However, communication does not have to be made by the offerer

1880 �$� {B(� �^�� dGo >�,Ye( N�� a!� � ]�> A�T,� himself- communication via a reliable third party is effective

>� {B(� a!� �, >�)�V� K(�* }��y b/� �!� �yz$ (Dickinson v. Dodds [1876]).

L,>]�^ V<H� G>�> 1876 !"#� �'� �

(�)�)+,. .("# ����� � "# ,��� �� "��? "9C &� ��9># "K =N <� 0=N "��#< �� $� ��� � � "# i 97# @�A "��#< �$/� � ���� ���)]� E�[ (�� �� ��+E F�)]1789[.( F9����� i 97# �� ��D�

��'�*K� @�A �$/� � ���� ��� ��� "QC ,- "�D� � ���BC k E �+�� � �1��� ��# �>�� $/- .�� �$����A ���!��? ���$��N l? # �� ��)]� E�[ (/$S+� �! ��+E���)]1828[.( f ?$ �1��� ����

A LEVEL AND AS LEVEL LAW Contract Law 15

� mn�� �����! ����� �� ���� &��� �op# ."9>� ��E�N �� H��� �? � ����)� ���� f ?$��< � ( $��#�� �$ # ���)]�/�C[ ("B� d�BE� f ?$ � ) .]� E�[ ( ,�/ , YK ��+E q��� / H���, �� / ,/ �

q���)]1880[ .(���34� 8$ % ����� ����� � A �� � mn�� �>�� '<W &�#� . �� � �� � mn����� �op# ��B9E� �$ # sK�o)]� E�[ (<��� ��+E , >�1��)]1876[.(

Rejection. Rejection by the offeree immediately terminates the offer.

>� >� a!� � ��� A�T,� H<���B( �$ ��,�1 H( �> A�T,� (Hyde v. Wrench [1840]). This includes not only straightforward refusals,

,�� H�<V v�� 1840 ;,� �$ K$�� �> �D]� H� i�C�^$ ���>� but also counter-offers. These are responses that seek to vary or

HL<( K(�C�$ ��D(�T,� �D],� ]�^� ~!�1 �,�� H� �> � �> ]�> ���s� �,

amend the original offer and, therefore, reject it and ]]� QB�� �<�� A�T,� � ;,��(�]( �$ >� ]]� �� �? �

establish a new offer in its place. However, it is

�$ >U� H( ���? �, , U A�T,� H( �? ��U �$� ?� �!� important to distinguish counter-offers from mere enquiries or requests

D$i 3,�)� K(�C�$ ��D(�T,� G� ��� N�$BO�!� �, �!���> �,�� for further information (e.g. whether payment on credit terms���( ��M�( N�VBf� +��$ ���( �,? HL],� ���>�1 �f H( H�^� a,���

is available). These sorts of enquiries do not terminate the offer

�!� !��!> K(�*� ;,� `� G� N�$BO�!� �)� ��,�1 H( ]�> A�T,� (Stevenson, Jacques & Co v. McLean [1880]).

�! ��!� GLU � |���� H�<V ;�� �$ 1880 ��]"#�! ."# ,���� ����� �� �+%�:n� �����! ����� �� � �$ ���)]� E�[(h�$ ��+E ����]1840[ .

F��]f b #[ �1+� H�Q9># ����$ 0#� ���� �� 0#������ "# 0��Q9# ��� � .��� ��]����� ���0��Q9#[ u��� ,- F������� / ���� in%� �� / ���� ���_� �$ "+%� ����� ����%$� �� ��9>� "���

]�����[ �$ �$"# ��? ����� ,- ��? �� / ����"# � ?/ �� �$ �� ��$/- .����� *��B� &�#� 0��Q9# ���

16 Formation of Contract A LEVEL AND AS LEVEL LAW

��� A$� / v�% 8�#nD9�� <� ��� 8�En6� ���� "��� �9)��� &d�w# ���� $ 6 �� �A���� ���� ��- �1��� "��9�� 0��N ��>�( ]�� ��[ ��� H�# ."B� ,���� ����� �� 8�#nD9�� <� f � F�� ���� .)]� E�[

�, 9� / < 1? &, �# ��+E q��� F�K ]1880[.( Lapse of time. Where the offer is stated to be open for a

R��Y ��$G H� �,�U A�T,� ���( �$ >� �$ ��( ��#$ ���( �, certain period of time, it will lapse once that time has expired. _�� ��>w ���$G ?� � ��� �uC]$ j�$ H( HL],� ��$G ��( � � ��e!

Where no time limit for acceptance is specified, the offer will lapse H� �,�U v�� ���$G �,>� �$ ���( ��W* �)� ;�O$ >� A�T,� � ��� �uC]$ after a reasonable time (Ramsgate Victoria Hotel Co v. G� O( �, +CO$ ��$G ��$�� q ,�L�,�� K�� ��3� H�<V

Montefiore [1866]).

