A LANDOWNER’S GUIDE TO WOODLAND WILDLIFE … · Marketing timber 36 Seven steps to successful timber harvest 36 Cost-sharing programs 37 Tax considerations 38 CONCLUSION 40 REFERENCES

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By Stephen DeStefano, Scott R. Craven,Robert L. Ruff, Darrel F. Covell

and John F. Kubisiak

with emphasison the ruffed grouse

A LANDOWNER’S GUIDE TO

Woodland Wildlife Management

Produced in cooperation with the University of Wisconsin–Madison,University of Wisconsin–Extension, Wisconsin Department of NaturalResources and the Ruffed Grouse Society of North America.

Cover photo by Tom Martinson

PREFACE iii

INTRODUCTION vFocus on the ruffed grouse viThe Wisconsin private woodland owner:

a profile vii

1 A FOREST ECOSYSTEM PRIMER 1Wildlife needs 1Wildlife management principles 2Forest succession: the growth of

a woodland 4Managing the forest as an ecosystem 6

2 THE NATURAL ZONES OF WISCONSIN 7The Northern Forest 8The Eastern Deciduous Forest 9The Central Sand Counties 9The Western Upland 9

3 DESIGNING A HABITAT MANAGEMENT PLAN 11

Set management objectives 11Inventory and evaluate your land 12Seek professional assistance 13Finalize your management plan 14

4 MANAGING YOUNG FORESTS FOR GROUSE AND OTHER WILDLIFE 15

Evaluate your land’s potential 15Aspen management 17Oak-hickory management 21Conifer management 24Northern hardwoods management 25Alder management 25Shrubs 26Food and cover plantings 27Reserve trees 27Preservation 28Diversifying your woodlot 28Do-nothing cover types 29Odd areas 29Openings 29Brush piles 30Access 30

5 MANAGING MATURE FORESTS AND THEIRWILDLIFE 31

What is a mature forest? 31The value of mature forests 33

Turkeys 33Squirrels 33Woodpeckers, wood ducks andother cavity-users 34

Songbirds 34Mammals 35Reptiles and amphibians 35

6 FINANCIAL CONSIDERATIONS 36Marketing timber 36Seven steps to successful timber harvest 36Cost-sharing programs 37Tax considerations 38

CONCLUSION 40

REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING 41Woodland wildlife management 41Ruffed grouse ecology 42General wildlife 42Field guides 42Forestry and woodland management 43Controlling wildlife damage 43Financial considerations 43Record systems 43

APPENDICES 44A) Some common forestry terms 44B) Sources of publications 45C) Sources of wildlife plants and seeds 46D) Cavity-using birds of Wisconsin 48E) Sources of forest tax and accounting

information 50F) Wisconsin’s Recreational Use Statute 51G) Sample timber sale contract 54

i

CONTENTS

CONTENTS

iii

Preface

This publication is designed to help you—the private woodland owner—manage

your property for enjoyment and profit, for thebetterment of wildlife habitat and populations,and for the overall sound stewardship ofWisconsin’s natural resources.

Though we focus on the very popular ruffedgrouse, you will find advice to benefit virtuallyall wildlife species found in wooded habitats.In fact, a management activity targeted to onespecies often has an impact on many others.A “cookbook” approach to managingwoodland wildlife won’t work, because themanagement “recipe” for each property is

slightly different. We hope this publication willclarify some of the many reasons why this istrue.

Using this guide and some of the referencesand contacts it suggests, you will be able tomaintain or improve your land as productivewildlife habitat, whether you are a first-timelandowner or a seasoned veteran.

The authors wish to thank the many individu-als who contributed to and reviewed this pub-lication, especially Dan Dessecker, MichaelFoy, Deedee Wardle, John Keener, Jeff Martinand Ken Sloan.

A note on stewardship

We targeted this guide to woodland owners with specific forestry andwildlife objectives, such as improving habitat for ruffed grouse. Whilesuch objectives are perfectly valid and attainable, we want you to takenote of recent trends in the way woodland owners view their land andtheir role as woodland stewards—and also in the way society as a wholeperceives the responsibility of woodland owners.

We use many terms that refer to new programs and concepts. Thesedeserve your consideration. Biodiversity, habitat fragmentation, con-servation biology, ecosystem management, endangered and threatenedspecies—these and other notions all imply certain responsibilities foryou as a landowner. Some concepts repackage old ideas, some arisefrom new information about how forest systems work, and some reflectsocietal priorities. Regardless of the source, in the future all landown-ers will likely be urged to factor such considerations into their manage-ment activities. Some programs, such as endangered species protection,may determine which activities will or will not be allowed on your land.

We have tried to point out some of these concerns throughout this guide,but we also strongly urge you to keep abreast of new programs andideas. We encourage you to be sensitive to your critically important roleas steward of an environment shared and depended upon by manyforms of life.

v

Introduction

F orests are one ofWisconsin’s most importantnatural resources. Theyprovide economic, recre-

ational and aesthetic benefits andmake up nearly 16 million acres(46%) of the state’s total land area.

Many woodlands are publiclyowned, especially in northernWisconsin. Others are controlled bycorporations or industry. But atleast 262,000 private citizens ownwoodlands in Wisconsin. Theirholdings make up about 60% of thestate’s forested habitat.

Forests provide a refuge for manykinds of wildlife. In the past, mostwildlife management programs have beendirected toward public lands. But becausemost land in Wisconsin is privately owned,landowners are now encouraged to developand maintain wildlife habitat on their land.University of Wisconsin-Extension, theWisconsin Department of Natural Resources(DNR), and many private groups all share acommon interest in promoting wise resourcemanagement on Wisconsin’s private lands.This guide is a product of that interest.

Wisconsin’s forests range from small isolatedwoodlots surrounded by agricultural lands inthe southeast, to large stretches of conifersand hardwoods in the north. Many wildlifespecies depend on some form of woody veg-etation. A few, such as black bears and timberwolves, need many square miles of forestedhabitat; others, such as squirrels, can live insmall woodlots. Some species prefer decidu-ous forests, others coniferous. Some birdsrequire uniform expanses of mature trees fornesting, while ruffed grouse and woodcockprefer a mix of young and middle-agedwoods. Forests of every size, type and ageprovide habitat for some kind of wildlife.

Most wildlife management is actually habitatmanagement. A management strategy may besimple, such as erecting a bluebird nest box,but more often it involves manipulating vegeta-tion. Maintaining a forest in a mature state isgood management for some wildlife, whileremoving timber enhances habitat for others.Your decisions about woodland managementshould be influenced by many factors, includingyour land’s potential, your goals and the conser-vation of Wisconsin’s resources. This guide willhelp you explore management alternatives.

Remember to temper your expectations.Wildlife management is often more art thanscience. Variations in location, topography,weather, natural events and wildlife popula-tions make it difficult to predict the exactresults of any management effort.Nevertheless, this guide offers some proventechniques for benefiting wildlife on yourproperty.

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vi INTRODUCTION

Focus on the ruffed grouse

The ruffed grouse (or partridge) is featured inthis publication for several reasons. As themost popular game bird in Wisconsin, grouseoffer a challenge to hunters and are alsoattracting increasing attention from photogra-phers and others who simply enjoy wildlife.Although ruffed grouse are common through-out much of Wisconsin, DNR researchersexpect populations to decline if aspen andoak acreage continue to decrease. Here is anobvious opportunity for the woodland owner tomaintain habitat for this popular species.

A great deal of research has been done onthe biology, habitat requirements, and popula-tion ecology of the ruffed grouse. Thatresearch provides a sound basis for thehabitat management practices describedhere.

Ruffed grouse management need not beexclusive. Good grouse habitat also benefitswoodcock, rabbits, deer, and many songbirds,as well as wildlife predators. The basic princi-ples outlined in this guide can be used tobenefit all of Wisconsin’s wildlife species. Yourprimary management goals—preservation,timber, wildlife, or recreation—along with yourland's native vegetation, will ultimately deter-mine the wildlife species found on yourproperty.

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vii

1Highlights from Roberts, J.C., W. G. Tlusty and H.C. Jordahl, Jr., 1986. The Wisconsin private non-industrial woodland owner: a profile. Wisconsin Coop.Ext. Serv. Occas. Paper Series No. 19. 128 pp.

THE WISCONSINPRIVATE NON-INDUSTRIALWOODLAND OWNER: A PROFILE1

Private woodland owners inWisconsin account for an esti-mated 9,082,000 woodland

acres (218,000 private non-industrialwoodland, or PNIF, ownership units).At least 370,400 people (12% of thestate’s population 20 years of age orolder) have an ownership interest inthis land.

The average size of woodlandholdings is 42 acres, withproperty ranging from 1 to

9,000 acres.

Eleven percent of thewoodland owners control 50%of the PNIF acres.

Nearly one-third of Wisconsinwoodland owners acquiredtheir woodland within the past

ten years.

Forty-two percent of privatewoodlands are part of anactive farm. About one-third of

owners farm as their primary occupation.

The education and income ofwoodland owners are similar

to Wisconsin’s population asa whole.

Woodland owners cite a widevariety of reasons for owningtheir woodlands. Most list

“scenic enjoyment” (69%) and“wildlife habitat” (74%) as mostimportant. The smallest proportionsof owners give “motorized recre-ation” (7%) or “investment,” thepotential to sell for a profit (18%), asimportant reasons for owning theirown woodlands. “Timber produc-tion” (30%) ranks seventh amongthe ten most important reasons forowning woodlands—fourth, if con-sidered on an acreage basis. Mostowners report multiple reasons forowning their own woodlands.

Department of NaturalResources county foresters,Natural Resources Conservation

Service (NRCS) personnel and UW-Extension county agents are themost popular sources for profes-sional advice about woodland man-agement.

Only one of every threewoodland owners (37%)obtained outside management

advice in the past decade. For thosewho solicited such advice, the mainpurpose was for timber production,harvesting or management informa-tion. Although large proportions ofowners rate wildlife habitat andscenic enjoyment as importantreasons for owning woodlands, veryfew have obtained managementadvice on these subjects over thepast decade.

Relatively small proportions(3% to 10%) of woodlandowners have participated in

the forest management assistanceprograms that are available. Theproportions of woodland ownerswho say they are aware of theprograms’ existence ranges from21% to 41%.

The highest ranked recre-ational activities—“viewing

nature,” “hiking,” “hunting” and“berrypicking”—are enjoyed eachyear by over half of all woodlandowners.

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Woodland owners report thata wide variety of public incen-tives could induce them to

undertake or continue a woodlandmanagement program. Property taxreduction and free or low cost trees(incentives now available but notwidely used) are considered essen-tial by most woodland owners.While not deemed essential by amajority, they also felt that state andfederal tax credits, low cost educa-tional programs, tax reductions, andassistance in marketing timber andpreparing management plans wouldalso be important.

About half (51%) of woodlandowners say they are not inter-ested in developing and

carrying out a management plan fortimber, scenic beauty or wildlifehabitat. About one in four (26%) areinterested in developing such aplan. Sixty percent of those inter-ested would require a tax reductionas an incentive; 40% would not.

Approximately 8.6 millionacres (95%) of privatelyowned woodlands are open to

public access, but permission isrequired on two-thirds of theselands.

Twenty-five percent of ownerswho close their land indicatethey have problems with

trespass. Hunting is the most signifi-cant problem for this group ofowners.

The mean size of harvest areafor timber sales was 23.3acres. Twenty-seven percent

of the sales ranged from 1 to 9acres.

Approximately two thirds(68%) of the owners havenever harvested wood

products to sell. This group controls4.2 million acres or 46% of allprivate non-industrial woodland.More than 70% of all woodlandowners agreed that the benefits ofthe Woodland Tax Law (WTL) orForest Crop Law (FCL) programsshould be made available to thosewho choose to emphasize wildlifehabitat, scenic beauty and recre-ation in addition to wood produc-tion.

Making the benefits of theForest Crop Law or the

Woodland Tax Law groups availableto those who choose to emphasizeother purposes in addition to woodproduction would not in itselfencourage a large number ofowners to enroll. The majority ofowners (52%) didn’t know if such achange would cause them to enrollin FCL; 41% didn’t know if such achange would cause them to enrollin WTL.

About two thirds (68%) ofwoodland owners plan to

keep all their woodlands for the next10 years. “Low available volume,”“ruin scenery,” and “desire to leavetheir woodlands as a legacy” werethe reasons most frequently givenfor not harvesting and selling woodproducts.

Owners of larger woodlandacreages are more likely to

harvest and sell wood productssometime in the future than arethose with smaller acreages.

Landowners who currently donot intend to harvest or sellwood products indicated that

activities which benefit other forestresource needs (such as wildlifeand scenery) or personal financialneeds would influence them tochange their attitude toward har-vesting and selling wood products.

Almost nine out of tenwoodland owners in theForest Crop Law (FCL) or

Woodland Tax Law (WTL) reportedthe property tax reduction as beinga very important reason for partici-pating in the program. Deferringproperty tax and access to techni-cal assistance were most oftencalled unimportant reasons.

Lack of information about FCLor WTL, the public accessrequirement, and the notion

that joining is too much trouble,were the reasons most often givenfor not enrolling in the FCL or WTLprograms.

The FCL’s public hunting andfishing access requirementwas listed by 28% of

woodland owners as a major reasonthey did not enroll. However, 28%also indicated that the requirementwas not a significant factor in theirdecision not to enroll.

About two-thirds (64%) ofWisconsin woodland ownersindicated they harvested

wood products, either for sale or fortheir own use; 70% of these har-vesting owners cut firewood forthemselves.

NOTE: Since this survey was conducted, the Managed Forest Law (MFL) has replaced the FCL and WTL (see Tlusty and Rodgers,1987). However, it offers many of the same incentives to landowners.

viii A PROFILE

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Before you begin your managementprogram, it is absolutely essential that you

understand fundamental forest and wildlifeecology.

Wildlife needs

All animals need food, water, cover and livingspace to survive and reproduce. Wild animalsvary in the kinds of food they eat. The blackbear is a generalist that feeds on berries,roots, nuts, leaves, fish, small mammals andcarcasses of deer and other carrion. An adultwoodcock is a specialist because 90% ofits diet is composed of earthworms. The ruffedgrouse is both a generalist and a specialist atdifferent times of the year. In summer, grouseeat leaves, seeds and berries in addition toinsects and otherinvertebrates.Throughout the fall,twigs, buds, nuts andfruits make up thegrouse diet. Duringwinter, grouse special-ize on buds, particu-larly from aspen trees.

They depend on this high-protein food untilspring.

All animals need water, which is usuallyreadily available in Wisconsin. Wildlife can getmoisture from standing water, dew-ladenplants, and juicy foods such as berries. Ruffedgrouse apparently do not need standingwater; they get most of their water from foodand dew.

Cover is also crucial. Your management canimprove its quality. Cover serves manypurposes for wildlife: It offers protection frombad weather, provides a refuge from predatorsand affords a secure nesting site.

Cover and food often go hand in hand—espe-cially for ruffed grouse. A mixture of different

age classes of aspenand other treesprovides breeding,nesting and escapecover, while also sup-plying food in the formof buds, twigs, catkinsand leaves.

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Animals with a broad diet are called generalists, while those that eat onlyspecific food items are known as specialists.

CHAPTER 1

A forest ecosystem primer

2 CHAPTER 1

There are many factors to consider whenmanaging land for a particular form of wildlife.A species’ home range is one such factor. Thehome range of a gray squirrel may be onlya few acres, whereas a white-tailed deer orwild turkey might range over hundreds ofacres.

As part of their home range, many animals,particularly birds, have territories theydefend from others of the same species andsex. For ruffed grouse, the territory reserves abreeding area. In spring, adult males(commonly known as drummers) defend 6 to10 acres of suitable cover for breeding. To alarge extent, the size of your property (relativeto a species’ space requirements) determinesboth the presence and abundance of wildlifeon your land.

Habitat is simply the place, with all its environ-mental influences, where a species lives. Asuitable habitat fulfills the four wildlife needsfor food, water, cover and living space, andpermits individuals to survive, reproduce andmaintain the population.

For species which can adapt to differenthabitats, suitable dwelling places often varywidely in different geographic areas. Forexample, within limits, deer in Wisconsin thriveequally well in southern farm lands, largecentral Wisconsin marshes and northernforests. This indicates that an area’s capacityto fulfill wildlife needs, and not the land’sappearance, determines its habitat value.

Wildlife management principles

Managing wildlife means applying your knowl-edge of ecology to animal populations andtheir habitats. You can make an impact onwildlife when you observe ecological princi-ples or consult resource professionals aboutmanaging your land.

Aldo Leopold emphasized the view thatwildlife is a product of the land and the habitatit provides. He also believed that habitat man-agement is the art of producing a sustainedyield of wildlife. As a landowner, you cancreate the necessary habitat and master thisart.

Thoughtful wildlife management, based onecological principles, often uses the tech-niques of forestry to attain its goals. Chiefamong these is silviculture, which involvesmanipulating forest establishment, composi-tion and growth. Healthy wildlife populationsare one of the many benefits of good forestmanagement.

Your property may have enough water, coverand space to support ten animals. But if thereis only enough food for six, you will only havesix. This is the limiting factor principle: Thescarcest basic requirement limits the popula-tion. Of course, inadequate food, water, coverand living space are not the only things thatlimit animal populations. Disease, parasites,predators (including hunters), and adverseweather can also reduce populations. Yetthese so-called mortality factors usually have

Home range describes theamount of space an individualanimal uses throughout a seasonor year. As a rule, the home rangeis large enough to satisfy ananimal's requirements for food,water and cover.

Territories reserve something foran animal’s use, such as anesting site, food supply orbreeding area.

Aldo Leopold, the firstUniversity of Wisconsin professorof wildlife management, is consid-ered the founder of modernwildlife ecology.

less impact in good habitat that meets thebasic needs of wildlife.

Wildlife management, like most management,attempts to achieve an objective—such asincreasing grouse or other wildlife populations.In the previous example, increasing foodquantity or quality will allow your land tosupport ten or more animals, but eventuallyanother shortage will limit further populationgrowth. In theory, wildlife managementattempts to remove these limiting factors untilwildlife population goals are reached.

When you improve poor grouse cover, youincrease your land’s carrying capacity—and this should result in more grouse. If youcontinue to remove limiting factors to improvethe carrying capacity of your land, will wildlifepopulations increase forever? No. Eachhabitat has certain limits for sustaining awildlife species. For example, the type of soilmay limit food supply, or an inherent speciescharacteristic may prevent unlimited growth.With ruffed grouse, the territorial requirementsof breeding males will eventually prohibitfurther population growth, even in idealhabitat.

Because of territoriality, ruffed grouse popula-tions rarely outgrow the carrying capacity oftheir habitat. When wildlife does outgrow theland’s carrying capacity, as occasionallyhappens with white-tailed deer, resources aresoon exhausted and wildlife densities decline,or in extreme cases, crash. This may be dueto decreased reproduction, increased mortal-

ity, emigration or a combination of thesefactors. When environmental pressure eases,the population increases, until it limits itselfonce again. As a result, population size fluctu-ates around or somewhat below carryingcapacity.

The border between a forest and a fieldcreates an edge effect that attracts specieslike the ruffed grouse. Wildlife may beabundant in these areas. Many small-gamehunters follow edges, such as the borderbetween upland aspen and lowland alder, tofind grouse and woodcock.

The width of this edge, or ecotone, can varyfrom the sharp break described above, to agradual transition from one type to another.Generally, the transition type of edge effectsupports more wildlife species. In fact, thereare certain transitional species, such as thesong sparrow, brown thrasher and housewren, that have specifically adapted to theseareas.

Also consider the “Law of Interspersion”proposed by Aldo Leopold. Leopold con-cluded that the more edge per unit area, thehigher the game production. We know todaythat this is true for some species in areas withgreater interspersion (fig.1).

Yet the need to develop edge and intersper-sion differs among habitats and location.When managers create small openings in theheavily forested tracts of northern Wisconsin,the areas often exhibit increased wildlife use.

FOREST ECOSYSTEM PRIMER 3

Carrying capacity refers to thenumber of animals of one speciesthat can be maintained in ahabitat at a given time (often withthe condition that habitatdamage does not occur). It iscommonly used as a measure ofhabitat quality, although judgingby animal density alone can bemisleading, because of seasonalvariations in animal populationsand the land’s ability to supportthem.

The edge effect is another princi-ple of wildlife management. Theedge where two or more vegetationtypes meet (known as an ecotone)often supports a greater abun-dance and diversity of wildlife thaneither type alone.

Habitat fragmentation is thebreaking up of large tracts of con-tiguous habitat into smaller andsmaller fragments. It is often aresult of human development.

On the other hand, much of the forestedhabitat in southern Wisconsin is alreadybroken up into islands of woodland sur-rounded by large open areas. Some wildlifespecies can’t use such small parcels ofhabitat. This phenomenon, known as habitatfragmentation, is now viewed as a problemby wildlife managers. If you own a largewooded tract in southern Wisconsin, youshould consider preserving this unique com-munity.