���� H��$ 1866 2�4 567: ]2�4 �;��[ ."# ,��� �� "��? $/� � ���� ����� � x i 97# @�A "��#<

"# ,- &��� ]�����[ �� ��4� ,�#< �1��� IJ# �� � ��� A "gQ�# ��� . h�� �� "��?"B� ���# "K =N ���� "��#< ���/�J# � ��� A "gQ�# d QD# ,�#< 8�# � <� �D� ����� &� .

)]� E�[ / ��! X#�$ ���1��$ �: �9� # ��+E 09� ��$ 9]1866[.( Failure of condition. Where the offer is made subject to a

J��#,� d V S�� �� A�T,� ��( H��� N�� H( S]$ �, condition then it will lapse if that condition is not fulfilled

S�� x���� ;, ( �� � ��� �uC]$ H� ���� �> �? S�� >M� d�T�� (Financings Ltd v. Stimson [1962]).3�]�! ��],�� ( ����>� �$ ���r^$ � H�<V )��!�^� 1962

<�6 �=#� >�&. ���� F��� &��� �9:�! 8$ % "6� �� . �# ����� �!� ,- �� "�$ % $� &l� '���� .� � ��� A "gQ�# � �)]� E�[ ��+E *���� ,����: �/�J# ��K Y># �� ���

, >B�9��]1962[.(

A LEVEL AND AS LEVEL LAW Contract Law 17

Death of one of the parties. Death of the offeree terminates the offer.

R��$ �L, G� ;���f R��$ � ��� A�T,� �$ ��,�1 H( �> A�T,� Death of the offerer will terminate the offer where the offeree Has

R��$ � ]�> A�T,� H( >�> ��� ��,�1 A�T,� H� ���� �> � ��� A�T,� >� notice of the death prior to acceptance (Re Whelan [1897]). However,

[<Z$ G� ��$ G� KW* ��W* �� ;�� 1897 �$� where the offeree is unaware of the death, the offer will only Be

�� � ��� A�T,� ��( �( `Bf� G� R��$ A�T,� ��� aC� � terminated where the contract could not be fulfilled by the offerer's

�uC]$ H� ���� �> >�>���* ���� >� ��U� a!� � ]�> A�T,� personal representatives (e.g. where it is one for Personal

�P/� �� ],�)� (+��$ ��� H� �,�U �? ��( R>�>���* �P/� services) (Bradbury v. Morgan [1862]).

N�$ � ��(>��( H�<V ���$ 1862 ?�.�@ 4� A�# B��."# ,���� ����� �� �����! ����� y�# ���. "�$ % $� ����� ����� y�#

<� 0=N �����! ����� �� ��� ��� A ,���� ����� �� y�# <� "K =N]����� �����[ � L+z# )]1897[ .( y�# <� �����! ����� �!� &�#�]����� �����[ "� "�$ % $� �Q: ����� &��� fn6�

� ��?� ����� ����� "{� ,�!����B� �� � ��� 9� ���$��N �� � ��� A "gQ�# ) "��? &d�w# ���� ,- ��]���$��N[��� "{� 8�#�A &(. )]� E�[ ,�!$ # ��+E �$ �����]1862[(.

Acceptance��W*

The general rule is that acceptance must exactly match the terms of

�<� � V�* �!� HL],� ��W* ,�( l�C�*> �( ��( 'WZ]$ Ra,��� the offer. As has been seen, a response that seeks to vary

A�T,� H� ��f ��)� �!� � � � ,> �, �/!�1 H� �!� > ��> �> ���s�

18 Formation of Contract A LEVEL AND AS LEVEL LAW or amend the terms of the offer is a counter-offer, not an �, ]� QB�� Ra,��� A�T,� �$ ��( �, K(�C�$ A�T,� H� �,

acceptance. Generally, to be effective, acceptance must be

��W* l�$)V HL],� ���( ��( �yz$ ��W* ,�( >� communicated To the offerer, i.e. actually brought to his attention

{B(� H( � ]�> A�T,� �]O, *��Ol� >� � ��!� H( �� HU� (Entores Ltd v. Miles Far East Corporation [1955]).

G���� �( ���� >� �$ ���r^$ H�<V 3<,�$ ��> �I� ���� 1955 Where the offer specifies a particular method of communication, H� �,�U A�T,� �$ ;�O$ ]� �, _�� Jp�� {B(�

acceptance is only effective if this method is used.

��W* �!� aC� �yz$ H� ���� �> ;,� p�� >� �>�#�!� Where the offer indicates a preferred (but not compulsory) H� �,�U A�T,� �( ��( K)�M$ �, ������� �$� H� ���WU�

method, Then communication by any method which is

p�� x���� ;, ( {B(� H<�!( �� ���� H� ��( H���> at least as advantageous to the offerer will be effective (Tinn K*� � ��)� �,3$ ���( � ]�> A�T,� ��� >( �yz$ ;��

v. Hoffman & Co [1873]; Manchester Diocesan Council for

H�<V ;)��� � |���� 1873 ��^h]$ �3�!,> J���� Education v. Commercial and General Investments Ltd

��G$? H�<V ���T� � �$)V H,�$�! ���Y ��� >� �$ ���r^$ �( ��3� [1969]).