As a rule, evaluate the available edge in termsof the wildlife needs discussed here. If theedge barely meets a species’ habitat require-ments, try to increase its size. Increasing theamount of edge can sometimes be counter-productive because it reduces the area offorested habitat.

If you do decide to manage your land forruffed grouse, there is another factor toconsider—the ten-year population cycle.Ruffed grouse populations rise and fall natu-rally, with peaks and troughs occurring aboutevery ten years throughout much of theirrange (fig. 2). Other northern forest species,such as snowshoe hares, also exhibit this so-called “ten-year cycle.” The reasons for thecycle are complex and involve interactions

between the quality and quantity of criticalwinter foods, predators, severe winter weather,disease and parasites. Still, studies haveshown that even in low years, grouse numbersremain higher in quality habitat. The moreacres of good habitat you can provide, thegreater your chances of maintaining grousepopulations on your property.

Predator control is often suggested as asolution for increasing some wildlife popula-tions, and it is used in certain situations.However, predator control is expensive, oftenillegal, and usually effective only in the short-term, if at all. Predators are an integral part ofthe natural world, and it is important toremember that the ruffed grouse and its pred-ators, such as the goshawk, have evolvedtogether. As mentioned earlier, severe lossesfrom predators usually indicate inadequatehabitat. Over the long run, improvements inhabitat quality and quantity show the greatestpotential for enhancing grouse populations.

Forest succession: the growth of a woodland2

We often think of forests as permanent fixtureson the landscape, existing until they are cutdown. But forces that operated long beforechainsaws were invented act to change forestvegetation. Various stages of forest develop-ment, such as the pole stage, are sometimestreated as separate entities, but forest succes-sion is a continuous process in which onestage gradually becomes another. Theprocess takes place over a period of time.Decades pass before an abandoned fieldbecomes a mature forest (fig. 3).

4 CHAPTER 1

FIGURE 2. Ruffed grouse numbers can fluctuate widely. Overmost of their range, the population highs and lows arecyclical, occurring every 9 to 11 years.

RUFFED GROUSEPOPULATION CYCLE

2Forestry terms in boldface are defined in Appendix A.

5 YEARS 10 15 20 25 30

10 YEARS

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▲ Poor interspersion and edge effect

FIGURE 1. INTERSPERSIONThe four habitat types (A-D) meet 9times more often, while each type’s totalarea remains the same.

A B

C D

A B C DC D A B

A B C D

C D A B▲ Good interspersion and

edge effect

If a farmer plows the “back forty” in the springand then for some reason abandons it, annualweeds quickly establish themselves on thebare soil. The weedy field doesn’t look muchlike a forest, but succession has begun.Perennial plants invade the field, and becausethey can outcompete annuals for nutrients andspace, they will eventually dominate. Shrubsand tree seedlings that grow well in directsunlight establish themselves next. Hawthorn,aspen, cherry, birch and white pine areamong the field pioneers.

After several decades, aspen and other sun-loving trees have reached maturity and the 40-acre field is now a woodlot. Species that ini-tially dominate a field are fast growing and donot tolerate shade; their seedlings cannotgrow when the ground is shaded. Youngaspen will not survive in the shade of olderaspen, but shade-tolerant species willprosper. Oaks and hickories usually survive inpartial shade, but in southern Wisconsin these

trees are eventually replaced by more shade-tolerant beech, basswood and sugar maple.When the forest is dominated by trees thatcan reproduce under the shade of their owncanopy, the so-called climax stage is reached.For example, beech and maple seedlingsgrow in the shade of their parents; as an oldtree dies, a young one grows to replace it.

The tree species that make up the climaxforest on a particular site are largely deter-mined by the soil and water conditions thatinfluence tree growth. Because of this, oaksmay be the climax species on a dry ridge topor south facing slope, while maple and beechreplace oaks along bottomlands or on northfacing slopes. Climatic factors, such as wind,temperature, and length of growing seasonare also involved, so that hardy balsam fir,white spruce or white birch may replace sugarmaple as the climax species of boreal forestsalong the Great Lakes. A forest will proceedtoward its climax stage unless some distur-

FOREST ECOSYSTEM PRIMER 5

FIGURE 3. FOREST SUCCESSION AND ITS EFFECT ON SONGBIRDSForest succession proceeds in stages from bare field to annuals, grasses, shrubs, shade-intolerant trees,

and finally shade-tolerant trees—the climax stage. The climax forest remains until fire, wind, disease, cutting,or some other factor disturbs it and sets the forest back to an earlier stage of succession.

Different wildlife species adapt to different stages of forest succession. Songbirds illustrate this well. Some(cowbirds, rose-breasted grosbeaks) can live in several stages of succession; others (song sparrows, cardinals)occupy two stages. Still others (bobolinks in grasslands, acadian flycatchers in mature woods) are specializedto one particular stage. Killdeer can be found around marshes, but will feed and nest in bare fields.

BAREFIELD

ANNUALS ANDPERENNIALS

SHRUBS

3-20 25-100 150+2

SHRUBS AND SHADE-INTOLERANT TREES

(ASPEN, CHERRIES, ETC.)

SHADE TOLERANT TREESCLIMAX FOREST

(OAKS, HICKORIES, BEECH)

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KILLDEER

MEADOWLARKBOBOLINK

SONG SPARROWCATBIRD

CARDINAL

COWBIRD

ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK

WOOD THRUSH

OVENBIRD

SCARLET TANAGER

ACADIAN FLYCATCHER

6 CHAPTER 1

bance (fire, windstorm, disease or logging)changes it. Because these events happen sooften during the hundreds of years it takes fora forest to mature, a true climax forest rarelyevolves.

Forest succession is an important concept inwildlife management because it predicts thewildlife species you can expect to find in anygiven stage of forest development (fig. 3).Some animals are adapted to live and breedin old fields, some in young forests, andothers in mature woods.

There is usually some overlap in the habitat ofeach species. For example, cottontail rabbitsinhabit fields, shrubby areas or youngwoodlots with dense understories. Somespecies have very general habitat require-ments while others are more specialized. Butfew species, if any, thrive in all of the forest’ssuccessional stages.

How does this relate to grouse management?Ruffed grouse are usually associated with theearly stages of forest succession. To maximizegrouse populations, forests that have grownbeyond the early successional stage must becut, burned or disturbed in some way—thenallowed to grow back. Thus, successionnecessitates a basic management decision.Do you want to manage your land for ruffedgrouse, woodcock and other early succes-sional stage wildlife? Do you want to empha-size older stages that provide habitat forspecies of mature forests, such as pileatedwoodpeckers? Or do you want to try (if yourproperty is large enough) for a mixture ofboth?

Managing the forest as anecosystem

A forest is a biological community dominatedby trees and other woody vegetation. Anecosystem includes all the environmentalelements, both living and non-living, that con-tribute to a community. A forest ecosystemencompasses the animals, trees, understorygrowth, leaf litter, soil, rainfall, groundwaterand all the other components that make up aforest. Wildlife is a part of the ecosystem inwhich it lives, and each species is influencedby all facets of the ecosystem.

Managing natural resources wisely is ofteninterpreted as using resources to benefit thesite, the landowner, or the public—dependingupon which interests are being considered.There is nothing really wrong with this philoso-

phy. Nevertheless, many owners overlook awoodland’s many potential values by narrowlydefining use and restricting their managementschemes. Thus, woodlots are often managedonly for timber production, watershed, wildlifeor recreation. But every forest is a watershedbecause some rain falls on it . Every foresthas some wildlife, aesthetic, conservation andrecreational value. The impact of these valuesvaries among woodlands and amongwoodland owners.

As the manager of your woodland, you decidewhich uses to favor. One option is to producetimber on land that is managed for wildlife; infact, timber and wildlife management oftencomplement each other. Some tradeoffsbetween various land uses will always be nec-essary. Sawtimber management mayrequire you to compromise ruffed grousehabitat. Likewise, managing for grouse,woodcock and deer may adversely affectspecies that require large tracts of matureforest. If your property is large, you may havemore flexibility for managing diverse habitats.But you will need to establish priorities andrealize that you cannot support everything inthe same woodlot. Vegetation, soil, water andwildlife are all interrelated; conserving them isthe concern of forest ecosystem management.

At this point, you may be wondering about thepotential conflict between managing anecosystem and managing for a singlespecies. After all, isn’t this guide primarilyabout managing young forests specifically forruffed grouse? Yes, but you must exercisecaution with single species management. Allthe applied management disciplines—forestry,agriculture, soils, as well as wildlife, fisheries,and range management—have been criticizedfor manipulating natural systems withoutregard for their complex interrelationships. Buta healthy ecosystem provides all of the differ-ent forest types necessary to support itsnative flora and fauna.

In this time of wildfire control and hugeacreages of middle-aged forests, both ruffedgrouse and old-growth songbird enthusiastshave reason for concern. As the manager ofyour own land, sensitivity to your woodland asan ecosystem will allow you to accomplishyour goals, while still protecting the manyvalues that make forests such a unique part ofour world.

7

CHAPTER 2

The natural zones of Wisconsin

On the basis of vegetation alone, northernWisconsin with its mesic forest types

requiring moderately moist soils, differs fromsouthern Wisconsin with its combinedelements of prairie and eastern deciduousforest types. The Tension Zone (fig. 4a)divides these two regions. The Tension Zone’sexact location represents the densest concen-tration of individual plant range limits (Curtis,1959).

Beyond this simple two-fold division,Wisconsin can be further separated into fivenatural zones or ecotypes (fig. 4b): NorthernForest (including the Lake Superior lowland),Eastern Deciduous Forest on the shore ofLake Michigan, Western Upland (includingmostly the Driftless Area), Central SandCounties, and Oak Savanna/Prairie (nowmostly farmland) of southeastern Wisconsin.These zones differ in local geology, topogra-phy, soils or vegetation. Although most man-

FIGURE 4b. WISCONSIN’S FIVE NATURALZONES.

A subdivision of Wisconsin into five natural zones:Northern Forest, Eastern Deciduous Forest,Western Upland, Central Sand Counties and OakSavanna/Prairies.

FIGURE 4a. THE TENSION ZONE

The Tension Zone (shaded area) representsthe densest concentration of individualplant range limits. For example, balsam fir isnot typically found south of the TensionZone, but partridge pea, a southern legume,is not found north of it.

Northern Forest

Western Upland

Central Sand Counties

Oak Savanna and Prairies

Eastern Deciduous Forest

Tension Zone

agement techniques apply to the first fourzones, be aware that special problems orunique situations occur in each.

Since this guide focuses on woodlands, wewill not discuss the Oak Savanna/Prairie zone.Initiating a habitat management program insoutheastern Wisconsin depends on woodlotsize, type and management potential. But youcan still manage for pheasants, quail, rabbits,squirrels, songbirds or other wildlife typical ofagricultural land.

The Northern Forest

The Northern Forest is a conifer-hardwoodforest in the heavily glaciated northern third ofthe state. This land is owned by privatecitizens, industry, Native Americans, counties,and state and federal governments. All of the1.5 million acres of National Forest inWisconsin lie within this zone. Agriculturalland is widely scattered and devoted to dairyfarming and cash crops. Upland forestsinclude pure or mixed stands of northernhardwoods, aspen (popple), fir and birch. Themajor forest product is pulpwood, followed byfuel wood and sawlogs.

Some of the best ruffed grouse habitat islocated in northern Wisconsin where aspen isone of the major forest species. In many areasnearly two-thirds of the upland forest consistsof aspen—offering opportunities to considergrouse habitat when developing pulp andtimber management plans.

In the last 60 years, aspen acreage hasdecreased by about 1% per year, due tonatural succession in the face of fire controland weak aspen markets. If you are interestedin managing for ruffed grouse, aspen shouldbe maintained where feasible. This may bedifficult on sites where competition withbalsam fir or northern hardwoods exists.Although small clumps of balsam fir provideexcellent winter cover, fir can dominate someareas and reduce habitat quality. Likewise,northern hardwoods will eventually succeedaspen if stands are not clearcut periodically.Unfortunately, larger-sized cuts of over 40acres are more common in the NorthernForest, which reduces potential grouseresponse. Keeping clearcuts to 5 or10 acreswill increase age-class diversity and maximizegrouse and deer populations.

8 CHAPTER 2

Northern hardwoods.

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NATURAL ZONES OF WISCONSIN 9

The Eastern Deciduous Forest

Extensive groves of sugar maple, basswoodand elm characterize the Eastern DeciduousForest. Additionally, American beech reachesits western range limit in this region. TheGreen Bay and Lake Michigan glacial lobescame out of the northeast to completely coverthis area of southeastern Wisconsin. Post-glacial revegetation was dominated by theEastern Deciduous Forest advancing fromsouth and east of Wisconsin.

This area is the most densely populated of thefive natural zones described. It includes thecities of Appleton, Fond du Lac, Milwaukee,Oshkosh and Sheboygan. Much of the maple-dominated forest has been cleared for devel-opment and agriculture; however, a great dealof both publicly and privately owned woodedland still exists. Wetlands, including tamarackswamps, are also important in this part of thestate.

Notice that the Tension Zone (fig. 4a) dipssharply to the south in the area of LakeWinnebago. This leaves the Door CountyPeninsula and Lake Michigan shorelinecounties with plants and animals found in theNorthern Forest as well as the southern forestcommunity. The Eastern Deciduous Forest ismarked by glacial features such as drumlinsand kettles, including the well-known “KettleMoraine” areas. Ruffed grouse management isnot a common practice, but deer and water-fowl management are important. Wild turkeysare also common.

The Central Sand Counties

The Central Sand Counties, with their finesands and silt loams, are dominated byaspen, jack pine and northern pin (scrub) oak.Immortalized in Aldo Leopold’s A Sand CountyAlmanac (1949), this area contains a mosaicof cover types. Agricultural developmentranges from cranberry bogs to intensivecenter-pivot irrigation for truck crops.Prominent wetlands composed of spruce ortamarack swamps, sedge marsh or alderoccupy 50% of the landscape in some areas.Uplands are interspersed with fallow fields,crop lands and many shrubs including hazel,blueberry, huckleberry and sweet fern.Plantations stocked with white, red andjack pine are common. Some bottomlandhardwoods (silver maple, white ash and river

birch) grow along major drainages. However,uplands dominated by aspen or mixtures ofaspen and oak or pine provide the bestgrouse habitats.

This area is composed of industrial forests,extensive public land under county and stateownership, and a variety of private lands.Industrial forests are managed for wood fiberwith some consideration for recreation andwildlife; public lands are managed for multiplepurposes. Management effort for timber orwildlife on private lands varies. If you convertaspen stands to red pine, the preferredpulpwood producer, you’ll need to makespecial efforts to avoid excessive damage towildlife habitats.

Managing aspen for grouse in this region isoften hampered by poor pulpwood marketsand wet conditions that make logging difficult.Many stands eventually convert to low gradehardwoods or white pine. Yet aspen is still thepreferred Central Sands grouse habitat, andyour management plans should emphasize it.Just recognize that management recommen-dations may be harder to implement. You’llprobably find a poor market for your timberand poor stocking densities. Larger timbersales in cooperation with your neighbors, orimproving access through road construction,may increase logger interest. The aspen man-agement guidelines found in Chapter 5include suggestions to improve stocking.

The Western Upland

Rugged, wooded hillsides characterize theWestern Upland (or Driftless Area) ofWisconsin. Intensive ridge top and valley culti-vation supports beef and dairy operations. Adry southern hardwood forest of white, redand black oaks dominates the zone. Othermajor tree species include hickory, bur oak,sugar maple, basswood, white ash, ironwoodand black cherry. Trembling and bigtoothaspen are less common species.

The oak-hickory type dominates the DriftlessArea, covering about half of the commercialforest acreage. These forests are relics ofearlier days, when recurring fires favored oakregeneration. Northern hardwoods willeventually outcompete the oak-hickory type onthe area’s rich heavy soils. On lighter soils,succession favors white pine.

Because of these trends and economicfactors, foresters may encourage you toconvert to northern hardwoods or pine afterharvesting mature oak-hickory woodlands.This will probably diminish grouse, deer,squirrel and turkey populations. Nevertheless,by working carefully with your forester, youmay be able to maintain oak as an importantspecies in your woodlot.

Aspen grows less commonly throughout theWestern Upland, particularly in the northerncounties along the St. Croix River. Yet largeblocks of aspen, such as occur in theNorthern Forest, are rare.

Rather than attempting to convert large areasto aspen, consider expanding the aspen youdo have to improve ruffed grouse winter foodsupplies. You can then concentrate on devel-

oping common local species (such as black-berry, hazel, prickly-ash, sumac, locust andyoung oaks) into the dense vertical coverneeded by grouse.

Grouse may make good use of conifers in theDriftless Area, where good roosting snow israrely available. Plant conifers with low-growing, brushy branches that provide wintercover. Good choices are eastern red cedar(juniper) on dry sites, white spruce on mediumto moist sites, and eastern arborvitae (whitecedar) on wetter sites.

10 CHAPTER 2

11

CHAPTER 3

Designing a habitat management plan

You should consider several things beforebeginning a habitat management program

for your woodlands. One of the first and mostimportant is your time, because a successfulwildlife management program requires severalyears’ commitment. This does not mean thatyou have to work every day for years toimprove habitat, but it does mean that youmust be willing to follow through with yourmanagement efforts.

It can take a long time to alter the vegetationand detect a wildlife response to the changes.Don’t be discouraged—your efforts will besteadily rewarded in small ways. Each timeyou hear a ruffed grouse drumming from anew corner of your land, or when songbirdsuse snags (dead trees) you have preserved ora nestbox your children built, you will reapbenefits from your labors.

Abundant wildlife can cause problems. Athigh populations, some species becomepests that compete with other land uses. Agood grouse management program will alsoattract deer to your woodlot. Deer can, and

do, cause consid-erable damage inWisconsin. Yourwoodland couldprovide sanctuaryfor a deer herd thatraids a neighbor’sorchard or corn-fields. Deer maymake it nearlyimpossible toestablish some ofyour own plantings,such as Christmastrees or fruitingshrubs. You mayneed to protectgardens and berrypatches fromcertain species.

Quality wildlife habitat can also attract poten-tial users of wildlife—especially hunters—whomay create safety and trespass problems. Butbefore you close off the wildlife resource byposting your land, remember that wildlifebelongs to everybody. The DNR’s “ProjectRespect” offers one option to help you dealwith trespass, while providing for regulatedpublic access. Also, Wisconsin’s recreationaluse statute, revised in 1984, limits the injuryliability of private landowners (see Appendix Ffor an explanation of the statute).

The basics are behind us. Let’s get going witha management plan for your land.

Step 1

Set management objectives

Once you have decided to manage yourwoods for wildlife, plan your approach.Establish your goals and decide what youwant from your woodland. Are you primarilyinterested in grouse, woodcock and deer, orwould you also like to have thrushes, warblersand woodpeckers breeding on your property?Do you hunt squirrels and rabbits as well asgrouse? Do you plan to sell some pulpwood tohelp defray your management costs? Do youharvest fuel wood for your own use orincome? Do you enjoy gathering wild berriesand nuts? There are many things to thinkabout!

You are not restricted to one goal. You canhave several primary objectives (such asmanaging for ruffed grouse and pulpwoodsales), plus secondary objectives. Secondaryobjectives could include encouraging rabbitsby building brushpiles, providing squirrels withnest boxes, and saving snags for cavity-nesters such as woodpeckers. Jot down yourideas and objectives and keep track of refer-ences and literature that will aid your manage-ment efforts. You may want to keep a journal,including field notes and nature observations.This will be a helpful and interesting record ofyour progress and experiences.

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Now is a good time to do a little research onforestry techniques and the habitat needs ofwildlife species you wish to encourage. Somegood publications can be found in REFER-ENCES FOR FURTHER READING (p. 41).Background knowledge on what it will take toachieve your goals will help you evaluate yourland and communicate with professionals.

Step 2Inventory and evaluate your land

With some objectives in mind, you can beginto inventory the wildlife, vegetation andphysical features of your land. Take yourjournal along and write down any information

that pertains to your objec-tives. In what successionalstages are your woodlands?What tree, shrub, andherbaceous speciesare present? Whatis the acreageof variousstands of

conifers, oaks,aspens and mixed hard-

woods? If your land is hilly,record the slope and exposure(northwest, southeast, etc.) of eachstand. Take special note of anysnags, large acorn-producing oaks(wolf trees) and berry patches. A pairof binoculars and some of the fieldguides listed in the references willhelp you make an accurate inventory.You may find a new hobby, a newspecies for your county, or even anew champion tree! Refer to “How toInventory and Monitor Wildlife onYour Land” for detailed techniques.

While examining your own land,observe your neighbor's property,too. Are mature forests, youngshrubby woodlands, or old fieldsnearby? Locate and estimate theacreage of adjacent croplands.Evaluate neighboring land for habitatcomponents you cannot provide, andfor their effect on wildlife movement.Contiguous habitat strips providetravel lanes, while a wide field may bea barrier. You may even want to talk toyour neighbors about forming a coop-erative habitat management plan. Ittakes additional planning, but the

larger acreage involved may be worth it,especially for such contemporary interests as“trophy or quality deer management.”

Collect enough information to delineate the size,type and successional stage of differenthabitats. For example, to manage for ruffedgrouse, record the number and ages of anyaspen plus the location and acreage of berry-producing shrubs, alder thickets, smallopenings in the forest, grape tangles and youngconifers. A lack of some of these cover typestells you where to begin your management.

Once you’ve had a good look at what you(and your neighbors) own, begin sketching amap of your property. Aerial photographs,available at the local Natural ResourcesConservation Service office, and topographi-cal maps from the U.S. Geological Survey

12 CHAPTER 3

FIGURE 5. PROPERTY COVER MAP.

ASPEN-HARDWOODS

LINDSTEN ROAD

FARM

AG

. LA

NDM

ACD

ONA

LD R

OAD

CORN(5 ACRES)

SHARECROPPEDALFALFA

(7 ACRES)

SHARECROPPED CORN(15 ACRES)

PROPERTY COVER MAP

SNAGS

MIXED HARDWOODS(25 ACRES)

FEET

BRUSH

PROPERTYBOUNDARY

HA

RDWOODS

SHIOC CREEK

TRACTOR ROAD

AS

PENPA

STURE

CORN

DEADSNAGS

SHADETREES

WOLFTREE

45-YEAR-OLD(10 ACRES)

OPEN OAKWOODLOT(8 ACRES)

20-YEAR-OLDASPENS

(20 ACRES)

OLDPASTURE

(10 ACRES)

BOTTOMLANDHARDWOODS

ALDER

ALDER(5 ACRES)

(USGS) are very useful. Maps can also bedownloaded from the following sites:

DNR Bureau of Forestrywww.dnr.state.wi.us/org/land/forestry/airphoto/index.htm or

State Cartographer’s Officehttp://feature.geogrphy.wisc.edu/sco/apsi/wicop/aerial.html.

Start with obvious landmarks (buildings, drive-ways, fencelines, roads, trails, streams andponds) and use them as reference points. Next,sketch in property boundaries and the locationand approximate size of major timber stands(any similar, identifiable groups of trees).

For example, you may have 15 acres of 10- to12-year-old aspen, 22 acres of 25+ year-oldaspen, 23 acres of mature northern hard-woods and 20 acres of red and black oaks inyour 80-acre woodlot. If you cannotestimate the ages of the trees, the size(DBH or height) will do. You need notmeasure every tree in the forest, justenough to get a sense of the stand. Thenadd in the fields, clearings and anypatches of shrubby cover. Note thelocation of snags, dens, wolf trees, berrypatches, grape tangles and other uniquehabitats, such as springs, rock outcropsor kettles. Don’t forget to make note of thehabitat types on adjacent lands. Finishyour map with a north-pointing arrow anddistance scale (fig. 5). This map and yourinventory will form the basis of yourwildlife management plan.

Step 3

Seek professional assistance

Now that you have a journal with yourobjectives, inventory, field notes, refer-ences and a cover map, consult wildlifeand forestry professionals. Each Wisconsincounty has a DNR wildlife manager andforester, a UW-Extension agent, a NaturalResources Conservation Service districtconservationist, and Land ConservationDepartment county conservationist. UW-Extension wildlife and forestry specialistsand groups such as the Ruffed GrouseSociety or Audubon Society can also help.Private consultants and industrial forestersare available in some areas for a fee; theyare a good choice if you desire extensivehands-on assistance.

Do not hesitate to consult professionals fromvarious disciplines or agencies; each offers adifferent perspective. Consultants are mostvaluable when you get their advice on theprobable outcomes of various managementalternatives.

When you have found an advisor with whomyou are comfortable, review the journal anddiscuss your goals. The advisor can deter-mine if your objectives are realistic relative tothe local ecosystem, existing vegetation andfinancial considerations. Ideally, the profes-sional should survey your land with you. He orshe can define areas that have good manage-ment potential, help you identify plants andimprove your map. Use the opportunity to askquestions and discuss concerns previously

HABITAT MANAGEMENT PLAN 13

SNAGS

FIGURE 6. HABITAT MANAGEMENT MAP.

LINSTEN ROAD

FARM

AG

. LA

NDM

ACD

ONA

LD R

OAD

CORN(5 ACRES)

SHARECROPPEDALFALFA

(7 ACRES)

SHARECROPPED CORN(15 ACRES)

KEY FOR HABITAT MANAGEMENT MAP

(1995) - YEAR OF ASPEN CLEAR-CUT

ALDER STRIP CUTS

CONIFER PLANTINGS

FEET

BRUSH

PROPERTYBOUNDARY

HA

RDWOODS

PAS

TURECORN

SHADETREES

OPEN OAKWOODLOT(8 ACRES)

BOTTOMLANDHARDWOODS

ALDER

(2005)(2000)

LOG LANDING

(2010)

(2005)

(2010)

(2000)(2005)

(2005)

CUT

T.S.I.PRESERVEWOLF TREES& SNAGS

(2000)

BRUSH PILES

SNAGWOLF TREE

AS

PENLOG

LANDING

14 CHAPTER 3

recorded in your journal. If you cannot arrangea professional visit to your property, set up anoffice consultation. Your journal and covermap should provide enough information toplan your management program.

After the professional assesses the wildlifepotential of your property, settle on your finalobjectives and sketch out a habitat manage-ment plan based on your cover map (fig. 6). Iflogging is needed, a forester can provideinformation on timber marketing practices,sawlog and pulpwood prices, locations of thenearest mills and names of reliable timberoperators and harvest companies.

Step 4Finalize your management plan

Your habitat management plan is nearlycomplete. You should have the following: aninventory of wildlife and plant species; adescription of timber stands includinglocation, size and composition; additional fieldnotes; references, addresses and phonenumbers of the local wildlife manager andtimber harvesting contractor; a completecover map and a map showing areas to bemanaged.

The final step is to draw up a work schedule.Include the primary type of work to be done(for example, clearcut 5 acres of 35-year-oldaspen), secondary jobs (use the slash tobuild two brush piles), the job location and anapproximate timetable for completion. Be real-istic. Don’t expect to clearcut five acres orplant 1,500 conifers by yourself on a Saturdayafternoon. A work schedule will help keep youon course and provide a record of accom-plishments (fig.7). Consider enlisting the helpof volunteer groups (scouts, 4-H, seniorcitizens, or conservation clubs) in your area.Take the opportunity to share the joys andresponsibilities of land stewardship.

FIGURE 7. SAMPLE WORK SCHEDULE FOR HABITATMANAGEMENT

Schedule for Habitat Management

I. Aspen Management1. Construct log road and landings2. Clearcut 1⁄2 of 45-year-old aspen in 20003. Clearcut 8 acres of 20-year aspen in 20004. Sell for pulpwood5. Cut second half of 45-year aspen in 20056. Cut 3 more patches of 20-year aspen in

20057. Make final 2 aspen cuts in 2010

II. Alder Management1. Make initial strip cuts in 20012. Follow-up with additional strip cuts in 2003

III. Hardwood Management1. Begin T.S.I. in 1995 - cut enough for 10 cords

(4 for home use, 6 to sell)

IV. Miscellaneous1. Seed logging trail and landings with white

clover2. Plant conifer patches between 1998-20033. Build brush piles; in north 1999; in south 20014. Construct 6 bluebird boxes and place

around house by 2001

15

CHAPTER 4

Managing young forests for grouse and other wildlife

As mentioned earlier, you should familiarizeyourself with the life history and habitat

requirements of ruffed grouse, or any speciesof interest, before starting your managementprogram.

Some publications that can provide moreinformation are: The Ruffed Grouse (Gullion),Ecology of the Ruffed Grouse (DeStefano et.al., 1984), Ruffed Grouse (Madson, 1969), andRuffed Grouse (Atwater and Schnell, 1989).Details on these and other helpful publicationsare found under REFERENCES FOR FURTHERREADING (p. 41).

Evaluate your land’s potential

If your property lacks wooded cover, you maywant to check the references in this guide forwildlife management tips on waterfowl, ring-necked pheasants, gray partridge, cottontails,fox squirrels, bobwhite quail or grasslandsongbirds. Remember to target those specieswhose ranges overlap your property.

Property consisting mainly of open fields maybe better suited for re-establishing nativeprairie, while low pastures might be restoredas wetlands. Restoration can be a particularlysatisfying way of regaining some ofWisconsin’s lost natural communities, and willattract wildlife unique to these habitats.

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Good ruffed grouse habitat is a combination ofall the cover types that grouse requirethroughout the year: dense young woods,brushy thickets and small natural openingsmixed with mature food trees. Although aspenhas the best potential for grouse, the key inany forest type is to maintain a mixture ofyoung and middle-aged stands. Most man-agement involves preventing succession to amature forest stage with an understory that istoo open to support ruffed grouse.

As a rule of thumb, you need at least 40 acresfor successful ruffed grouse management.Smaller parcels have considerably lowerpotential, although 20 acres of aspen, oak andshrubs amid neighboring woods can bemanaged to support a drummer or two in thespring, perhaps a summer brood, and somegrouse in the fall. Even 50 acres of primehabitat may be barren of grouse if it is sur-rounded by crop land. Such an island ofwoods may be used by woodcock and otherwildlife, but is often too isolated to support agrouse population.

University of Minnesota research has shownthat properly managed aspen stands, withassociated shrubs, can fulfill the year-roundneeds of the ruffed grouse. Prime grousehabitat includes a mix of three age-classes ofaspen. Stands less than five years old areimportant as brood habitat for hens and youngchicks, and may also attract some drummers.Aspen stands are most productive for grouseduring the next growth stage (6–25 years)because they provide excellent cover fordrummers, nesting hens and wintering adults.Stands older than 25 years provide the budsand catkins needed for winter food and caninclude attractive nesting and brood-rearingcover, depending on the shrubs and herba-ceous food plants present. It is not surprisingthat the ranges of aspen and ruffed grouseclosely overlap (fig. 8). Some of the highestgrouse numbers are found in Wisconsin,Michigan and Minnesota where aspen iscommon.

You can also manage other forest types forgrouse habitat. Lacking aspen, you can createsimilar structure (the horizontal and verticalarrangement of your vegetation). The mostcrucial component appears to be stemdensity. Dense vertical stems protect the con-spicuous drummer from avian predators. Ifyou can develop stands with at least 2,000stems over 5 feet tall per acre (fig. 9), within300 feet of a good food supply, you should beable to attract drummers and support grouseyear round. This can be done with many vege-tation types—it’s just easier with aspen. Innorthern Wisconsin, grouse habitat mayinclude young balsam fir or spruce mixed withbirch, red maple, alder and hazel. In thecentral and southern range, dogwood, alder,hazel, prickly-ash, wild grape, oak or redmaple may provide food and cover. Tamarackbogs or aspen growing on wet sites maysupport some grouse, but densities areusually far below those of upland forests.

16 CHAPTER 4

FIGURE 8. RUFFED GROUSE AND ASPEN RANGES INTHE UNITED STATES.The ranges of ruffed grouse and aspen closely overlap inNorth America.

Ruffed grouse range

Aspen distribution

Tom

Mar

tin

son

, Lit

tle

Mar

ais,

MN

(UW

-Ext

ensi

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uff

ed g

rou

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lid

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Aspen management

Two aspen (popple) species grow in NorthAmerica: trembling (also called quaking)aspen and bigtooth aspen (fig. 10). As itsname implies, bigtooth aspen has large teethon its leaf margin, while trembling aspen hassmaller teeth and flattened leaf stems thatallow the leaves to tremble in a breeze.Trembling aspen is the most widespread treein North America. Bigtooth, which prefers driersites, is limited to eastern North America.Trembling aspen provides somewhat higherquality food and cover for ruffed grouse, butmanagement strategies for both species aresimilar. The two types will be treated togetherin these guidelines. Also in REFERENCESFOR FURTHER READING see the DNR’sbulletin Aspen Management on Your Land.

Aspen provides the major source of pulpwoodin the Great Lakes states, while well-formedmature trees are sold as sawlogs or veneerbolts. Fast-growing and short-lived, aspensurvive from 70 to 100 years on the best sites.As pioneer species, they grow best in opensunlight and poorly where shaded by othertrees. They are unable to reproduce under an

MANAGING YOUNG FORESTS 17

• Use a tape, rope orstick to estimate a 1⁄100

acre plot (11’9” radius).

• Count the number of livestems over 5’ tall andmultiply by 100.

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. Cra

ven

FIGURE 9. ESTIMATING STEM DENSITY.

5’ tall

Dead snag—don’t count

11’9” radiusSingle-stemmedCount only once

Too short—don’t count

overhead canopy, except along forest edgesor steep hillsides where sufficient sunlightreaches the ground.

As a forest ages, aspen eventually die outdue to competition from shade-tolerantspecies. Nevertheless, the aspen in yourwoodlot can be maintained indefinitely—if youregenerate by clearcutting to allow the sun toreach the ground. Removing mature aspenproduces a vigorous growth of young shoots,or suckers, that sprout from the older rootstocks to start a new forest. Suckerscommonly sprout in uniform stands, often atdensities of up to 70,000 stems per acre!These stands provide the dense vertical coverrequired by grouse; first as brood cover, later,after about five years of natural thinning, fordrummers. Surprisingly few aspen are neededto provide adequate regeneration followingclearcutting.

Admittedly, there is some irony in cutting aforest to preserve it. What many consider tobe the exploitative cutting of mature forestsin mountainous regions of the country hasgiven clearcutting a bad name. Hugeclearcuts in such areas often resultin severe erosion, and the slowregeneration of these forestscreate at least the impres-sion of ecological devasta-tion. Yet almost all aspenoriginates with some form offorest disturbance—eitherfrom natural causes suchas fire and windstorm, orlogging. If you rememberthat cutting an aspenleaves behind a vigorousroot system, it is easy todraw a parallel with thegardener, who must peri-

odically cut back rose bushes to keep themblooming. This strategy would not work for alltrees or bushes, but for aspen and roses itworks well. Small, well-planned aspenclearcuts on Wisconsin’s relatively flat terrainare quite safe, and they quickly resproutwithout planting. Growth is surprisingly rapid,so there is no long-term denuded landscapeto look at (fig. 11). Cutting your aspen atmaturity provides the multiple benefits ofexcellent grouse habitat, aspen maintenance,and income from your land.

Removing all trees and saplings (includingother species) over 1-inch DBH should regen-erate a dense stand of aspen on most sites.This allows suckers to develop withoutoverhead shading to hinder their growth.Remember, you can always make exceptionsfor a favorite white pine or oak (see thesection on reserve trees).

Specify the 1-inch DBH limit in the loggingcontract, or make arrangements for treatmentafter the sale. Otherwise most operators will

not take the time to cut submerchantabletrees, such as small red maples or

conifers, leaving you the back-breaking job of removing these

aspen competitors. Don’tworry about the slash leftbehind after cutting aspenor conifer stands. Aspenand conifer slash breaksdown within a few years

and will not hampergrouse movement as otherhardwood slash does. Ifyou have a lot of smallhardwoods left lying onthe site, you can burn

them or invite your friendsto cut them up for firewood.

18 CHAPTER 4

FIGURE 10. FEATURES OF TREMBLING AND BIGTOOTH ASPEN.

BIGTOOTH ASPEN

CATKIN

GROWTH FORM (SIMILAR IN BOTH SPECIES)

TREMBLING ASPEN

On poor or wet sites, common in the CentralSand counties, you may have trouble obtain-ing good regeneration. Preparing the site afterclearcutting will improve aspen and shrubdensities. Scarifying the site (disturbing thesoil) through full-tree logging or logging whenthe ground is not frozen will improve sucker-ing. Both methods disturb the surface, theformer from the rake-like action of dragging afull tree out of the woods; the latter from thelogging equipment that chews up the unfrozenground.

Burn the logging slash where it lies, ratherthan in piles. This allows the sun to warm thesoil and will also stimulate suckering. Seekprofessional help before attempting to burnslash since the potential for danger exists inany venture involving burning. To encouragethe best regeneration, harvest timber onlyfrom August to April. During this time, foodreserves needed to stimulate sprouting arestored in the roots, protected from loss due tologging.

Now you know how to regenerate aspen.Next, you must provide the three age-classesof aspen needed by grouse within 6 to 10acres—the approximate size of a drummingmale’s territory. Remember the Law ofInterspersion! The more copies you cancreate of this basic unit—a drumming territoryproviding most of the year-round needs ofruffed grouse—the greater your potentialgrouse population. The easiest way to do thisis to cut your aspen in small blocks on arotation basis, producing a mix of age classesthroughout your property.

Follow these four steps when setting up anaspen rotation:

1. Determine the rotation age.Foresters recommend a rotation age of 40years on poor sites (site index less than50), 50 years on medium sites (site index50–60), and 55 to 60 years on the best sites(site index over 60). Your forester can deter-mine the rotation age for your aspen; thisperiod then becomes the time frame in whichyou should plan your grouse habitat rotations.


FIGURE 11. An aspen clearcut quickly returnsto its original mature forested state.

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20 CHAPTER 4

2. Select a cutting pattern. You can usevarious cutting patterns to attain a mixture ofage classes. Researchers have experimentedwith a number of checkerboard designs, usingclearcuts of various sizes (fig. 12). Thispattern encourages a good age-class distribu-tion, and its efficient use of space willmaximize the potential number of drummingterritories in a given area. Unfortunately, manypeople find these regular patterns unattractiveand artificial. An alternative is to modify yourcuts to meander through the landscape andconform to the topography (fig. 13). Such apattern can simply follow natural stands, or belaid out to mimic their appearance. Thispattern can reduce erosion in hilly country.

3.

FIGURE 12. ASPEN CUTTING PRESCRIPTIONS FOR TWO DIFFERENT 20-ACRE TRACTS.(All cuts are clearcuts. See Gullion, 1972, for more details.)

FIGURE 13. STRIP CLEARCUTS.Strip clearcuts with scalloped edges are an alternativeto square cuts with straight edges. Leaving vegetatedbuffer strips along stream banks protects the banks andthe stream. When possible, strip cuts should be arrangedin a north-south direction to maximize sunlight reachingthe ground.

20-YEAR-OLDASPEN

45-YEAR-OLDASPEN

FIRST YEAR.NW CORNER CUT.

FIRST YEAR.ASPEN CLOSE TOMATURITY.HALF CUT.

5 YEARS LATER.2ND HALF CUT.

IN 5 MORE YEARSASPEN IS FULLYREGENERATED.SW CORNER IS CUT.

IN 5 MORE YEARS, SOMEEXCELLENT COVER FORGROUSE.HALF OF THE 10-YEARASPEN CAN BE CUT, WHILETHE 1-YEAR ASPEN CAN BEALLOWED TO MATURE TOPROVIDE BUDS.

5 YEARS LATER.NE CORNER CUT.

5 YEARS LATER.SE CORNER CUT.

AND 5 YEARS LATER.SW CAN BE CUT IN 10YEARS.

25-YEAR-OLDASPEN

30-YEAR-OLDASPEN

5-YEARASPEN

5-YEARASPEN

5-YEARASPEN

5-YEARASPEN

15-YEARASPEN50-YEAR

ASPEN

10-YEARASPEN

10-YEARASPEN 10-YEAR

ASPEN

5-YEARASPEN

15-YEARASPEN

10-YEARASPEN

5-YEARASPEN

35-YEARASPEN

CLEARCUT

WOODEDHILL

CLEARCUT

BUFFER STRIP

BUFFER STRIP

Determine your block size. How bigshould you make your clearcuts? If you areusing natural stands, you already know,although you can lump or split them. Smallcuts are best: 5 to 10 acres is ideal, butloggers may demand 10 to 20 acres. Youmight convince a logger to cut in 5-acreblocks, however, if your total sale acreage issufficient. For example, a commercial loggermay agree to log your property if he or shecan take 20 acres of aspen. Instead ofclearing a contiguous 20-acre patch, two 10-acre blocks or four 5-acre blocks could becut. Loggers may agree to this arrangement ifthey don’t have to move their equipment toofar between work areas. Providing goodaccess will make a logger more willing to cutsmall blocks. Managing Northern Forests forWildlife (Gullion, 1984) has special patternsfor use on large properties where clearcutsover 20 acres may be necessary.

4. Calculate your cutting cycle—theinterval between one cut and thenext. Divide your average block size into thetotal aspen acreage; then divide this into theaverage rotation age of your aspen. This willtell you how often you must cut to complete arotation in the available time frame. Forexample, 5-acre blocks divided into 40 acresof aspen with a rotation age of 50 equals 8clearcuts to make in 50 years, or a cuttingcycle of 6.25 years. On larger properties,multiple blocks will have to be cut during eachcycle to complete a rotation on time. Thecutting cycle is flexible. You can adjust it totake advantage of good pulp markets or toaccommodate a logger’s schedule.

Laying out an aspen rotation is not as compli-cated as it seems. Foresters do it routinely, andthey can set up a rotation that will reflect yourspecific goals and timber situation. Forexample, cutting prescriptions often requireadjustments, depending on the age and condi-tion of the stand. If your stand is 10 to 15 yearsolder than rotation age, deterioration (blow-downs, disease or dying trees) may force youto take immediate action. You may have tomake larger cuts in a shorter period of timethan you’d like. If most of the aspen is very old,a complete clearcut may be necessary, andage-class development will have to wait.