1960

A LEVEL AND AS LEVEL LAW Contract Law 19

AC��� =N �� ��� F�� "+� ��E�N��� ����� ���� �� ;=z�# P�Q�N� ���� "K . �� $ z��B�]Pn=N[ �� ����

"# 0��Q9# ����� ��� in%� �� ��� ���_� �$ ����� ���� ��� ��%$� �� "���� &��� � �� ���"K =N . ���� &P�# BE �1���$ �/ �? � �� P�DN�/ "�D� � mn�� ����� ����� �� ���� ��� �op# "K =N ������ )]� E�[ *+��# $/� |� ��� ��+E <$ 9��� �/�J# ��K Y># �� ���]1955[ .( �� "��?

"# F�D# mn�� ���� �$ "%�A V/$ ����� �op# � ���79�� V/$ F�� <� �� "�$ % $� �Q: "K =N &������ . �$��9A� V/$ �� 0B9�# ����� �� "��?)�$�=?� �� �#� (�� &l���� F��� &��� �� �+��/ �� mn

� � ��� A �op# ��� �9�� ����� ����� ���� �$ ��*# ,�B� 0N��C �� "/$)]� E�[ ��+E F�� �� q��� / FB:]1873[ �/�J# ��K Y># �� ��� ��+E ,�*�� �� �9>c�# "< #- ��$ ~

���#�� �$�3! "# BE / �$��� ���]1969[.( The postal rule

��^1 � V�* The postal rule is the one significant exception to this general

��^1 � V�* �$ ��( �, iD$ ��]��!� �( ;,� �<� rule regarding communication of acceptance. Acceptance by post is � V�* _P� �> J{B(� ��W* ��W* ',�f G� �^1 �!�

Effective (and therefore binding) as soon as it is posted (Adams v.

�yz$ � ;,��(�]( d�3�� ��? HL],� j�$ H( �? �$ �^1 >� 3$�>? H�<V Lindsell [1818]) even where the letter is delayed or lost in the post

K! ]�� 1818 ��� �� H$�� >� ����� �, i �> �^1 (Household Fire Carriage Accident Insurance Co v. Grant

����� .�? �G! KC� � K)� �>�� H)�( ���� H�<V ���� [1879]) provided it was capable of delivery (i.e. correctly

1879 HL],� H( S��M$ �? ��, JK(�* +�!�� �]O, ���� �Z(

addressed and stamped) (Re London and Northern Bank, Ex ��( � � H��� =�>? � ��( �>�� �W)� �� � �o � ��y�� ���( q��

20 Formation of Contract A LEVEL AND AS LEVEL LAW

P. Jones [1900]). However, the rule will only apply where: �1 3�U 1900 �$� � V�* ;,� � ��� aC� +�)V� H� �,�U

� postal acceptance is specified by the offerer; or ��^1 ��W* ��( � � �,�P� Na!� � ]�> A�T,� �,

� postal communication is reasonable in the circumstances. ��^1 {B(� ��( $+CO �> �? +��� � `�t��

A�,D E�&� "# "K =N mn�� @ {A $� "+� ��E�N F�� �� H�# ���w9�� � "9>� ��E�N ��� . �>� ;��6 <� "K =N

�op#)'�*K� F������� / $/- ( ,- �1��� IJ# �� ���]"K =N �#��[ "# �>� � )]� E�[ ��+E *#��-0����K]1818[ �!� "9C],����$ $�[ ��� H! �>� �$��� $� �� / � ��A�� �#)]� E�[ ���

U�- ��� C �B�� ����! ��+E "���A �< �]1879[ ( ��� d��$� 0��N ,- �1��� �� ./��#) �� "�D���� ��$ A �=B� / ��� �� �9 � ,- e$�- ��J% $ 6) ( �$ ���$ � / ,��W�o X�� &,

"�.�� ?]1900[ (."��? �Q: ��E�N F�� &�#� �� � ��� A d�BE�:

� �� ~��� �� ���{� ����� ����� �� � "9>� "K =N � ��� d QD# d� C� / f�b/� ,- $� "9>� mn��.

Furthermore, the offerer can exclude the rule by stating in ;,� �( ��BV � ]�> A�T,� �$ ��� �]��!� ,�)� | ;,� � V�* �( ��(� G�

the offer that postal acceptance will only be effective upon receipt A�T,� HL],� ��W* ��^1 ��� aC� >( �yz$ j�$ H( ���,�>

(Holwett Securities Ltd v. Hughes [1974]). The postal N��� 3��,��L! >� �$ ���r^$ �( ���� H�<V 3�� 1974 ��^1

rule also applies to analogous forms of non-instantaneous � V�* ;�]h)� �$ +�)V� >� H( �W^� H(�M$ J+�L�� ������

communication (e.g. cables and inland telemessages), but not `Bf� +��$ ���( d���<� �� � �<��> d��1 �����<� ��� �$� �)� +�)V� >>