Oak-hickory management

Oak-hickory woodlots are a valuable asset towildlife in Wisconsin. In addition to producingacorns and nuts (mast), they provide excel-lent sites for wildlife dens, nests and roosts.The value of this forest type for grouse isdirectly related to the quantity and quality ofunderstory vegetation. Oak and hickory areattractive to drummers, nesting hens andbroods when mixed with low conifers, tallshrubs, and herbaceous food or cover plants.

Oaks are widely adaptable, but grow best onmoist, well-drained uplands. Seven speciesgrow in Wisconsin, usually lumped into twogroups: the white oaks (white, swamp white,chinquapin and bur oak) and the red oaks(northern red, black and northern pin oak,also known as jack, scrub, or Hill’s oak). Oaks,especially young black and northern pin oaktrees, retain many of their leaves throughoutthe winter, which provides insulation forgrouse and other wildlife.

Oaks begin to bear fruit at about 25 years ofage; older trees with a large DBH and crownare the best producers. The white oak group’sacorns mature in one season, while those ofthe red oak group require two years. Acornsfrom the white oak group are sweeter andwildlife seems to prefer them, though produc-tion from the red oak group is more consistent.Acorn production varies considerably fromyear to year and from tree to tree within thesame stand, with some of the fluctuationcaused by late spring frost damage. Completeacorn failures sometimes occur.

Hickories (primarily shagbark) usually grow inmixed stands with oak, and because theirneeds are similar, are often included in oakmanagement plans. They are not as commonas oak and generally mature more slowly.Hickory provides one of our best fuel woods.It has some timber value, and its nuts arevaluable to wildlife. Management as mast andtimber trees may favor species other thanruffed grouse, but hickories are an asset toany woodlot.

As with aspen, regeneration is a primary con-sideration in managing oak-hickory forests.Clearcutting or shelterwood cuts encour-age oak regeneration. To succeed, these cutsrequire sufficient advance reproduction ofoak (oak sprouts or seedlings at least 4.5 feettall) growing in the understory to successfullycompete with other tree species once the oakoverstory is cut. Since many of our oak stands


originated when repeated wildfires gave theman advantage, regeneration may be difficultwith modern fire control.

The oak site quality of your stands will stronglyinfluence your success. If the soil is dark andrich, oak site quality is likely to be high (siteindex 75+). Without fire, oaks are ecologicallyunstable in this environment, and any attemptto regenerate them will likely fail. The slow-growing oaks get choked out by all the othervegetation that thrives on these rich sites. Nomatter what you do, these stands tend toconvert to northern hardwoods (maples, elms,basswood and beech), which can surviveunder shade but are less desirable as ruffedgrouse habitat. Any oak cutting will just speedup the process. This leaves you two choices:1) harvest your oak at maturity and thenswitch to northern hardwoods management; or2) dedicate your land to wildlife and allow theoak to live out its natural life.

On average sites (site index 55-74) oak main-tenance is more feasible, and oak can usuallybe maintained using a series of shelterwoodcuts, gradually removing the oak canopy toencourage advance reproduction. But com-peting hardwoods can still be a problem. Inthis case, you may have to use an earlierrotation period (50 to 60 years instead of theusual 60 to 80 years) for oaks. Cutting oaks ata younger age should reduce conversion tonorthern hardwoods. Short oak rotationsreduce the time available for northern hard-woods to establish themselves in the under-story, and younger oaks are better stumpsprouters. Thin these short rotation stands toincrease growth rates and encourageadvance oak reproduction.

On poor, sandy sites (index 40-54), oak is rel-atively stable and may be managed byclearcut or shelterwood treatments to stimulateadequate reproduction. Unfortunately, oaktrees may be unprofitable on poor sites. Theygrow slowly, and less valuable black ornorthern pin oak predominate. Consider con-verting the site to pine if income is important.If it is not, these oak stands make excellentwildlife habitat. Clumps of red or jack pine forincome, surrounded by buffers of oak forwildlife and fuel wood, might be a good com-promise.

Regardless of site quality, there are two basicprinciples for regenerating oak: 1) the oakadvance reproduction must be well estab-lished to compete successfully with otherwoody vegetation in the new stands; and 2)the number of oaks in the new stand will beproportional to the oak advance reproductionbefore the cut. In other words, if there wasgood oak reproduction in the stand before thecut, there will be good regeneration after thecut.

You’ll need at least 400 stems per acre of well-distributed oak advance reproduction toregenerate the oak type, and you may needmore on better sites where competition fromother species is severe. Plentiful stump sprout-ing from cut trees can make up for inadequateseedlings. The red oak group is superior to thewhite oak group in this respect, and as men-tioned previously, young trees usually sproutbetter than old ones. Your forester will takestump sprouting potential into account whenassessing advance reproduction.

Inadequate advance reproduction may requireexpensive oak planting or weeding out com-petitors to maintain oak. On large acreages,prescribed burning will favor oak by reducingcompetition and exposing the mineral soilpreferable for oak germination. Burning is diffi-cult and potentially dangerous, however, sobe sure to get professional help.

As you can see, maintaining the oak-hickorytype is a tricky business—even for foresters.Still, oaks and hickories are valuable timbertrees and most foresters will support adecision to manage for this type if at allfeasible. If you are committed to maintainingoak-hickory on your property, be sure toobtain professional advice.

Try to maintain a mixture of oak species andother mast producers in your woodlot. Forexample, if you make a shelterwood cut in awoodlot that has 6 hickories, 15 red oaks, 30white oaks, and 90 black oaks, you shouldleave the hickories and red oaks, take a few ofthe white oaks, and harvest mainly black oaks.Because acorns from the white oak groupmature in one year, if a late spring frostcauses a poor white oak acorn crop, theprevious season’s red and black oak acorns,which are just maturing, can supply mast. Thefollowing year, the white oaks will likelyproduce again, and can help make up for thered oak acorn crop showing the effects of the

22 CHAPTER 4

frost. Likewise, hickories or other mast pro-ducers can help compensate for a total oakmast failure due to insects or other causes.

Whenever a mast species is eliminated from awoodlot, whether by cutting without regard forregeneration, or by disease (for example, thenationwide chestnut blight), the wildlife foodsupply becomes less dependable. By main-taining a variety of species, you imitatenature’s way of supporting life by providingdiverse food resources.

Oak wilt can be a concern in southwesternand central Wisconsin, but this disease pro-gresses slowly and its effects are usuallylocalized. Red oak is more susceptible to wiltthan white oak. Preventing wounds to thebark, and logging or pruning only fromOctober through March reduces the chance ofinsects spreading the oak wilt fungus to yourwoodlot. Once trees in your woodlot havebeen infected, you must cut the root connec-tions between infected and healthy trees toprevent the disease from spreading. Be sureto disinfect your tools with alcohol afterworking on an infected tree.


Wisconsin oak management guidelines*

This short outline will help you make management decisions about your oak. Starting at level 1, select one of the choices (1a or 1b) and you will be led to a management recommendation or directed to another choice. Continue choosing the statementthat best describes your oak stand until you reach a management recommendation. A forester can help you determine whichalternative best describes your oak stand.

IF... THEN...

1a. Oak site index is 75 or greater ☛ Go to 2a or 2b.

1b. Oak site index is less than 75 ☛ Go to 4a or 4b.

2a. Stand is mature Harvest oak and convert to northern hardwoods, or dedicate to old-growth management.

2b. Stand is immature ☛ Go to 3a, 3b or 3c.

3a. Stand basal area is 2/3 or more in oak Manage for oak or mixed oak and northern hardwoods.

3b. Stand basal area is between 1/3 and 2/3 in oak Manage for best quality, fastest growing trees, regardless of species.

3c. Stand basal area is 1/3 or less in oak Manage for northern hardwoods.

4a. Oak site index is 65-74 Manage for oak or mixed oak and northern hardwoods.☛ Go to 6a or 6b.

4b. Oak site index is less than 65 ☛ Go to 5a or 5b.

5a. Oak site index is 55-64 Manage for oak or mixed oak and pine. ☛ Go to 6a or 6b.

5b. Oak site index is less than 55 Manage for pulp or convert to pine or leave as non-economic stand for recreation, fuelwood and wildlife.

6a. Stand is mature ☛ Go to 7a or 7b.

6b. Stand is immature Thin or wait.

7a. Oak advanced reproduction is adequate (at least Harvest.400 stems/acre, 4.5 ft. or taller)

7b. Oak advanced reproduction is inadequate Establish oak advanced reproduction.

* Adapted from Sander, I.L. 1977. Manager’s Handbook for Oaks in the North Central States. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC - 37, North Cent.For. Exp. Sta., St. Paul. 35 pp.

Conifer management

The quickest way to start an argument amongruffed grouse biologists is to whisper the wordconifers. There seems to be universal dis-agreement about how much grouse useconifers, whether they need conifers, and theeffect the trees have on grouse mortality.

With this as an introduction, here is a sugges-tion: Use them or not as you and your consult-ant see fit. Conifers (pines, balsam fir, spruceand cedar) will diversify your woodlot andprovide cover for ruffed grouse, deer, rabbitsand songbirds throughout the year. Densepatches or clumps of conifers insulate grouseduring the cold months. They are pleasing tothe eye, especially in winter when they offersome relief from a uniform white and graylandscape.

The quality of coniferous cover varies byspecies and age. Tall pines and other conifersthat have high crowns and lack lowerbranches provide perfect perches for grousepredators such as hawks and owls. This isespecially true during the winter, when a baredeciduous tree would expose a predator’s sil-houette. In contrast, young spruce or cedarwith branches close to the ground providegrouse good protection from predators.

White pine or balsam fir, common understorytrees in oak and aspen stands, may contributeto good grouse habitat depending on densityand distribution. Wildlife benefits most whenconifers grow in small clumps or strips, ratherthan distributed throughout a stand. Researchindicates that small conifer patches (less thanone acre) distributed throughout otherwise thincover will improve grouse habitat, thoughconifers should not exceed 30% of the stand.Clearcutting can reduce excessive conifers inthe understory. This encourages aspen,shrubs and other beneficial plants.

Many foresters favor red pine plantations forwood fiber production on poor to mediumsites, and there is generally a strong marketfor red pine products. Most conifer plantationsare not very productive for wildlife, however,although young stands provide cover forgrouse, rabbits and deer. In stands older than20 years, shading and pruning remove lowerbranches and the understory usually becomestoo open for wildlife.

You can prevent this, however, by increasingtree spacing, reducing basal area, andcreating a more open canopy. If you plant at 7X 9-foot spacing (or greater) instead of theusual 7 X 7-foot spacing, and thin as soon aseconomical to a basal area of 60 to

24 CHAPTER 4

Conifer plantations provide poor wildlife habitat.

Rob

ert

Ru

ff

80 square feet per acre, you will increasetimber growth. This strategy allows enoughsunlight to reach the ground to support smalltrees, shrubs and herbs for wildlife habitat.Additionally, we recommend that you keepconifer plantations to 10 acres or less, spaced600 to 900 feet apart for optimum wildlife use.

Still, from a wildlife standpoint, convertinglarge areas to pine plantations should beavoided, especially if the pines replace highquality aspen or oak habitat. If you are con-templating a new conifer plantation, be sure toconsider the costs for planting, herbicides,pruning and thinning—relative to naturalstands of aspen, oak or jack pine—whenmaking your decision.

Northern hardwoodsmanagement

Northern hardwoods include a variety ofspecies—sugar maple, red maple, basswood,yellow birch, beech and elms. These trees areoften found together in a single stand; hence,they are commonly known as mixed hard-woods. Major northern hardwood species aregenerally long-lived and moderately to veryshade tolerant. Sprouting ability varies, butsugar maple, red maple, beech, basswood,ash and elms are prolific sprouters. The earlygrowth and structure of maple and birchstands resemble those of aspen. Red maplecan be clearcut to resprout like aspen andprovide cover for grouse and winter browsefor deer.

Large tracts (40 acres or more) of northernhardwoods with sparse understory growthgenerally provide poor ruffed grouse habitat.Foresters often recommend long rotation saw-timber growth, which reduces or eliminateshabitat for ruffed grouse and other wildlife thatprefer early successional stages. But if leftuncut, or managed through selectionmethods, this habitat can attract many matureforest species. Be sure to see Chapter 5 onmanaging mature forests.

Timber Stand Improvement (TSI) tech-niques can produce some wildlife benefits.TSI removes some lower quality trees to allowbetter growth and overall stand quality, similarto weeding and thinning a vegetable garden.The small openings in the canopy created byremoving selected trees permit sunlight to

reach the forest floor, allowing shrubs andground cover to prosper for several years.Mast-producers often yield better crops due toless competition for space, sunlight, waterand nutrients.

Concentrate cutting for TSI on the mostcommon tree species or where overall growthis suppressed. Be sure to leave den trees,shrubs, vines and other plants valuable towildlife. If den or wolf trees are competing withvaluable timber trees, they can be girdled andleft standing to provide homes and inverte-brate food for wildlife. Pole-timber standsshould usually be thinned every 10 to 15years; a forester can make recommendationsfor your woods. Cost-sharing for TSI is avail-able in most counties (see Chapter 6).

Alder management

Alder can provide feeding areas for woodcockand excellent drumming, brood and year-round habitat for ruffed grouse. Like aspen,alder benefits from occasional cutting toregenerate the stand. If your alder is begin-ning to thin out, with many downed or horizon-tal stems present, deterioration is setting inand you should consider a cutting program. ALandowner’s Guide to WoodcockManagement in the Northeast (Sepik et. al.,1981) provides helpful information about aldermanagement.

The vast majority of alder found in Wisconsingrows in almost pure stands on relatively wetsites, often with a dense ground layer of grassor sedge. Such stands often maintain them-selves because the alder has a competitiveadvantage over most other shrubs and trees.Alder stands seldom warrant any special man-agement consideration.

Alder also grows in shrub form with tremblingaspen. This occurs especially where the soil ismoist throughout much of the year. Where thishappens, the alder understory should beregenerated at the same time the aspen over-story is harvested. This may be accomplishedby severing the stems from the stump, eitherby simply running them over with loggingequipment when the ground is frozen, or bycutting them with a chainsaw. Alder sproutswill grow from the stump and add to theoverall stem density of the regenerating stand.


Another opportunity to maintain this importanthabitat component exists where pure standsof alder have invaded and established them-selves on abandoned agricultural fields.These sites often support earthworm densitiessubstantially greater than surrounding landswith no agricultural history, making them veryattractive to woodcock. Such stands can bemaintained on a 15-20 year rotation by cuttingor mowing 1-2 acre patches or strips everyfew years. This pattern of staggered regenera-tion treatments will ensure that numerous ageclasses are present at any given point in time,thereby providing a continuous supply ofquality habitat for ruffed grouse and especiallywoodcock.

The highest ruffed grouse drumming counts inWisconsin have been recorded in mixedaspen-alder stands. Where aspen occurs withalder, make sure you clearcut all alder with theaspen. Otherwise, the alder will shade out theaspen and you will lose this excellent mixedtype for grouse and woodcock.

Shrubs

Shrubs are very important to wildlife through-out much of Wisconsin. The density andquality of understory vegetation largely deter-mines the potential of non-aspen forest typesas ruffed grouse habitat. If you can raise thedensity of tall shrubs above 2,000 stems peracre, you should be able to attract grouse—even under northern hardwoods or conifers.

If you have cattle in your woodlot, the first stepis to get them out, or at least limit grazing to25 animal days per acre annually.Overgrazing reduces shrub density, erodesand compacts soil, and destroys the advancereproduction needed to maintain healthyforests.

Shrubs thrive following any disturbance, par-ticularly after clearcutting, shearing (non-commercial tree removal), or burning.Dogwood, alder, hazel, winterberry, prickly-ash, raspberry and blackberry respond withvigorous growth following treatment (fig. 14).TSI or selectively harvesting marketable treesto increase sunlight penetration will improveshrub growth in mature stands.

26 CHAPTER 4

FIGURE 14. Some common Wisconsin shrubs providing food and cover for ruffed grouse.

COMMONWINTERBERRY

SPECKLED ALDER

PRICKLY-ASH

RED-OSIER DOGWOOD

HAZELNUT

Food and cover plantings

Upland habitat can often be enhanced byplanting berry-producing shrubs and trees.The additional food and winter cover willincrease the carrying capacity of your land.Native shrubs and trees such as hawthorns,dogwoods, viburnums, mountain ash orchokecherry are good choices for Wisconsin.For wildlife plant sources, consult Chapter 6and Appendix C. Gullion’s Shrub and TreePlanting for Ruffed Grouse gives valuableplanting information.

Shrub planting, because it is expensive andlabor-intensive, should generally be limited toareas where food and cover are inadequate.In most of northern Wisconsin, it is moreimportant to preserve herbaceous openingsthan to plant additional woody vegetation.

Leaving food patches of agricultural grains isnot necessary for grouse, but will benefitsongbirds, deer, squirrels, quail and turkeys—and draw them to an area where you caneasily observe them. Plant food patches neargood wildlife escape or resting cover, such asa dense woods or cattail marsh. Corn is thebest all-around grain for winter food plots,because it will dependably hold its large,nutritious seed until used. Mixed grain andforage sorghum plots are also good choices.Seed mixes are available from several wildlifenurseries in Wisconsin (see Appendix C).

Reserve trees

While marking an area to be cut, note specifictrees that have high value for wildlife or otherreasons. Reserve these trees until economicor other considerations strongly outweigh theirwildlife value. Although this may require smallconcessions in ruffed grouse managementplans, you will improve the overall health andstability of the forest ecosystem.

In southern Wisconsin, a big black cherry is agood example of a reserve tree; prime speci-mens are rare and their fruit is eaten by manybirds and mammals. In the north, extraordinar-ily tall white pines (known as super-canopy orsentinel trees) are often reserved as nest orperch trees for eagles and ospreys. Any denor mast-producing tree is a good candidate toreserve, as is just about any uncommonspecies. You can re-evaluate reserve trees

periodically, finally cuttingthem when theirvaluable wood willbe lost to injury ordecay, orwhen theybegin toseriouslydamageforestregenera-tion ortimber pro-duction.

The wolftree is oneof the bestreservetrees. It is alarge, maturetree with aspreading crownand far-reaching branches.A wolf tree may be older thanyour woodlot, having grown up inthe open and later been surrounded byyounger forest. Wolf trees may also develop inunderstocked woods.

Wolf trees were named by foresters for theirpredatory nature; they tend to crowd out sur-rounding vegetation and stunt the growth ofnearby trees. Though reserving wolf trees maymean sacrificing some timber production,these trees are among the best mast and denproducers.

While wolf trees are valuable to wildlife, youcan have too much of a good thing. Years ofpast high-grading (commonly known as“tieing-off,” because red oak was sought forrailroad ties), in which only the best timbertrees were cut, has left many southernWisconsin woodlots loaded with large wolftrees. Because they have so many limbs, wolftrees often have little timber value except asfirewood.

Landowners commonly see these large treesas money in the bank, with the mistaken ideathat they are sitting on a valuable timberresource. Foresters, however, see poor-qualitytrees and an understocked woods. Withoutmanagement to correct past abuses, it maybe generations before natural processes


restore the timber-producing capabilities ofsuch land. Taking a forester’s advice for TSI inthese woodlots will open up the canopy toimprove sawtimber stocking and growth rates,and also increase shrub densities for grouseand deer for many years. By leaving one ortwo wolf trees per acre, you can strike a nicebalance between wildlife and timber produc-tion. Such use of reserve trees fits in well withAldo Leopold’s ideas on land stewardship—resorting neither to maximum economic pro-duction nor total preservation, but givingprimary consideration to the overall values ofyour land.

Preservation

Wisconsin possesses some unique habitatsthat should be preserved because they arefragile or essential to certain species. Forexample, in the southwestern part of the state,“sandblows” provide excellent reptile habitat.Other sites that warrant preservation includethe patches of wild lupine inhabited by endan-gered Karner blue butterflies, or the densestands of mature forest in southern Wisconsin,where rare Worm-eating Warblers dwell.

There is a place for preservation, even in landactively managed for timber production. Alarge white pine, used for roosting by wildturkeys or valued simply for its beauty, is agood example. Fruit-producing vines andshrubs may also be protected. Although mostwill vigorously resprout if their root systems arenot torn out during logging, it may take quiteawhile before they grow large enough todependably supply food. Preserving thickgrapevines or large-crowned hawthorns willtide wildlife over until your woodlot respondsto the increased sunlight with a flush of newshrub growth.

Snag trees that provide nesting cavities andinsect food are also an asset to your woodlot.In Wisconsin at least 65 bird and mammalspecies use snags for nest or den sites. Someexcavate their own cavities in the snags;others use natural cavities or take over theabandoned homes of others. Try to leave atleast five snags of various sizes per acre. Thenice thing about snags is that they need notbe left at the expense of timber production.Unsaleable trees growing too close tovaluable timber can simply be girdled and leftstanding, providing valuable snags whilereducing competition for nutrients andsunlight.

Diversifying your woodlot

You can improve overall wildlife habitat byencouraging a mix of tree species in woodlotsthat are mostly one type. A few good mast-producing oak trees, or small clumps of oaks,scattered throughout a large aspen clearcutwill provide food for squirrels, deer and otherwildlife. Another option, which minimizesshading, is to leave a single small stand ofoaks (one acre or less) within each clearcut.Likewise, small aspen clones within or at theedge of a large oak stand may be expandedto improve winter food supplies for grouse.Jack pine is another good species to mix in,particularly on poor soils in central Wisconsin.The mixed aspen-oak-jack pine standscommon to this area may be the most produc-tive all-around forest type for wildlife inWisconsin.

When planning any cutting, even clearcuts ina checkerboard pattern, do not lay out per-fectly straight borders. Design meanderingedges between the cut area and adjacentwoods, and leave some trees and shrubsstanding along the cut-line (see fig. 13).Leaving uncut buffer strips, known as ripariancorridors, along stream banks will providetravel lanes and mature lowland timber habitatfor wildlife. These corridors also preventerosion, reduce stream siltation, and keepwater from becoming too warm. (See TheBenefits of Well-managed Stream Corridors byCraven et. al., 1987.) This is often importantfor trout streams, but be sure to check withyour local DNR fish manager.

On many cold northern streams, it is better tokeep the actual stream bank clear of woodyvegetation since shade blocks the growth ofaquatic algae essential to stream productivity.Brushing back overhanging vegetation, orcreating meadow openings will usually suffice.Leave the remaining woody vegetation toprovide the benefits mentioned earlier.

Another consideration when dealing withforest management adjacent to streams is thepresence of beavers. Beavers can be benefi-cial but they may also cause significantdamage to roadways, culverts, trout streamsand standing timber. There are many factorsto consider when managing beaver. For anexcellent summary of landowner rights,responsibilities and options in beaver man-agement refer to the DNR’s booklet BeaverDamage Control or contact the USDA WildlifeServices office in Rhinelander or Waupun.

28 CHAPTER 4


Do-nothing cover types

Sometimes the best management is no man-agement. Many areas provide some cover forruffed grouse but are not worth the time, effortor expense required to improve them.Management input would be far greater thanthe benefits. Good examples are trees orshrubs growing under very wet, marsh-likeconditions. Dense grass or sedge associatedwith alder, willow, bog birch and other wet-area shrubs often offer valuable winter cover,but efforts to improve these areas are usuallyunnecessary and expensive.

Aspen usually grows on fairly well-drainedsites, but so-called “offsite aspen” grows onpoorly drained, wet sites, often associatedwith sedges or grasses. These stands arebest left as winter food trees. Offsite aspenproduces low volumes of merchantable woodand regeneration is sparse and slow-growing.If the stand originated during adrought, aspen may even fail toresprout following harvest. Unlikeupland aspen, some self-prop-agation occurs in these stands;as older aspen die, youngsaplings replace them.

Odd areas

Your property may be provid-ing valuable food and cover towildlife in ways you neverrealized. Don’t overlook suchareas as lowland hardwoodsalong creek bottoms, sumacgroves, wild grape and othershrub, vine and tree associa-tions, hedgerows, ravines andany odd corners not under culti-vation. Encourage the growth andwildness of these areas for wildlifehabitats.

Openings

Openings in shrub thickets are good additionsto grouse habitat, and woodcock use them asfeeding and singing grounds. Northern Forestopenings constructed by the DNR are heavilyused by deer. Such openings increase smallmammal and songbird diversity and producegood berry crops. Vegetation responds poorlyto openings made on very dry, sandy soils,however, and we don’t recommend them. Ifyou are concerned about large deer popula-tions or forest fragmentation, rethink the needfor new openings.

Logging trails and trail junctions, or loglandings (where logs are piled and loaded),may be maintained as excellent smallopenings. Seeded to white clover and timothy,or left to develop into natural mixes of wildstrawberry and other native herbs andgrasses, these openings will provide valuableearly spring and late fall food for deer andgrouse. Annual mowing or light cattle grazingwill help keep larger clearings open. Usethese methods after August 1 to avoid disturb-ing ground-nesting birds.

You can also use herbicides, but check withthe local DNR wildlife manager or foresterbefore you do. Herbicides can damage

nearby trees by moving through rootsystems. If you or your friends and family

enjoy a little physical labor on a coolweekend, cutting invading vegetationwith a chainsaw or brushhook is a much

better method. On small acreages,annual brushing should not become tooburdensome. Use the opposite of thestrategy recommended for aspen regen-

eration—brush during the growingseason when nutrients are aboveground to reduce resprouting.

LUPINE

Brush piles

Properly constructed brush pilescan provide cover for rabbits,

woodchucks, song andgame birds for many

years. Large pileslast 10 to 15 years

and provide moreprotection than small

ones, but just about anybrush pile will be used by

some form of wildlife. Ruffed grouse often usebrush piles for cover during the coldest winterdays. Once again there are tradeoffs; brushpiles may also provide homes for grousepredators such as skunks and foxes.

To construct a long-lasting brush pile, placethe heaviest logs on the bottom and lighterbranches on top. Start with at least a 6-foot-square base of hardwood logs piled 4 feethigh in log-cabin fashion. Fit branches into thebase at different angles to lock them together,and continue to place more branches aroundand over the base. An occasional heavierbranch or log will help hold the brushybranches in place. You can make a livingbrush pile by cutting part-way through a wide-crowned tree and pushing it over, preferablyinto a dense stand of prickly ash or black-berry. A truckload of discarded Christmastrees also makes an excellent brush pile—pro-viding a home for wildlife instead of filling up alandfill.

Access

Evaluate your access needs with your consult-ant. You can then build suitable logging roadsor skid trails to improve logging efficiency.Take advantage of current access, dry ridgetops, or uplands and be sure to consider otheruses such as skiing, hiking, hunting, bird-watching or berry picking.

Except for large operations, most landownersare happy with skid trails for logging access.They require less land and expense, are lessnoticeable (especially to trespassers), and areacceptable for most logging if used only inwinter. While most owners prefer to maintainaccess after logging, you can also plant theroads or allow shrubs to grow on them. Thiswill restore your woodlot’s natural appearancewithout seriously impeding future loggingaccess.

When planning access, don’t forget an occa-sional observation site, such as a Leopoldbench (fig. 15), blind, or even a small tower orplatform overlooking a valley or wetland. Acorduroy trail (boardwalk) through a marshprovides access and doubles as a close-upobservation platform, although it may also beused by nest predators such as raccoon andmink. Consequently, hip boots or an old pairof sneakers might be a better way to explore amarsh, but anyone who has tried to watchbirds while nose-deep in cattails appreciatesthe advantages of a boardwalk!

30 CHAPTER 4

FIGURE 15. ALDO LEOPOLD BENCH.

Materials for one bench:*1 2” x 6” x 33”*1 2” x 10” x 30”*1 2” x 8” x 10’ (use about 108”)6 3⁄8” x 3-1⁄2” carriage bolts with washer and nut12 3⁄8” x 3-1⁄2” # 12 or 14 flathead wood screwsUrethane varnish*Douglas fir preferred

33” Outside

2819⁄32”

2 x 82 x 10 x 30” =17˚

3 3⁄8” x 31⁄2” carriage bolts

3 31⁄2” flathead wood screwseach end (#12 or #14)

3- 31⁄2” flathead woodscrews (#12 or #14)

2 x 6

1519⁄32” 18”

33”

33” 63⁄4”

21 ⁄8”

60˚ 60˚ 60˚ Ron MIlesUW-Madison

side

31

CHAPTER 5

Managing mature forests and their wildlife

Many wildlife species share woodlandswith ruffed grouse. As we have seen,

woodcock, deer, rabbits and many songbirdsdirectly benefit from ruffed grouse habitatmanagement. By making minor changes inyour management plan, you may be able toaccommodate other forms of wildlife as well.This section describes how to incorporate pro-cedures for other species into your manage-ment plan. Mature-forest wildlife habitat sufferswhen logging or natural disturbances disruptforest succession. For more information, besure to consult publications such asWoodlands and Wildlife (Hassinger et al.,1979), Enhancement of Wildlife Habitat onPrivate Lands (Decker and Kelley, 1982) orEnhancing Wildlife Habitats: A Practical Guidefor Forest Landowners (Hobson et al., 1993).

What is a mature forest?

In the section on succession, we discussedhow forests proceed from young to maturespecies (aspen vs. maple), types of forests(aspen-birch vs. northern hardwoods), andforest communities (pioneer vs. climax). To aforest ecologist, terms such as young or maturedescribe a successional stage. Ecologistsconcern themselves with descriptive termssuch as “new-growth,” “second-growth,” or“old-growth,” which refer to a forest’s origin andform. These terms often carry specific implica-tions for species diversity, community stability,or some other characteristic.

In contrast, foresters use the terms“immature,” “mature” and “overmature” todescribe individual trees or homogenousstands as they relate to some commercialstandard (for example, rotation age anddiameter class). These terms describe a treeor stand’s current condition relative to itsdesired condition for harvest—regardless ofthe state of succession.

For example, a typical pioneer forest, such asaspen managed under a short-term rotation, isharvested when trees or stands are maturefrom a forestry perspective because they havereached the desired age (rotation age) or sizefor their intended use. Conversely, when aclimax northern hardwoods stand is managedfor sawtimber by selection methods, only afew select trees are cut during each cuttingcycle. The majority of the trees in the standwill be left because they are still immature—they do not yet meet the strict criteria forharvest.

As if things were not complicated enough,wildlife biologists or managers often use theseterms literally, referring only to the age or formof a tree in relation to that generally expected

of its species. To them, a young or immatureforest is simply not very old or developed forits type, while large, full-grown trees are theprimary component of a mature forest. Thoughmany foresters groan at such a casual assess-ment of age or development, the emphasishere is not on succession or economic condi-tion, but on describing the general value offorests of differing ages for wildlife; forexample, mature oaks tend to be good mastand den producers. In assessing the value ofa tree to a community, relative to the potentialof its species, wildlife managers incorporatethe connotations of both the ecologist and theforester. It’s easy to see how wildlife manage-ment got its reputation for borrowing termsfrom other disciplines!

When heard in context, the different interpreta-tions of these terms cause few problems. If aprofessional advises you: “Harvest stand 3,northern hardwoods at maturity,” you knowthat he or she is speaking in a technicalforestry sense, and that criteria for assessingmaturity will follow. Problems are more likely toarise when people with different perspectivestry to resolve a controversial issue, such asharvest plans on public forests.

When foresters use the term overmature, theyare describing a tree or stand that is no longerincreasing in economic value at a rate suffi-cient to justify its space and nutrientdemands. They are warning that a valuabletimber resource is beginning to deteriorate. Toa forest songbird enthusiast, however, thesestands are not overmature at all, but old-growth. They bristle at the implicit valuejudgment in the term overmature, failing torealize it represents the technical demands ofthe timber market, and not necessarily theforester’s opinion of songbirds!

Almost every kind of forest is valuable to sometype of wildlife, while only certain forestproducts please the demanding commercialmarket. Consequently, the wildlife manager’sdescription of forest age or development maynot carry the value judgment that the forester’suse does (although when used in associationwith a particular species of wildlife, such asyoung forests being good for grouse, it oftendoes). As a forest landowner, or as a partici-pant in planning for public forests, you mustdecide which type of forest suits your interestsor ethics, or is best for the situation, societyand the environment.

32 CHAPTER 5

Pau

l S

ieve

rt

The value of mature forests

In the remainder of this chapter, we will discussmature forests comprised of large, full-grown,older trees—the wildlife manager’s definition.Mature forests are among the most structurallydiverse ecological communities in the world.They provide a three-dimensional habitat (forestfloor, understory layers and canopy), ratherthan the relatively flat and uniform landscape ofearly successional stages. Therefore, theseforests are home to more bird species than afield or young forest of comparable size. Themore layers you develop in a mature woods,the more places wildlife can live and forage forfood. Don’t overlook the value of snags andfallen logs when developing the layered struc-ture of your woods.

The increased plant and animal diversity ofmature forests has a price, however.Abundance of any particular species oftendeclines as diversity increases, resulting in alower potential yield to humans, whether hunter,berry-picker, or logger. To illustrate some man-agement techniques beneficial to mature forestcommunities, we have selected several popularwildlife species found in this habitat.

Turkeys

By the late 1800s, wild turkeys (once native toWisconsin), had disappeared from the statedue to habitat loss, overhunting and possiblydisease. Thanks to the 1976 reintroduction ofwild Missouri birds obtained in trade forWisconsin grouse, we once again have wildturkeys in the forests and woodlots of southernand central Wisconsin. Recently these birdshave even expanded into some northernforests. The return of healthy wild turkey popu-lations ranks as one of the DNR’s outstandingrecent achievements.

Turkeys love to roam, and usually requirehundreds of habitat acres. Mast, seeds, insects,agricultural grains and forage such as clover,grasses and sedges are major foods.Blackberries, dewberries and strawberries arealso important. Turkeys drink standing water; onesource per square mile is a minimum. A goodturkey range includes seeps and spring-fedstreams that remain open throughout the winter,providing water as well as plant and insect foodduring periods of deep snow. Hens nest and rearbroods in openings and brushy old fields. Turkeypoults spend much of their time in agriculturalfields and grassy or weedy forest openings assmall as 1⁄4 acre, eating the high-protein insectsand seeds they need for rapid growth.

Mixed hardwood stands managed for maturetimber provide good turkey habitat. Flocksprefer woodlots of at least 100 acres, althoughwooded corridors connecting smaller woodlotsmay make them acceptable to turkeys. If youhave a smaller woodlot, be content to harborturkeys for part of their annual cycle—you willnot hold a flock year-round on 40 acres. If youare interested in hunting, providing nestinghabitat to attract hens, and consequentlygobblers, may improve your chances.

Turkeys prefer to roost in scattered tall trees,including conifers, that rise above the sur-rounding canopy. A variety of oaks, hickories,cherries, beech and ash supply a steadysource of mast. Selective cuts made in thesestands to remove overstory will encouragedogwoods, viburnums, hawthorn, grapes andother food-producing shrubs. Planting theseand other species, such as apples, may alsohelp attract local turkeys.

To attract or maintain turkeys on your land,focus your efforts on good turkey habitat. Donot stock game-farm turkeys. Hybridizationand disease from semi-domesticated turkeyscould jeopardize the wild turkeys inWisconsin.

Squirrels

Gray, fox and flying squirrels live in mature,deciduous woods, while the small red squir-rels of northern Wisconsin prefer a mix ofconifers and deciduous trees. Squirrels feedmainly on mast and tree seeds so squirrelpopulation size is proportional to mast produc-tion. Squirrels also need tree cavities forbreeding, resting and winter cover. If there arenot enough suitable cavities, squirrels willbuild leaf nests high in the trees, but leafnests are not as secure as tree dens.

To ensure a sufficient mast supply, you’ll need15 to 25 large oaks or hickories per acre. Redor black oaks tend to produce food more con-sistently, but white oaks provide more dens,so strive for a mixture. Save as many hickoriesas you can. Hickories often make up less than10% of the overstory in Midwestern forests,and squirrels are particularly fond of theirnuts. To minimize the impact on squirrel popu-lations, keep your clearcuts smaller than 20acres and less than 200 yards wide. Try toretain 40% to 60% of the stand in a mast-pro-ducing stage.

MANAGING MATURE FORESTS 33

A typical gray or fox squirrel den has anopening about 3 inches in diameter, a cavitydiameter of 6 to 7 inches and a depth of 16inches. Dens of flying and red squirrels areusually smaller. Den formation usually takes 8to 30 years, depending on the tree species.Black oak, sugar maple, basswood, cotton-wood, beech and elm over 24 inches DBH allproduce excellent dens. Artificial nest boxesare easy to build and erect, and are useful insapling and pole timber stands where a lackof den sites limits squirrel populations. SeeShelves, Houses and Feeders for Birds andMammals (Barquest, et.al. 1982) orEnhancement of Wildlife Habitat on PrivateLands (Decker and Kelley,1982), orWoodworking for Wildlife (Henderson, 1992)for construction and placement instructions.

Woodpeckers, wood ducks and other cavity-users

In addition to squirrels, raccoons and othermammals, about 85 North American birdspecies feed, nest, or roost in dead ordecaying trees (Appendix D and table 1).

Non-game birds are integral members of theforest community and many are economicallyimportant. For example, researchers havefound that woodpeckers help control epidemicinsect populations. To manage for thesespecies you must preserve snags and poten-tial snags. When harvesting timber, useuneven-aged cutting; that is, cut some treesand leave others to grow beyond rotation age.These old trees will eventually degrade andform snags. A one-fifth acre clump of perma-nently uncut trees within each 5 acres ofregeneration cut will provide many species

with snags of proper size (generally greaterthan 9 inches DBH and 6 feet tall; seeAppendix D and table 1). Leaving uncut bufferstrips on both sides of a stream enhanceswoodpecker populations and controls streamerosion. Many cavity-nesters will also useproperly sized nest boxes.

The wood duck is one of our most popularforest cavity nesters, and research shows thataspen is an important cavity-producer for“woodies.” It takes aspen about 50 years toform a cavity—which unfortunately is the aspenrotation age on most sites. Nesting cavitiesshould be within one-half mile of a water sourcewith good brood-rearing potential—generally, awetland with protective vegetation.

To benefit wood ducks:

■ Set aside two or three acres of aspen ornorthern hardwoods within one-half mile ofwater with emergent cover.

■ Extend the aspen rotation age for as longas possible without losing the type, anduse uneven-aged management on thehardwoods to promote cavity formation.

■ Build wood duck boxes in addition to pro-tecting trees with natural cavities.

Songbirds

Most bird communities can handle somehabitat change, such as moderate timber har-vesting. Notable exceptions are the speciesthat require undisturbed forests: wood thrush,scarlet tanager, pileated woodpecker, vireosand many species of warblers and raptors.Your overall habitat management plan shouldconsider these species.

34 CHAPTER 5

Table 1. Characteristics of territories and nest trees of some woodpeckers1

Species Time used Territory size (ac) Min. no. snags used Average DBH (in) Average height (ft)

Downy All year 10 4 8 20Flicker Breeding 40 2 15 30Hairy All year 20 4 12 30Pileated All year 175 4 22 60Red-bellied All year 15 4 18 40Red-headed Breeding 10 2 20 40

Winter <1 1 20 40

1 From Evans, K.E., and R.N. Conner. 1979. Snag management. Pages 214-225 in DeGraaf, R.M., and K.E. Evans, eds. Management of NorthCentral and Northeastern Forests for Nongame Birds. USDA For. Serv. Workshop Proc., Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-51. 268 pp.

Birds that breed in undisturbed forests shareseveral important characteristics. They areobligate inhabitants of forest interiors—that is,they need an undisturbed forest for breedingand will not reproduce anywhere else.Opening the forest interior exposes thesespecies to predators and cowbird nest para-sitism. While many of the species that repro-duce on forest and field edges raise two ormore broods per year, most forest interiorspecies raise only one.

If you have a stand of mature northern hard-woods, aspen-birch, oaks, or mixed conifersand hardwoods, try to preserve as muchuncut forest and undergrowth as possible.Work with your neighbors to protect largeblocks of mature, undisturbed woodlands.

If you do harvest:

■ Extend the rotation period where economically feasible.

■ Cut a single large tract, preferably alongan existing edge or corner, rather thanseveral small ones in the interior.

■ Preserve snags on the cut edge.

■ Build brush piles with the slash to harborthe insects on which songbirds feed.

■ Plant conifers in the cut area or surround-ing your woods for added diversity.

Mammals

Forests and woodlots with well-developedunderstories provide habitat for manymammals. Small mammals, such as chip-munks and white-footed mice, may spend theirwhole lives within an acre of woodland. Incontrast, many furbearing predators (mink,skunk, raccoon and fox) travel widely in searchof food. Brushy stream borders, ravines, fence-lines and hedgerows connecting woodlots,fields and wetlands provide these animals withtravel corridors and hunting territory.

When logging or cutting firewood, leave anyhollow sections lying on the ground. You can’tsell them as sawtimber, and their value asfirewood is small compared to that as dens orshelter for ground-dwelling mammals.Depending on their diameter, these logs maybe used by anything from the smallest shrewto the largest black bear.

Reptiles and amphibians

Forest-dwelling herps (reptiles and amphib-ians) live in forest wetlands, under leaf litter orloose bark, and in holes and crevices. Mostwoodland species depend on the moist,humid conditions found under the closedcanopy of mature forests. Preserving orcreating shallow ponds is one way to attractherps to your property.

Many woodland amphibians breed in tempo-rary ponds. Shallow ponds are best, but makesure they are deep enough to retain wateruntil mid-August to allow larvae to developcompletely. Permanent ponds will attractwetland species, such as bullfrogs and greenfrogs, that live in or near water year-round.Having both temporary and permanent pondson your property will reduce competitionbetween the larvae of woodland and wetlandspecies and increase herp diversity.

If you have no permanent ponds on yourproperty, you can build one. You can createsmall ponds by digging out springs orpotholes or by building a weir (small dike ordam) in woodland ravines. On sandy soils,you must line the basin of an artificial pondwith clay or sheet plastic.

For more information contact your local FSA orNRCS office and request AgricultureHandbook No 590, Ponds – Planning, Design,Construction. Another excellent publication,Managing Wisconsin Fish Ponds (G3693) isavailable through your county Extension officeor from Extension Publications at the addresson the back cover. Amphibians, deer, turkeysand waterfowl will all use the resulting pond,especially if it is built in or near wooded cover.However, if beaver are common in your area(as they are across much of the state), don’tbuild an impoundment (manmade body ofwater) near any timber that you can’t afford tolose. What they don’t cut down, beavers mightflood as they try to improve on your flowageengineering.

Leaving unmerchantable logs to rot away onthe forest floor also benefits herps. They live inor under logs and feed on invertebrates sup-ported by the decaying wood. Rotting logsalso provide a moist seedbed for mosses,fungi, ferns and trees such as cedar andhemlock. Mortarless stone walls set off road orfence corners nicely, and will provide homesfor many herps and small mammals. Any littlehiding place located near water is particularlygood.

MANAGING MATURE FORESTS 35

36

CHAPTER 6

Financial considerations

F orest management can be expensive,especially if concessions for wildlife

reduce your timber harvest. Consider the fol-lowing when planning your woodland manage-ment program.

Marketing timber

Professional advice is never more importantthan at harvest time. You may harvest timberonly once in your lifetime on some stands, andcorrecting mistakes is often impossible. Unlessyou’re very experienced, please take advan-tage of the readily available professional help.Lake States Woodlands: Marketing Timber(Martin, Potter-Witter and Lapidakis, 1985)suggests that you harvest only in accordancewith your long-term management plan (incor-porating a sale contract and several bidders).Also, you should know how various harveststrategies will affect your income taxes.

If you have never harvested timber before, youshould visit a current logging site as well asother stands in various stages of regeneration.This will give you an idea of what to expectfrom a logging operation.

Seven steps to successful timberharvesting

1. Inventory what you have and what shouldbe cut. The management plan you haveprepared will help you decide what andhow to harvest your timber to benefitwildlife, what to leave for later harvest, andspecial trees that should be protected. Yourforester can use this information to clearlymark trees or stands to be cut, in order tominimize chances of mistakes duringlogging.

2. Plan any new logging roads, skid trails andlog landings, and sketch them on yourmanagement map exactly where you wantthem. You can build them yourself or havethe logger construct them as part of thecontract or for a fee. The Wisconsin DNRBureau of Forestry has prepared a set ofdetailed Best Management Practices(BMPs). These provide guidelines forforestry practices (including road buildingand equipment management) designed toprotect water quality.

3. Prepare and distribute a sale prospectus topotential buyers. It should include a mapand description of the area to be har-vested, a listing of species and volumes ofwood to be cut, a copy of the timber salecontract, bidding method, bid form withclosing date, special considerations forwildlife or aesthetics, bid opening time, anddown payment requirements. Mostlandowners sell their stumpage (standingtrees) on a lump-sum sealed bid basis.

4. Select a buyer on the basis of bid and reputation.

5. Complete a timber sale contract (seeAppendix G for a sample contract) with thesuccessful bidder, including sale terms,performance guarantees, liability and otherconcerns.

6. You or your forester should check loggingoperations to ensure compliance.

7. Plan post-harvest activities such as slashdisposal, TSI, site preparation and possiblyplanting.

FINANCIAL CONSIDERATIONS 37

Cost-sharing programs

There are many programs available to forestlandowners, and those detailed here are avail-able as of 2000. However, keep in mind thatprograms often change. Let’s start with thosecurrently offered by the federal government.

The Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program(WHIP) is a federal program administered bythe Natural Resources Conservation Service(NRCS). NRCS and the Department of NaturalResources Fisheries and Wildlife Programsserve as technical agencies. WHIP offers cost-sharing of up to 75% for actions or conserva-tion practices proposed in a 5 or 10 yearcontract. You can receive cost-sharing of upto $10,000 annually. Cost-sharing is availablefor the following conservation practices:

■ Wildlife planting—site preparation—planting stock—planting

■ Grass establishment

■ Fencing

■ Prescribed burning

■ Wildlife practices—nesting habitat—vegetation management—tree and shrub planting—creation of openings—wildlife corridors

■ Fisheries practices—vegetation management—bank stabilization—in-stream habitat

■ Wetland restoration

■ Farmstead shelterbelts

■ Grazing systems

The NRCS and state DNR offices can providetechnical advice for landowners implementingthese practices.

The Forestry Incentives Program (FIP) alsocost-shares with private nonindustrial forestowners for tree planting (including site prepa-ration if necessary), and timber standimprovement. This program is generally forlarger scale forest operations (10 to 1000acres), and may only be available in countieswith significant forest economies. The NRCSprovides cost-share funding of up to 65%, and

38 CHAPTER 6

the DNR provides installation and technicaladvice. You can receive cost-shares of up to$10,000 annually, and can agree to fund long-term practices for 3 to 10 years.

Since the 1985 Food Security Act (Farm Bill),the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) hasoffered annual rental payments for eligiblelands taken out of production for 10-15 years.To be eligible, land must have been in com-modity crops (such as corn or alfalfa) at leasttwo of the five years prior to signup, meeterodibility requirements, and be currentlyavailable for crop production. Tree and shrubplanting for windbreaks or wildlife habitat is aqualified use of set-aside lands and will becost-shared up to 50%. Permanent grasscover also qualifies and may complementyour woodlands by providing nesting cover forpheasants, turkeys and songbirds. Provisionsalso allow for filter strips along streams. Aswith all government programs, you shouldcheck with the appropriate agency to verifycurrent provisions.

In the past, a Tree Planting Program, part ofthe Farm Bill, has been offered to provide upto 3,000 free trees to farmers who have anapproved soil erosion plan or live in a countywith an approved plan. The current administra-tion is revising this, but there will likely besome sort of tree planting incentive in theyears to come. Your county Land ConservationDepartment (usually located in the countycourthouse) can provide you with current infor-mation about the programs available.

Another source of nursery stock is wildlifepackets, consisting of 100 conifers and 200wildlife shrubs, available free from the DNR forparticipating in the Acres for Wildlife program.Similarly, 500 trees or shrubs are offered as anincentive for participation in the DNR ProjectRespect program. Check for availability ofthese programs in your county. A limitedsupply of such wildlife packets of nurserystock is also available for a small fee if you arenot interested in these programs. For moreinformation, contact your local DNR wildlifemanager. You can also buy trees and shrubsfrom the DNR or private nurseries (seeAppendix C).

Tax considerations

Taxation of woodland enterprises can be verycomplicated. The long-term nature ofwoodland investment makes it crucial toconsider taxes in all phases of your operationto assure favorable treatment. Some helpfulsources are listed in the REFERENCES FORFURTHER READING section (p. 41), but besure to consult a tax advisor before makingany large investments in (or harvests from)your woodland.

Sales taxes apply to most forestry-related pur-chases, although growing Christmas trees asa business is classified as farming and partici-pants qualify for sales tax exemption. TheDNR allows farmers to purchase state nurserystock tax-free by completing a Farmer’sExemption Certificate. More than nominal useof trucks, tractors, saws or other equipmentpurchased under the farming exemption forforestry requires payment of a use tax.

Several state programs may help you loweryour woodland property taxes. The ManagedForest Land law reduces taxes for woodlandproperty owners who follow an approved man-agement plan. If you own at least 10 contigu-ous acres of wooded property (at least 80% ofwhich must be capable of producing 20 cubicfeet per acre per year of merchantable wood)within a single municipality (civil township) youmay be eligible for the program. The contractperiod is 25 or 50 years. Eligible acreage istaxed at a fixed annual rate (74 cents per acrein 1998). In return, you agree to manage yourland for wood fiber production under anapproved plan. The plan may also recom-mend practices for wildlife, watershed, recre-ational or aesthetic benefits. The lands mustbe open to non-motorized public access,though landowners may choose to close up to80 contiguous acres by paying an additional$1.00 in tax on each closed acre. The 74¢and $1.74 rates will be adjusted in 2003 andevery five years thereafter. At harvest, you willpay a 5% yield tax on the stumpage value ofall timber products cut.

The Managed Forest Land Law replaces theprevious Forest Croplands Law and WoodlandTax Law, though existing contracts under theformer laws will remain in effect until expira-tion. The Wisconsin Farmland PreservationLaw is designed to protect farmland fromurban development, through preservationplans or exclusive agricultural zoning. Along

with traditional farming, most towns andcounties allow forest and wildlife managementon agricultural land. While not loweringproperty taxes directly, participation earnsstate income tax credits for eligible farmersenrolled in local preservation programs. Youmust make more than $6,000 in gross farmincome to qualify. For more information,contact your county Land ConservationDepartment.

As noted in the Extension bulletin WisconsinWoodlands: Income Tax Considerations forForestland Owners (Stier et al., 1984), severalprovisions of the federal tax code could affectwoodland owners. These include the potentialto claim an investment tax credit on the costsof planting trees, the recovery of certain man-agement costs as annual deductibleexpenses, and the possibility of treating theproceeds of timber sales as capital gains.

Tax laws change constantly, and Wisconsinincome tax law does not conform exactly tofederal law. Be sure to consult your tax advisorfor specific provisions that may affect you.

See REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING(p. 41) for a list of reference guides and taxrecord systems.

FINANCIAL CONSIDERATIONS 39

Tom

Bah

ti

Conclusion

40

Management plans for grouse, or anywildlife, vary depending on location. For

example, overgrazing in woodlots and lack ofwinter cover may be a concern in the DriftlessArea; proximity to pulpwood markets is impor-tant in the Central Sands; and convertingaspen to hardwoods or balsam fir is the majormanagement concern in the North Woods.Planning and professional assistance will helpyou tailor your management plan to yourproperty. Remember the sequence: objec-tives, inventory, professional assistance, goalsand work schedule.

Resist the temptation to focus on only oneaspect of woodland management for simplic-ity’s sake. Try to keep multiple-use concepts inmind—a management goal aimed at produc-ing high quality timber need not ignore song-birds. Forests are diverse ecological commu-

nities that provide a place to live for manyspecies; they all deserve consideration. Theemphasis can, and does, vary amonglandowners. You may be an ardent grouseand woodcock hunter while one neighbor isan avid birdwatcher and another is primarilyinterested in wood production. However, acarefully planned joint management effort canbenefit everyone.

We tend to think of land only as something toown and use, forgetting how much we dependon it. Consider yourself not only a propertyowner and manager but a concerned stewardof the land. Aldo Leopold summed up this phi-losophy in the foreword to his Sand CountyAlmanac essays:

Aldo Leopold

“We abuse land because we regard it as a commodity belonging to us.

When we see land as a community to which we belong,

we may begin to use it with love and respect.”R

ober

t A

. McC

abe

References for further reading

41

Prices, where given, are subject to change. Appendix B on page 45 tells where these references are available.

Woodland wildlife management

Christoffel, R., D. Covell, S. Craven and R.Ruff. 2000. Wildlife and Your Land:How to inventory and monitor wildlifeon your land. WDNR, Bureau of WildlifeManagment, PUBL-WM, Madison, WI.72 pp.

Clifton, D., J. Edwards, N. Pellman, R.Tuttle, and D. Woodward. 1997.Ponds—planning, design, construction.Natural Resources ConservationService, Washington, D,C,

Craven, S.R. 1981. Wisconsin woodlands:wildlife management (G3097)Wisconsin Cooperative ExtensionService, 8 pp.

Craven, S.R., and R. Ellarson. 1986.Landscape plants that attract birds(G1609). Wisconsin CooperativeExtension Service.

Craven, S.R., G. Jackson, W. Swensonand B. Webendorfer. 1987. Thebenefits of well-managed stream corri-dors (G3404). Wisconsin CooperativeExtension Service.

Decker, D.J., and J.W. Kelley. 1982.Enhancement of wildlife habitat onprivate lands. Info. Bull. 181. NYS Coll.of Ag. and Life Sci., Cornell U., Ithaca.40 pp. $4.95

Decker, D.J., J.W. Kelley, T.W. Seamans,and R.R. Roth. 1983. Wildlife andtimber from private lands: alandowner’s guide to planning. Info.Bull. 193. NYS Coll. of Ag. and LifeSci., Cornell U., Ithaca. 56 pp. $4.95

Gill, J.D., and W.M. Healy. 1974. Shrubsand vines for northeastern wildlife.USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-9.Northeastern For. Exp. Sta., UpperDarby, Pa. 180 pp.

Gullion, G.W. 1983. Managing woodlotsfor fuel and wildlife. Ruffed GrouseSociety, Coraopolis, Pa. 16 pp.

Gullion, G.W. 1984. Managing northernforests for wildlife. Ruffed Grouse Soc.,Misc. J. Series Publ. 13442, Minn.Agric. Exp. Sta., St. Paul. 72 pp.

Gullion, G.W. Shrub and tree planting forruffed grouse. Ruffed Grouse Society,Coraopolis, Pa. 10 pp.

Gullion, G.W. Integration of wildlife pro-duction into Great Lake States’ forestryprograms. Ruffed Grouse Society.Scientific J. Series Publ. No. 11,879,Minn. Agric. Exp. Sta., St. Paul. pp. 231-238.

Gutierrez, R.J., D.J. Decker, R.A. Howard,Jr., and J.P. Lassoie. 1984. Managingsmall woodlands for wildlife. Inf. Bul.157. NYS Coll. of Ag. and Life Sci.,Cornell Univ., Ithaca. 32 pp.

Hassinger, J., L. Hoffman, M.J. Puglisi,T.D. Rader, and R.G. Wingard. 1979.Woodlands and wildlife. Penn. St.Univ., Univ. Park, PA. 68 pp. $2.00

Hassinger, J., C.E. Schwarz, and R.G.Wingard. 1981. Timber sales andwildlife. Pennsylvania GameCommission. 13 pp.

Henderson, C.L. 1992. Woodworking forwildlife. Minn. Dept. Nat. Resources.Nongame Wildlife. Program. 47 pp.

Henderson, C.L., 1987. Landscaping forwildlife. Minn. Dept. Nat. ResourcesNongame Wildlife Program, 47 pp.

Henderson, C.L., C.J. Dindert and F. J.Rozumalski. Lakescaping for wildlifeand water quality. MN Dept. of NaturalResources, Nongame WildliffeProgram. 176 pp.

Hobson, S.S., J.S. Barclay, and S.H.Broderick. 1993. Enhancing wildlifehabitats: A practical guide for forestlandowners. Northeast RegionalAgricultural Engineering Service,Ithaca. 172 pp. $20.00

Kubisiak, J.F. 1987. Oak forests: a man-agement opportunity for ruffed grouseand other wildlife. Ruffed GrouseSociety, Coraopolis, PA. 18 pp.

Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, and A.L. Nelson.1951. American wildlife and plants.Dover Publications, Inc., New York. 500 pp.

McCaffery, K.R., J.E. Ashbrenner, and J.C.Moulton. 1981. Forest opening con-struction and impacts in northernWisconsin. WDNR Tech. Bull. 120. 41 pp.

Sepik, G.F., R.B. Owen, and M.W. Coulter.1981. A landowner’s guide to woodcockmanagement in the northeast. Universityof Maine, Life Science and Ag. Exp.Sta., Misc. Rep. 253. 23 pp.

Swenson, W., S. Nichols, S. Craven, J.Malison, T. Thrall, S. Marquenski, andJ.O. Peterson. 2000. ManagingWisconsin Fish Ponds (G3693),Cooperative Extension Service,Madison, WI. 53713. 79 pp.

42 REFERENCES

Wisconsin Department of NaturalResources, Bureau of Wildlife Manage-ment, Wildlife and Your Land Series:• Calling all wildlife! Wildlife man-

agement basics, PUBL-WM-216• Critter condos: managing dead

wood for wildlife, PUBL-WM-222• Gimme shelter: shelterbelts for

wildlife, PUBL-WM-227• On edge: managing edge for

wildlife, PUBL-WM-226• Putting pen to paper: developing

your management plan, PUBL-WM-217

• Rabbitat: brush piles for wildlife,PUBL-WM-221

• So, what should I plant? Trees,shrubs and vines with wildlifevalues, PUBL-WM-223

• To cut or not to cut? Managingyour woodland for wildlife, PUBL-WM-224

• The wealth of waterways:managing stream corridors forwildlife, PUBL-WM-225

Ruffed grouse ecology

Atwater, S. and J. Schnell, eds. 1989.Ruffed grouse. Stackpole Books,Harrisburg, Penn. 370 pp.

Bump, G., R.W. Darrow, F.C. Edminsterand W.F. Crissey. 1947. The ruffedgrouse—life history, propagation, man-agement. New York Conserv. Dept.,Albany. 915 pp.

DeStefano, S., S.R. Craven, and R.L. Ruff.1984. Ecology of the ruffed grouse.Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv. G3252.

DeStefano, S., R.L. Ruff, and S.R. Craven.1983. A grouse in the hand. WisconsinCoop. Ext. Serv. G3227.

Dorney, R.S. 1959. The relationship ofruffed grouse to forest cover types inWisconsin. Wis. Conserv. Dept. Tech.Bull. 18. 32 pp.

Edminster, F.C. 1947. The ruffed grouse—its life story, ecology and manage-ment. MacMillan Co., New York.385 pp.

Johnsgard, P.A. 1973. Grouse and quailsof North America. Univ. of Nebr. Press,Lincoln. 553 pp.

Kubisiak, J.F. 1978. Brood characteristicsand summer habitats of grouse incentral Wisconsin. WDNR Tech. Bull.108. 11 pp.

Kubisiak, J.F. 1985. Ruffed grouse habitatrelationships in aspen and oak forestsof central Wisconsin. WDNR Tech.Bull. 151. 22 pp.

Kubisiak, J.F. 1985. Ruffed grouseharvest levels and population charac-teristics in central Wisconsin. WDNRResearch Rep. 136. 24 pp.

Kubisiak, J.F., J.C. Moulton, and K.R.McCaffery. 1980. Ruffed grousedensity and habitat relationships inWisconsin. WDNR Tech. Bull. 118. 15pp.

Madson, J. 1969. Ruffed grouse.Winchester Press, Olin MathiesonChemical Corp., East Alton, Ill. 103 pp.

Robinson, W.L., ed. 1984. Ruffed grousemanagement: state of the art in theearly 1980’s. North Cent. Sec. Wildl.Soc. 181 pp.

Rue, L.L. 1973. The world of the ruffedgrouse. J.B. Lippincott Co., Phil. andNew York. 160 pp.

General wildlife

Anon. 1990. Beaver damage control.WDNR. 30 pp.

Barquest, G., S. Craven, and R. Ellarson.1982. Shelves, houses and feeders forbirds and squirrels. Wisconsin Coop.Ext. Serv. G2091. 32 pp.

Craven, S.R., and R.L. Ruff. 1982. Birdfeeding: tips for beginners andveterans. Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv.G3176. 12 pp.

Dumke, R.T. 1982. Habitat developmentfor bobwhite quail on private lands inWisconsin. WDNR Tech. Bull. 128. 49pp.

Gregg, L. 1984. Population ecology ofwoodcock in Wisconsin. WDNR Tech.Bull. 144. 51 pp.

Gromme, O.J. 1963. Birds of Wisconsin.University of Wisconsin Press,Madison. 236 pp.

Harding, J.J. 1997 Amphibians andreptiles of the Great Lakes region.University of Michigan Press, AnnArbor, MI. 378 pp.

Jackson, H.H.T. 1961. Mammals ofWisconsin. University of WisconsinPress, Madison. 504 pp.

Les, B.L. 1979. The vanishing wild:Wisconsin’s endangered wildlife andits habitat. WDNR. 36 pp.

Leopold, A. 1933. Game management.Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York.481 pp.

Leopold, A. 1949. A sand countyalmanac. Oxford Univ. Press, NewYork. 226 pp.

Liscinsky, S.A. 1972. The Pennsylvaniawoodcock management study. Penn.Game Comm., Harrisburg. 95 pp.

Amphibians and reptiles native toMinnesots. University of MinnesotaPress, Minneapolis, MN. 237 pp.

Robbins, S.D. Jr. Wisconisn Birdlife. TheUniversity of Wisconsin Press,Madison, WI. 702 pp.

Sample, D.W. and M.J. Mossman. 1997.Managing habitat for grassland birds,PUBL-SS-925-97, WDNR, Bureau ofIntegrated Science Services, Madison,WI. 154 pp.

Vogt, R.C. 1981. Natural history ofamphibians and reptiles of Wisconsin.Milwaukee Pub. Mus. 208 pp.

Field guides

Borror, D.J., and R.E. White. 1970. A fieldguide to the insects. Peterson FieldGuide Series, Houghton Mifflin Co.,Boston. 404 pp.

Bull, J., and J. Farrand, Jr. (eds.). 1977.The Audubon Society field guide toNorth American birds—eastern region.Alfred A. Knopf, New York. 784 pp.

Burt, W.H., and R.P. Grossenheider. 1980.Field guide to the mammals. PetersonField Guide Series, Houghton MifflinCo., Boston. 289 pp.

Christoffel, R., R. Hay and L. Ramirez.2000. Snakes of Wisconsin. Bureau ofEndandered Resources, WisconsinDept. of Natural Resources, Madison,WI. PUBL-ER-100 00. 32 pp.

Conant, R. and J.T. Collins. 1998.Peterson field guide to reptiles andamphibians of eastern and centralNorth America, 3rd edition, expanded.Houghton Mifflin Company, New York.616 pp.

Fassett, N.C. 1976. Spring flora ofWisconsin. University of WisconsinPress, Madison. 413 pp.

Hamerstrom, F. 1972. Birds of prey ofWisconsin. WDNR. 64 pp.

Murie, O.J. 1975. A field guide to animaltracks. Peterson Field Guide Series,Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 375 pp.

Newcomb, L. 1977. Newcomb’s wild-flower guide. Little, Brown andCompany, Boston, MA. 490 pp.

Peterson, R.T. 1980. A field guide to thebirds. Peterson Field Guide Series,Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 384 pp.

Petrides, G.A. 1972. A field guide to treesand shrubs. Peterson Field GuideSeries, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston.428 pp.

Robbins, C.S., B. Bruun, and H.S. Zim.1966. Birds of North America. GoldenField Guide Series, Golden Press, NewYork. 340 pp.

REFERENCES 43

Stokes, D. and L. 1986. Stokes natureguides: a guide to animal tracking andbehavior, Little Brown and Company,Boston, MA. 418 pp.

Forestry and woodland management

Anon. 1977. Tree planting in Wisconsin.WDNR. 15 pp.

Anon. 1988. Aspen management on yourland. WDNR PUBL-WM-162.

Beaufeaux, M., and G. Cunningham.1984. Wisconsin woodlands: pineplantation management. WisconsinCoop. Ext. Serv. G1983. 4 pp.

Curtis, J.T. 1959. The vegetation ofWisconsin, University of WisconsinPress. Madison. 657 pp.

Finan, A.S., Editor. 2000. WisconsinForests at the Millenium. PUBL-FR 1612000 jg. WDNR, Division of Forestry,Madison, WI. 125 pp.

Harris, L.D. 1984. The fragmented forest.Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago.211 pp.

Hauge, C., S. Hovde, and E.Steigerwaldt. 1985. Wisconsin wood-lands: Christmas tree shearing.Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv. G3268.4 pp.

Huebschmann, M., and J. Martin. 1986.Lake States woodlands: estimatingand interpreting site index. WisconsinCoop. Ext. Serv. G3361. 4 pp.

Huebschmann, M., and J. Martin. 1987.Wisconsin woodlands: intermediatecuttings in forest management.Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv. G3398.6 pp.

Kozlowski, T.T. 1984. Wisconsin wood-lands: how forest trees grow.Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv. G3277.7 pp.

Lorimer, C.G., and C.T. Locey. 1983. LakeStates woodlands: managing northernhardwood stands. Wisconsin Coop.Ext. Serv. G3229. 6 pp.

Martin, J. 1985. Lake states woodlands:measuring trees and estimatingvolume. Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv.G3332. 7 pp.

Martin, J. 1986. Lake States woodlands:estimating stocking conditions in yourtimber stand. Wisconsin Coop. Ext.Serv. G3362. 8 pp.

Perala, D.A. 1977. Manager’s handbookfor aspen in the North Central States.USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-36, North Cent. For. Exp. Sta., St. Paul.30 pp.

Reinke, M.E. Management of aspen.Packaging Corp. of America. RuffedGrouse Society. 4 pp.

Robson, T.F., and G.R. Cunningham.1979. Wisconsin woodlands: forestryterms. Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv.G3018. 10 pp.

Sander, I.L. 1977. Manager’s handbookfor oaks in the North Central States.USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-37, North Cent. For. Exp. Sta., St. Paul.35 pp.

Schmidt, T.L., Wisconsin Forest Statistics.1996. USDA For. Serv. Reserve Bill.NC-183 North Cent. For. Exp. Sta.,St. Paul. 156 pp.

Steele, T., and G. Cunningham. 1983.Wisconsin woodlands: buying a safechainsaw. Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv.G3206. 4 pp.

Tubbs, C.H. 1977. Manager’s handbookfor northern hardwoods in the NorthCentral States. USDA For. Serv. Gen.Tech. Rep. NC-39, North Cent. For.Exp. Sta., St. Paul. 29 pp.

Wooden, A.L., C. Locey, and G.Cunningham. 1990. Lake states wood-lands: aspen management. WisconsinCoop. Ext. Serv. G3162. 6 pp.

Wisconsin woodlands: safe tree harvest-ing. Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv. G3205.

Wisconsin woodlands: protective clothingfor chainsaw operators. WisconsinCoop. Ext. Serv. G3177.

Controlling wildlife damage

Craven, S.R. 1981. Controlling wood-pecker damage. Wisconsin Coop. Ext.Serv. G3117. 2 pp.

Craven, S.R. 1983. Protecting gardensand landscape plantings from rabbits.Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv. G1654.8 pp.

Craven, S.R., and S. Hygnstrom. 1986.Controlling deer damage in Wisconsin.Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv. G3083.12 pp.

Craven, S.R., and F. Iwen. 1980. Bats:information for Wisconsin homeown-ers. Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv.G3096.

Financial considerations

Martin, A.J., K. Potter-Witter, and J.Lapidakis. 1989. Lake states wood-lands: marketing timber. WisconsinCoop. Ext. Serv. G3297. 6 pp.

McEvoy, T. J. 1998. Legal aspects ofowning and managing woodland.Island Press, Covelo, CA. 239 pp.

Stier, J.C., R.E. Denney, and J. Lapidakis.1984. Wisconsin woodlands: incometax considerations for forestlandowners. Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv.G3298. 3 pp.

Tlusty, W.G., and G.W. Rodgers. 1987.Wisconsin woodlands: the ManagedForest Law Program. Wisconsin Coop.Ext. Serv. G3413. 6 pp.

USDA For. Serv. 1982. A guide to federalincome tax for timber owners. Agr.Handbook 596. U.S. Gov. Print. Off.,Wash., D.C. $4.75.

44

Advance reproduction: Young treesat least 4.5 feet tall that can success-fully compete for light and nutrientsafter the overstory is removed.

Block: Any group of trees that ismanaged as a unit; often synony-mous with a stand.

Bolt: A short log or a squared timbercut from a log up to 8 feet in lengthand at least 8 inches in diameter atthe small end.

Clearcut: A harvesting and regenera-tion technique that removes all thetrees (regardless of size) on an areain one operation. Clearcutting isusually used with species like aspenthat require full sunlight to reproduceand grow well. Produces an even-aged forest stand.

Climax forest: The final or self-per-petuating successional stage in aforest.

Conversion: Change from one foresttype to another, either naturallythrough disturbance or succession,or artificially through harvesting andreforestation.

DBH: The tree Diameter at BreastHeight (4.5 feet above the ground).

Forest Type: A group of tree speciesthat, because of their environmentalrequirements and tolerances,commonly grow together. Treeexamples of forest types are thesugar maple-basswood type, the oak-hickory type, and the aspen-paperbirch type.

Herbaceous plants: Plants that dieback annually to the ground level, asdistinct from woody shrubs and trees.

Mast: The nuts, seeds and fruitsproduced by forest trees and shrubs.

Mature tree: A tree that has reachedthe desired size or age for itsintended use. Size or age will varyconsiderably depending on thespecies and intended use.

Merchantable: Timber for which amarket exists because it meets speci-fications for species, size, freedomfrom defect, etc.

Mesic: This describes a habitat sitewith intermediate soil moisturecontent, as opposed to xeric (dry) orhydric (wet).

Old-growth: A stand made up of treesthat are older than the normal rotationage.

Overmature: A tree that has passedthe desired size or age for itsintended use and is beginning todecline in value.

Plantation: An artificially reforestedarea established by planting or directseeding.

Pole-timber: A stand of trees withdiameters ranging from 4 inches toapproximately 8 to 12 inches.

Regeneration: The process of forestreplacement or renewal. This may bedone artificially by seeding orplanting; or naturally by sprouting ornatural seeding.

Reproduction: Young trees that willgrow to become the older trees in thefuture forest.

Rotation Age: The number of yearsrequired to establish and grow treesto a specified size, product or condi-tion of maturity.

Sapling: A small tree, usually between2 and 4 inches DBH.

Sawlog: A log large enough toproduce a sawn product—usually atleast 10 to 12 inches in diameter atthe small end.

Sawtimber: A stand of trees withdiameters greater than 10-12 inches.

Seedling: A tree, usually less than 2inches DBH, that has grown from aseed.

Seed-tree cut: Removing all treesfrom the harvest area at one timeexcept for a few selected trees left toprovide seed to establish a newforest stand.

Selection cut: Harvesting individualtrees or small groups of trees atperiodic intervals (usually 8 to 15years) based on their physical condi-tion or degree of maturity. Producesan uneven-aged stand.

Shearing: The non-commercialremoval of unmerchantable trees,using a chain saw or a bulldozer witha sharpened (KG) blade. Also refersto shaping of Christmas trees.

Shelterwood cut: Removing treesfrom a harvest area in a series of twoor more cuttings so new seedlingscan establish and grow in the partialshade and protection of older trees.Produces an even-aged forest.

Site: 1. A tract of land with reasonablyuniform soil and climatic factors. 2.An area evaluated as to its capacityto produce a particular forest or othervegetation based on the combinationof biological, climatic and soil factors.

Site index: An expression of forestsite quality based on the height of thedominant trees at a specified age(usually 50 years in the easternU. S.).

Slash: The brush accumulated from acutting operation.

Sprout: A tree growing from the base,stump or root of another tree.

Stand: Any identifiable group of trees—by age, species, height, site,origin, stocking, management, etc.

Thinning: Generally, a cutting in animmature forest stand to reduce thetree density and concentrate thegrowth potential on fewer, higherquality trees resulting in larger treeswith faster growth.

TSI (Timber Stand Improvement):The thinning of timber stands byremoving inferior trees to improvestand quality and/or species compo-sition.

Some common forestry terms

APPENDIX A

45

Sources of publicationsCornell Cooperative ExtensionPublicationsCornell University Resource Center7 Business & Technolgy ParkCornell UniversityIthaca, NY 14850607-255-2080

Department of ForestryUniversity of Wisconsin–Madison1630 Linden DriveMadison, WI 53706608-262-9975

Publication Distribution CenterPennsylvania State University112 Agricultural Administration BuildingUniversity Park, PA 16802-2602814-865-6713

North Central Forest Experiment StationU.S. Forest Service1992 Folwell AvenueSt. Paul, MN 55108651-645-5257

The Ruffed Grouse Society451 McCormick RoadCoraopolis, PA 15108-9327412-262-4044

University of Wisconsin-Extension Cooperative Extension Publications45 N. Charter StreetMadison, WI 53715608-262-3346Toll-free: 1-877-WIS-PUBS

Wisconsin Department of NaturalResourcesBureaus of Research, EndangeredResources, Forestry, or WildlifeManagementBox 7921Madison, WI 53707General Information number: 608-266-2621

APPENDIX B

46

Sources of wildlife plants and seedsDNR nurseries in Hayward,Wisconsin Rapids and Boscobel sellstock suitable for wildlife plantings.Most counties also deliver orders fromstate nurseries. You can obtain a Treeand Shrub application form anddelivery details from your local DNRoffice beginning in October orNovember. These trees often sell outearly, so submit your order for thespring as quickly as possible. If youmiss out on these, many county LandConservation Departments take ordersfor conservation trees beginning in latewinter.

You can also obtain nursery stock fromprivate nurseries that deal in nativegrasses, forbs, aquatics, and woodyplants for prairie and wetland restora-tion or wildlife plantings. The followingnurseries were included on a DNR listof tree sources as of 2001. The listdoes not represent a complete list ofnative or wildlife plant nurseries inWisconsin. This does not implyendorsement of specific products orservices, nor criticism of nurseries notlisted by the authors, UW-Extension, orthe Wisconsin DNR.

Arneson’s NurseryN11164 Hwy 45Clintonville, WI 54929715-823-6784

Bruce J. Miller Nursery3187 Bark Lake RoadHubertus, WI 53033414-255-4360

Campbell Tree & LandPO Box 780Wautoma, WI 54982920-787-4653Fax: 414-787-3698

Cascade Forest Tree Nursery22033 Fillmore RoadCascade, IA 52033319-852-3042Fax: 319-852-5004 54966

Evergreen Nursery5027 County TTSturgeon Bay, WI 54235414-743-4464Fax: 414-743-9184

Great Lakes Nursery1002 Hamilton StreetWausau, WI 54403715-845-7752Fax: 715-848-9436

Gress Evergreen NurseryW 7035 Hwy. 64Polar, WI 54418715-623-6167Fax: 715-627-2552

Insti Trees NurseryPO Box 1370Rhinelander, WI 54501715-365-8733

Johnson’s NurseryW180 N6275 Marcy RoadMenomonee Falls , WI 53051414-252-4988Fax: 414-252-4495

KF Evergreens9629 Camp AvenueSparta, WI 54656800-458-7275Fax: 608-272-3605

Laura’s Lane NurseryBox 232Plainfield , WI 54466715-366-2477715-366-8201

Lindsey Trees8832 CTH VChili , WI 54420715-676-3608

Lodholz North Star Acres420 Hwy ATomahawk WI 54487715-453-2976

Loon Call Nursery10663 N. McClaine Rd.Hayward, WI 54843715-462-9298

Lowes Creek Tree Farm3111 EisenhowerEau Claire, WI 54701715-834-7664

Miller’s NurseriesP. O. Box 66Germantown , WI 53022414-255-4360

Norma’s NurseryW3198 Ring School RoadOgema , WI 54459715-767-5645

Northwoods Nursery3682 Limberlost RoadRhinelander, WI 54501715-369-3959

Pony Creek NurseryBox 16Tilleda, WI 54978715-787-3889

Reeseville Ridge NurseryPO Box 171Reeseville, WI 53579920-927-3291Fax: 920-927-3291

Roeber’s Thornapple Rd.NurseryW10644 Thornapple RoadLadysmith, WI 54848715-868-7050

Roy ChristensonE5684 US Hwy 12 & 29Menomonie, WI 54751715-235-5380

APPENDIX C

SOURCES OF WILDLIFE PLANTS 47

Wali NurseryRoute 9, Box 9089Hayward, WI 54843715-462-3565

Wallace-WoodstockW6291 State Road 95Neillsville, WI 54456715-743-2980Fax: 715-743-6930

Westfork Walnut NurseryRoute 3Viroqua, WI 54665608-637-2528

Windfall504 S. East StreetPlainfield, WI 54966715-335-6725

T he following is a list of sources fortrees, shrubs, plants, and/or seeds

native to Wisconsin or the Midwest. Itwas compiled by Kelly Kearns of theBureau of Endangered Resources,Wisconsin Department of NaturalResources, and John Harrington of theUniversity of Wisconsin-Madison,Department of Landscape Architecture.(This list is for informational use onlyand does not constitute endorsementby the compilers or the authors.)

IllinoisGenesis Nursery23200 Hurd Road Tampico, Ill 61283815-438-2220

Natural Gardens38 W. 443 Highway 64St. Charles, IL 60175

IndianaSpence Restoration NurseryP.O. Box 546, 2220 E. Fuson RoadMuncie, IN 47308

IowaIon Exchange1878 Old Mission RoadHarpers Ferry, IA 52146319-535-7231www.ionexchange.com

MinnesotaLandscape Alternative1705 Saint Albans StreetRoseville, MN 55113651-488-3142

North American Prairies11754 Jarvis AvenueAnnandale, MN 55302

Prairie Hill Wildflowers8955 Lemond RoadEllendale, MN 56026507-451-7791

Prairie Moon NurseryRoute 3, Box 163Winona, MN 55987507-452-1362

Shooting Star Native SeedsP.O. Box 648Spring Grove, MN 55974

WisconsinAgrecol2918 Agriculture DriveMadison WI 53718

Boehlke’s Woodland Gardens5890 Wausaukee RoadWest Bend, WI 53095920-876-2598

Deer Creek Seed CompanyO.O. Box 105Ashland, WI 54806715-278-3200

Great Lakes Nursery Co.1002 Hamilton StreetWausau, WI 54403715-845-7752

J & J TranzplantP.O. Box 227Wild Rose, WI 54984

Kettle Moraine NaturalLandscapingW9996 Birchwood DriveCampbellsport, WI 53010262-533-8939

Little Valley FarmRoute 3, Box 544, Snead Creek RoadSpring Green, WI 53588608-935-3324

Murn Environmental, Inc.2707 E. Philhower RoadBeloit, WI 53511608-362-6449www.murn.com

Northwind PerennialsP.O. Box 95Springfield, WI 53718

Oak Prairie FarmW4642 Highway 33Pardeeville, WI 53954608-429-3882

Prairie Future Seed Co.W255 N9286 Tomahawk DriveMenomonee Falls, WI 53052-0644.262-820-0221

Prairie NurseryP.O. Box 306, W5856 Dyke AvanueWestfield, WI 53964608-296-3679

Prairie Ridge Nursery9738 Overland RoadMount Horeb, WI 53572608-437-5245

Reeseville Ridge NurseryP.O. Box 171, 309 South Main StreetReeseville, WI 53579920-927-3291

Retzer Nature CenterWaukesha Park & Planning CommissionWaukesha, WI 53188

Rohde’s NurseryN8098 Duck Creek AvenueNeshkoro, WI 54960262-293-4373

Savanna Springs NurseryW4634 Richland RoadMonroe, WI 53566608-325-4606personalpages.tds.net/~savannasp/nursery.htm

Taylor Creek Nursery17921 Smith Road, P.O. Box 256Brodhead, WI 53520608-897-8547www.appliedco.com

Wood’s Edge532 Stanek RoadMuscoda, WI 53573608-739-3527

48

*Adapted from Tubbs, C.H., R.M. DeGraaf, M. Yamasaki and W.M. Healy. 1987. Guide to wildlife tree management in New England northern hard-woods. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-118. Broomall, PA:USDA, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, 30 pp.

E = Excavator: 1 = Primary excavator; digs

own cavity2 = Secondary excavator; uses

existing cavities

T = Type:L = Live treeD = Dead tree (snag)

DT = Diameter of tree in inchesFD = Floor dimensions of cavity in

inches

DC = Depth of cavity in inchesED = Entrance (hole) diameter in

inchesEF = Entrance height above floor of

cavity in inchesHG = Cavity height above

ground in feet

KEY

Cavity-using birds of Wisconsin*

APPENDIX D

Species E T DT FD DC ED EF HG Habitat

Wood Duck 2 L 16 12x12 24 4.0 19 6-40 Bottomland hardwoods < 0.5 mile from water

Common Goldeneye 2 L 23 12x12 24 4.5 19 6-40 Hardwoods adjacent to northern lakes

Hooded Merganser 2 L 20+ 10x10 24 4.0 19 20+ Wooded, clear-watered streams and lakes

Common Merganser 2 L 20+ 10x10 35 4.7 20 Hardwoods near cool, clear waters

Turkey Vulture 2 D 20+ Most forest types, use forest openings

Peregrine Falcon 2 20+ Open country along waters

Merlin 2 20+ Open stands of hardwood forests

American Kestrel 2 L 12 8x8 14 3.0 11 10-30 Brushy borders and open or semi-open country

Common Barn Owl 2 L 20+ 10x18 17 6.0 4 12-18 Forests, barnyards, marshes and fields

Eastern Screech Owl 2 L 12 8x8 11 2.5 9 12-20 Widely spaced tree with grassy open spaces

Northern Hawk Owl 2 L 20+ Northern forests with openings and bogs

Boreal Owl 2 D 12 10-25 Conifer-hardwood mixed forests

Northern Saw-whet Owl 2 L 12 6x6 11 2.5 9 12-20 Deep northern forests

Chimney Swift 2 L 20+ Woody & open areas & man-made structures

Common Flicker 2 D 15 7x7 17 2.5 15 6-20 Near large trees in open woodlands a& fields

Pileated Woodpecker 1 D 22 8x8 20 4.0 11 12-60 Extensive mature forest areas

Red-bellied Woodpecker 1 L 18 6x6 13 2.5 11 12-20 Common in southeastern forests

Red-headed Woodpecker 1 D 20 6x6 14 2.0 11 12-20 Open areas —farm yards, field edges

Yellow-bellied Sapsucker 1 D 12 5x5 10 1.5 12-20 Along streams in mixed conifer-hardwood

forests

Hairy Woodpecker 1 L 12 6x6 14 1.5 11 12-20 Open woodlands and forests

Downy Woodpecker 1 D 8 4x4 9 1.2 7 6-20 Open woodlands, orchards and urban

areas

CAVITY-USING BIRDS 49

E = Excavator: 1 = Primary excavator; digs

own cavity2 = Secondary excavator; uses

existing cavities

T = Type:L = Live tree D = Dead tree (snag)

DT = Diameter of tree in inchesFD = Floor dimensions of cavity in

inches

DC = Depth of cavity in inches.ED = Entrance (hole) diameter in

inches.EF = Entrance height above floor of

cavity in inches.HG = Cavity height above

ground in feet.

KEY

Species E T DT FD DC ED EF HG Habitat

Black-backed Woodpecker 1 D 12 5x5 10 2.0 7-15 Northern conifer forests

Great-crested Flycatcher 2 L 12 6x6 9 2.0 7 8 -10 Forests and forest-field edge areas

Tree Swallow 2 D 12 5x5 6 1.5 3 10-15 Usually near water in open areas

Purple Martin 2 D 12 6x6 6 2.5 1 15-20 Open areas and cutover forests

Black-capped Chickadee 1 D 4 4x4 9 1.1 7 5-15 Brushy borders and forests

Boreal Chickadee 1 D 4 4x4 9 1.1 7 5-15 Northern forests of spruce, fir and aspen

Tufted titmouse 2 D 12 4x4 9 1.2 7 6-15 Eastern deciduous woodlands

White-breasted Nuthatch 2 L 12 4x4 10 1.2 7 5-20 Deciduous woodlands

Red-breasted Nuthatch 2 D 12 4x4 10 1.2 7 5-15 Conifer-aspen woodlands

Brown Creeper 2 D 12 Coniferous forests

House Wren 2 L 12 4x4 7 1.0 3 6-10 Brushy borders and edge habitat

Winter Wren 2 L 8 4x4 7 2.0 5 5-10 Forest brushpiles and thick undergrowth

Bewick’s Wren 2 L 4x4 7 1.0 3 6-10 Farmyards, brushlands, fencerows and suburbs

Carolina Wren 2 L 4x4 7 1.1 3 6-10 Forests with thick undergrowth

Eastern Bluebird 2 D 8 5x5 8 1.5 6 5-10 Brushy borders around open areas

European Starling 2 6x6 17 2.0 15 10-25 Parks, suburbs and farms

Prothonotary Warbler 2 D 8 4x4 8 1.5 5 4-7 Swamps and deciduous forests near water

House Sparrow 2 4x4 9 1.5 7 4-12 Cities, suburbs and farms near humans

Published Tax Guides

Fyie, Susan. The Christmas Tree TaxationManual (updated annually). $65.Available from: Spectrum CPA Group, LLP2358 NW Kings Boulevard, Suite 200Corvallis, OR 97339504-757-0233

Hoover, William L., 2000. Timber TaxManagement for Tree Farmers (FNR-80).$24.95.Available from: American Tree Farm System1111 19th Street, N.W.Suite 780Washington, D. C. 20036

Haney, Harry L., Jr., William L. Hoover, WilliamC. Siegel and John L. Greene. 2001. ForestLandowners’ Guide to the Federal IncomeTax. Agricultural handbook No. 718.Available free at: www.fs.fed.us/spf/coop/Hard copy available from:Superintendent of DocumentsP.O. Box 371954Pittsburgh, PA 15250-7954202-512-1800http://bookstore.gpolgov/

Haney, Harry L., Jr. and William C. Siegel.1993. Estate Planning for Forest Landowners.General Technical Report SO-97. Order#PB94-121316. $45 plus shipping.Availble from: National Technical InformationService5825 Port Royal RoadSpringfield, VA 221611-800-553-6847www.ntis.gov

Forest Tax Record Systems

Stier, Jeffrey C., 1996. Financial Record Bookfor Timber Growers (third edition).$5 plus $1.50 shipping and handlingAvailable from: Department of Forest Ecologyand ManagementUniversity of Wisconsin–Madison1630 Linden DriveMadison, WI 53706-1598

50

Sources of Forest Tax and Accounting Information

General Forest Tax Information

National Timber Tax web site: www.timbertax.org

APPENDIX E

51

In 1984, the Wisconsin legislature revised therecreational use statute. The new law limitsproperty owners’ responsibility for people whouse their land for recreation.

Except for some special situations describedelsewhere, landowners do not have a legalobligation to: 1. keep their property safe for recreationalactivity;2. inspect their property; or3. give warning of an unsafe condition, use oractivity on their property.

The law also eliminates liability of propertyowners for injuries to a person engaged in arecreational activity when the injuries arecaused by another recreational user or a wildanimal.

EXAMPLE 1: Grant Door receives permissionto hunt on Florence Clark’s property. Whilehunting, Grant is accidentally shot by anotherhunter. Florence Clark is protected by thestatute. She is not liable for Grant Door’sinjury.

This publication provides a summary andinterpretation of the key provisions of the newlaw. Persons wishing more information on thissubject should consult an attorney or get acopy of the statute from a library or court-house (Wis. Stats. 895.52).

What is a recreational activity?

The state statute defines recreational activity as"any outdoor activity undertaken for the purposeof exercise, relaxation or pleasure, includingpractice or instruction in any such activity.” Thestatute specifically lists 30 examples which fallwithin this general definition.

Wisconsin’s new recreational use statutedefines recreational activity as “any outdooractivity undertaken for the purpose ofexercise, relaxation or pleasure, includingpractice or instruction in any such activity.”The statute specifically lists the followingexamples of such activity:

hunting, bird-watching, ballooning, hiking,sleigh riding, snowmobiling, skating, sight-seeing, animal training, outdoor games,bicycling, motorcycling, hang gliding,camping, sledding skiing, water sports,cutting/removing wood, outdoor sports,outdoor education, horseback riding,fishing trapping, tobogganing, picnicking,exploring caves, nature study, rock-climbing, climbing observation towers, har-vesting the products of nature.

Under what circumstances arelandowners liable?

The state’s recreational use statute describescertain circumstances in which an owner maybe liable for an injury to a person using hisproperty. For example, the law does not limitor eliminate liability if a land owner sponsors aspectator sport since “organized team sport”is specifically excluded from the definition ofrecreational activity in the statute.

EXAMPLE 2: Langlade Richland sponsors asoftball tournament on land he owns. Duringthe tournament, a foul ball hits and injuresRock St. Croix. Richland is not protected bythe recreational use statute. St. Croix mayinitiate a lawsuit against Richland.

A private property owner’s liability likewise isnot limited if that owner receives more than$2,000 annually from those using his propertyfor recreation. These payments may be in the

Wisconsin’s Recreational Use Statute*

Limiting the injury liability of private landowners

Thomas G. Gerleman and Donald Last

APPENDIX F

*This statute has been revised since this article was published. If you have any specific questions, please consult alawyer or the current statute itself.

52 APPENDIX F

form of money or an equivalent amount ofgoods or services and must have beenreceived during the year in which the injurytook place. Commercial recreational busi-nesses therefore may be liable for injuries toguests or clients.

However, individuals may collect no more than$5 per person per day for permission togather products of nature, may receivepayments from the government or nonprofitgroups for the management/conservation ofthe property’s natural resources, and mayreceive a share of the harvested products ofnature from a recreational user. Suchpayments are not included in the $2,000payment rule described above.

EXAMPLE 3: Forest Sawyer charges a dailyuser fee to skiers and snowmobilers. His totalreceipts are more than $20,000 annually.Forest Sau!yer’s injury liability is not reducedby the recreational use statute.

EXAMPLE 4: Douglas Dodge sometimesreceives a share of the fireplace wood cut andremoved from his woodlot by PierceMarquette. Dodge is not liable if Marquette isinjured uhile engaged in this activity.

The law does not limit liability for an injury to arecreational user if the injury is caused by themalicious failure of the owner (or the owner’semployee or agent) to warn the user about anunsafe condition known to the owner.

EXAMPLE 5: A group of teenagers receivepermission from Price Taylor to operate motor-ized three-wheelers on his land. Taylor at thetime was aware that a recent tornado hadscattered broken glass and nails in the areathe group planned to ride. He deliberatelywithholds this information because he “wantsto teach the kids a lesson.” One of the teenswas injured by the broken glass. ln any sub-sequent lawsuit, if Taylor’s malicious intent isproved, he is not protected by the recreationaluse statute.

EXAMPLE 6: Lincoln Adams received permis-sion to hunt on Monroe Washington’s land.Adams asks Washington if there is anything towatch out for. Washington says “no” becausehe is unaware that a recent heavy rain haswashed out part of a pathway. Adams laterstumbles in the washout and breaks his leg.Because Washington was not aware of thehazard, he is protected by the statute.

A property owner may be liable for an injury toa social guest who is expressly and individu-ally invited for the occasion during which theinjury occurs, but only if the injury took place:1) on platted land (generally land that hasbeen developed); or 2) on residential property(a building designed and used as a privatedwelling, and the land around the buildingwithin a 300-foot radius); or 3) on propertywhich is within 300 feet of a building or struc-ture that is legally classified for mercantile ormanufacturing use.

EXAMPLE 7: Vernon Sauk has a tennis courtnext to his home. Sauk invites Ashland Burnettto play a game of tennis. Burnett is injuredwhile jumping over the net. Burnett can sueSauk because the injury occurred within 300feet of his home. Vernon Sauk invites CalumetWood to ride one of his newly purchasedhorses. The horse bolts and Wood injures ahip in falling off. Because the accidenthappened several hundred yards from Sauk’shome and outbuildings, Sauk is protectedfrom a lawsuit by Wood.

A property owner is liable for injuries toemployees if they are acting within the scopeof their duties. Therefore, this statute does notprevent an employee who sustains an injurywhile on the job from suing an employer.

EXAMPLE 8: Juneau Dunn owns two dairyfarms located several miles from each other.Dunn’s farmhand, Walworth Green, sometimesuses a motorbike to travel between farms.Green skids in loose gravel one day and isinjured. Because Green was acting within thescope of his employment, the recreational usestatute does not protect Dunn from liability.Another Dunn farmhand, Barron Brown, invitesseveral friends to ride dirt bikes on his day off.While riding on Dunn’s land, Brown is thrownfrom the bike and cracks a collarbone. Eventhough Brown is Dunn’s employee, the recre-ational use statute limits Dunn’s liabilitybecause the dirt-bike riding is outside thescope of Brown’s responsibilities as a farmemployee.

Summary

Wisconsin’s recently revised recreational usestatute protects private (as opposed to com-mercial) property owners by limiting their legalresponsibility for persons who may be injuredwhile using that owner’s land for recreationalpurposes. A recreational activity is defined asnearly every outdoor pursuit except organizedteam sports.

In general, property owners are not liable forinjury to a recreational user that is caused bythe natural conditions of the land, by otherrecreational users, or by wild animals. Ownersmay be liable for injuries to recreational usersof their land if they fail to warn about a hazardknown to them, or if they have a maliciousintent to injure the user. There are other situa-tions in which landowners may be liable, suchas when an injury occurs to an invited guestnear the home or near a building used forselling or making something, or when theowner receives a substantial payment for therecreational usage.

Wisconsin’s recreational use statute serves toclarify the legal responsibility of propertyowners who allow others to use their land foroutdoor exercise, relaxation or pleasure.People who use an owner’s land without per-mission are Trespassing. They are subject toarrest and conviction under another section ofstate law. This law, as recently amended, isexplained in a publication entitled Wisconsin’sTrespass Law, available from countyUniversity of Wisconsin-Extension offices.

RECREATIONAL USE STATUTE 53

54

This Contract is entered into by and between ______________________________ of ______________________________(Seller),

and __________________________________________ of ____________________________________ (Purchaser).

The Seller hereby authorizes the Purchaser to enter upon the following described lands, (the Premises); for purposes of cutting andremoving timber marked or otherwise designated by the Seller.

Those Premises are further described on the map(s) or diagram(s) attached to and made a part of this Contract.

FOR AND IN CONSIDERATION of the following terms and conditions the Seller and the Purchaser mutually agree:

CONTRACT PERIOD AND TERMINATION

1. Time is of the essence, therefore, the Purchaser shall cut all timber or forest products described in paragraph 6 and complete all otherperformance described herein with reasonable diligence so performance is completed no later than ——————————————. The period ofthis contract commences upon its signing by both parties and the Purchaser providing the owner with all required bonds and certificates ofinsurance.

2. The Seller or Agent shall notify the Purchaser in the event of a breach of any condition of the Contract at which time all operations shallimmediately cease, and continued occupancy on the Premises shall be a trespass. Upon notification, operations may not be resumed normay timber be cut or removed without written authorization from the Seller.

3a. The Purchaser has deposited cash, a surety bond, a certified check, or other form acceptable to the Seller in the amount of $————————— as a performance bond, to assure proper performance and to be held until the completion of all conditions of the Contractto the satisfaction of the Seller.

b. Upon breach of any condition of this Contract, the performance bond shall be applied to actual damages incurred by the Seller.

c. If timber or other forest products not specifically described in this Contract or designated by the Seller for cutting are cut, damaged orremoved by the Purchaser, the Seller may pursue any and all remedies for the unlawful use of the Seller’s property and the cutting, damageor removal of property without consent, including the seeking of criminal or civil charges for theft, timber theft or criminal damage toproperty in addition to its Contract remedies for breach.

d. The Seller’s damages upon the Purchaser’s failure to perform this Contract include, but are not limited to: (1) The Purchaser’s bid value oftimber not cut and removed under this Contract. (2) Double the mill value, as determined by the Seller, for timber cut, removed or damagedwithout authorization under or in violation of this Contract. (3) All costs of sale area cleanup, restoration or completion of performance notcompleted by the Purchaser. (4) All costs of resale of timber not cut and removed as required under this Contract.

e. Additional damage provisions:

4. No forest products may be removed from the Premises until the products are paid for by the Purchaser or guarantees for payment satis-factory to the Seller are provided.

5. Title to any forest products cut under this Contract shall remain with the Seller until payment is received.

PRODUCTS TO BE REMOVED

6. The Purchaser is authorized and shall cut, remove and pay for the following timber or forest products during the period of this contract:

Sample Timber Sale Contract

APPENDIX G

TIMBER SALE CONTRACT 55

PAYMENTS

7a. LUMP SUM SALE:

(a) The Purchaser agrees to pay Seller an amount of $ ————————— to be paid under the following schedule:

(b) The Seller is not obligated to return the payment in part a, or any portion of it in the event the Purchaser fails to remove all timber orforest products authorized for removal.

b. SCALE PRODUCTS SALE: (As an alternative to a lump sum payment, the payment may be designated by price per cord or MBF perspecies with an estimate of forest products available.) Payment to the Seller shall be made based upon the following and as furtherdescribed herein:

TOTALESTIMATED PRICE PER UNIT ESTIMATED

SPECIES PRODUCTS VOLUME MBF FT CORD VALUE

TOTAL

8. Log and tree volumes shall be determined by the Scribner Decimal C system.

9. Cord means a standard measure of piled wood 4’ x 4’ x 96” to 100”. Cord products of other dimensions shall be converted to standardcords.

UTILIZATION

10. Maximum stump height shall not exceed stump diameter, and for stumps of diameter less than 10 inches it shall not exceed 10 inches.

11. Timber or forest growth, whether mature or not, may not be damaged through careless operations or unnecessary equipment use.

12. The Purchaser agrees to complete all operations as described herein without waste or nuisance on the premises.

13. Additional equipment and operation requirements:

NOTICE OF INTENT TO CUT AND COMPLIANCE WITH LAWS

14. The —————————————————— shall make and file a written declaration to the county clerk of his or her intention to cut forestproducts pursuant to section 26.03, Stats., and comply with all other notice requirements and laws and ordinances with respect to workunder this Contract.

SLASH AND DEBRIS DISPOSAL

15. Slash falling in any lake or stream, in a right-of-way or on land of an adjoining landowner shall be immediately removed from the waters,right-of-way or adjoining land. Tops from felled trees may not be left hanging in standing trees. All trees shall be completely felled and notleft leaning or hanging in other trees.

16. Other slash disposal requirements:

17. The Purchaser shall remove, to the satisfaction of the Seller, all solid waste, trash and debris generated by the Purchaser.

ROADS, CAMPS, SURVEY CORNERS

18. Location, construction, and use of logging roads, mill sites and camp sites is subject to advance approval by the Seller. All such areasor facillties used or constructed by the Purchaser must be operated, maintained and restored prior to termination of the Contract in amanner satisfactory to the Seller. Purchaser shall repair damage to existing roads .

19. Logging roads that intersect town, county, or state roads or highways must have the intersections approved by the proper authoritiesprior to construction and cleared of all unsightly debris at the time of construction.

56 APPENDIX G

20. The Purchaser agrees to pay for the cost of repair or replacement of property or any land survey monuments or accessories which areremoved or destroyed or made inaccessible.

21. Other restoration requirements (i.e., seeding, gravel, rutting, culvert removal, etc.):

22. Erosion control requirements:

LIABILITY

23. The Purchaser agrees to protect, indemnify and save harmless the Seller and the Seller’s employees and agents from and against allcauses of action, claims, demands, suits, liability or expense by reason of loss or damage to any properly or bodily injury to any person,including death, as a direct or indirect result of timbering operations under this contract or in connection with any action or omission of thePurchaser, who shall defend the Seller in any cause of action or claim. In addition, the Purchaser agrees to furnish the Seller with a certifi-cate of insurance of current coverage under the Worker’s Compensation Law, Chapter 102, Stats., and public liability insurance for theperiod of logging operations on the Seller’s property in the amount of:a. Personal injury: $300,000 single limit liability or $100,000 bodily injury per person and $300,000 per occurrence. b. Property damage: $100,000.

GENERAL

24. The Purchaser is an independent contractor for all purposes including Worker’s Compensation and is not an employee or agent of theSeller. The Seller agrees that the undersigned Purchaser, except as otherwise specifically provided herein, shall have the sole control of themethod, hours worked, time and manner of any timber cutting to be performed hereunder. The Seller reserves the right only to inspect thejob site for the sole purpose of insuring that the cutting is progressing in compliance with the cutting practices established under thisContract. The Seller takes no responsibility for supervision or direction of the performance of any of the harvesting to be performed by theundersigned Purchaser or of its employees. The Seller further agrees that it will exercise no control over the selection and dismissal of thePurchaser’s employees.

25. The Seller agrees to initially designate the timber to be sold and may make inspections for the purposes of ascertaining whether thetimber has been cut and the Contract has been complied with. All work shall be performed in a workman-like manner. Work shall be per-formed in accordance with the requirements of the contract. The parties stipulate that in fulfillment of the terms of this timber sale Contract,the Seller warrants that the Seller has clear and unencumbered title to the stumpage subject to this Contract.

26. The purchaser agrees to take reasonable precautions to prevent the starting and spreading of fires. The Purchaser is responsible fordamage and forest fire suppression costs, including that provided in ss. 26.14 and 26.21, Wis. Stats., caused by the Purchaser’s operationunder this contract.

27. This Contract or work under it may not be assigned or subcontracted in part or in whole without prior written approval from the Sellerand may be changed or amended only in writing. The Purchaser agrees to notify the surety, if any, of any such change or amendment.

28. This Contract, together with specifications in the request for bids as well as reference to parts and attachments, shall constitute theentire agreement and any previous communications or agreements pertaining to this Contract are hereby superseded. Any amendments tothis Contract shall be in writing signed by both parties.

Date ————————— Seller ————————————————————————————————————

Date ————————— Purchaser————————————————————————————————————

Date ———————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————

Authors: Scott R. Craven and Robert L. Ruff are professors of wildlife ecology with the College of Agriculturaland Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin–Madison and wildlife specialists with the University ofWisconsin–Extension. Darrel Covell was formerly a wildlife ecology outreach specialist with the College ofAgricultural and Life Sciences at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. John Kubisiak is a biologist with theDepartment of Natural Resources. Stephen DeStefano was a project associate with the Department of WildlifeEcology, University of Wisconsin–Madison and is currently a research associate with the Oregon CooperativeResearch Unit at Oregon State University.

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Acts of May 8 and June30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, University ofWisconsin–Extension, Cooperative Extension. University ofWisconsin–Extension provides equal opportunities in employment and program-ming, including Title IX and ADA requirements. If you need this information in analternative format, contact the Office of Equal Opportunity and DiversityPrograms or call Extension Publishing at (608) 262-2655.

© 2001 by the Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System. Sendinquiries about copyright permission to: Director, Cooperative ExtensionPublishing, 201 Hiram Smith Hall, 1545 Observatory Dr., Madison, WI 53706.

You can obtain copies of this publication from your Wisconsin county Extensionoffice or from Cooperative Extension Publications, 45 N. Charter Street, Madison, WI 53715, 608-262-3346.Outside Madison, call toll free: 1-877-WIS-PUBS (947-7827). Before publicizing, please check on this publication’s availability.

To see more Cooperative Extension publications, visit our web site: www.uwex.edu/ces/pubs/

G3578 A LANDOWNER’S GUIDE TO WOODLAND WILDLIFE MANAGEMENTwith emphasis on the ruffed grouse R-08-01-2M-675