A Kaleidoscope of Models and Strategies for Teaching English to Speekers of Other Languages by Deborah LNorland & Terry Pruett Said

A Ka lei do scope of Mod els and Strat e gies forTeach ing Eng lish to Speak ers of Other Lan guages

A Ka lei do scope of Mod els and Strat e giesfor Teach ing Eng lish to Speak ers of

Other Lan guages

Deborah L. Norland, Ph.D.,and Terry Pruett-Said

Teacher Ideas Press, an im print of Li brar ies Un lim itedWestport, Con nect i cut • Lon don

Li brary of Con gress Cat a log ing-in-Pub li ca tion Data

Norland, Deborah L. A ka lei do scope of mod els and strat e gies for teach ing Eng lish to speak ers of other lan guages / by Deborah L. Norland and Terry Pruett-Said. p. cm. In cludes bib lio graph i cal ref er ences and in dex. ISBN 1-59158-372-1 (pbk. : alk. pa per) 1. Eng lish lan guage—Study and teach ing—For eign speak ers. 2. Ef fec tive teach ing. I. Pruett-Said, Terry. II. Ti tle. PE1128.A2N64 2006 428.0071—dc22 2006023739

Brit ish Li brary Cat a logu ing in Pub li ca tion Data is avail able.

Copy right © 2006 by Li brar ies Un lim ited

All rights re served. No part of this book may be re pro duced in any form or by any elec tronic or me chan i cal means, in clud ingin for ma tion stor age and re trieval sys tems, with out per mis sion inwrit ing from the pub lisher, ex cept by a re viewer, who may quote brief pas sages in a re view. Re pro duc ible pages may be cop ied for class roomand ed u ca tional pro grams only.

Li brary of Con gress Cat a log Card Num ber: 2006023739ISBN: 1-59158-372-1

First pub lished in 2006

Li brar ies Un lim ited/Teacher Ideas Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881A Mem ber of the Green wood Pub lish ing Group, Inc.www.lu.com

Printed in the United States of Amer ica

The pa per used in this book com plies with the Per ma nent Pa per Stan dard is sued by the Na tionalIn for ma tion Stan dards Or ga ni za tion (Z39.48–1984).

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Con tentsPref ace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viiIn tro duc tion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

Chap ter 1—His tor i cal Ap proaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Au dio-Lin gual Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2Di rect Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Gram mar-based Ap proaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Chap ter 2—Solo Ap proaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Com mu nity Lan guage Learn ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12Si lent Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Suggestopedia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Chap ter 3—Com mu ni ca tive Ap proaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Com mu ni ca tive Lan guage Learn ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Co op er a tive Lan guage Learn ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Ex pe ri en tial Lan guage Teach ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25No tional-Func tional Ap proach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27To tal Phys i cal Re sponse (TPR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Chap ter 4—Lan guage Arts Ap proaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31Lan guage Ex pe ri ence Ap proach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32Lit er a ture-based Ap proach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34Nat u ral Ap proach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36Whole Lan guage Ap proach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Chap ter 5—Ac a demic and Pro fes sional Ap proaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41Cog ni tive Ac a demic Lan guage Learn ing Ap proach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42Con tent-based Sec ond Lan guage In struc tion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44Eng lish for Ac a demic Pur poses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49Eng lish for Spe cific Pur poses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52Lex i cal Ap proach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55Com pe tency-based Ap proach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57Crit i cal Ped a gogy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60Fam ily Lit er acy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64Learner-cen tered Ap proach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66Vo ca tional Eng lish as a Sec ond Lan guage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Bib li og ra phy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71In dex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

v

Pref acePref acePref ace

This ka lei do scope is a col lec tion of var i ous ESOL (Eng lish to speak ers of other lan guages) meth odsand mod els or ori en ta tions for those who teach or will teach Eng lish-lan guage learn ers (ELLs). ESOLteach ers may come in con tact with these or wish to learn them for fu ture ref er ence. The meth ods and mod -els are not just those that we, the au thors, prac tice or rec om mend. In fact, we have tried to list as manystrat e gies and mod els or ori en ta tions as pos si ble in the hope that read ers will be able to eval u ate and dis -cover which meth ods and mod els will work best for their par tic u lar teach ing sit u a tions.

In an at tempt to be as in clu sive as pos si ble, we have tried our best to cover the di verse realms ofESOL teach ing. We have in cluded meth ods and ori en ta tions that are prac ticed in K–12 schools, at the col -lege and uni ver sity level, and in adult ed u ca tion pro grams. A num ber of these meth ods and ori en ta tionsmay have dif fer ent names in dif fer ent sit u a tions, and we have tried to list the vari a tions of these names.No doubt, how ever, there are terms for these meth ods and mod els that we have not en coun tered. In fact,there may be meth ods and mod els that we have not in cluded, al though we have tried our best to cover asmuch ter ri tory as pos si ble. No meth ods, strat e gies, mod els, or ori en ta tions have been pur posely left out.You may also no tice that some of the meth ods/strat e gies and mod els/ori en ta tions may not be in cur rentfash ion. In an at tempt to be in clu sive we have in cor po rated these, but with com ments re gard ing what wesee as their in her ent ca ve ats.

Sug ges tions for Us ing the Text

The ESOL mod els and meth ods are listed in al pha bet i cal or der in the hand book. Vari a tions on the ori -en ta tions’ and meth ods’ names are listed next to the name we most com monly found at tached to the methodor ori en ta tion. We have then in cluded a brief back ground on the method or model that in cludes when pos si -ble, a the o ret i cal sum ma ri za tion of the method, its de vel op ment, and its cur rent use and ap pli ca tion.

This is fol lowed by the gen eral strat egy fre quently used to teach and/or pre pare cur ric u lum us ing this method or model. In an at tempt to make the strat egy eas ily ac ces si ble we have pre sented the strat egy insteps. Nev er the less, it is pos si ble that in dif fer ent sit u a tions cer tain steps might be elim i nated or othersteps added. In or der to help read ers con cep tu al ize the method or ori en ta tion we have in cluded some ex -am ples and ap pli ca tions. Again read ers should be aware that these ex am ples may not al ways be ap pro pri -ate as is for their par tic u lar sit u a tion. But we would hope such ex am ples would give read ers the guid anceneeded to de velop their own ap pli ca tions.

Al though our goal is to pres ent a re source of meth ods and mod els with ob jec tiv ity and lim ited bias,we nev er the less feel it nec es sary to pres ent ca ve ats re gard ing the meth ods and mod els as we see them. Inad di tion, we want read ers to be aware that all meth ods and mod els may be in ap pro pri ate in cer tain sit u a -tions, and thus, we have made com ments in the “Weak ness/Mod i fi ca tions” section re gard ing lim i ta tionsof the meth ods and ori en ta tions as well as mod i fi ca tions that can be made in dif fer ent sit u a tions.

In the pro cess of ac cu mu lat ing these meth ods and ori en ta tions we have dis cov ered that many ofthem over lap, and are def i nitely not en ti ties in and of them selves. Thus, we have in cluded a “See also”sec tion that lists other meth ods which are com pat i ble. At the end of each method and ori en ta tion we havein cluded a list of ma te ri als in which read ers may find more in for ma tion re gard ing the method ormodel. Some of these ma te ri als give the the o ret i cal and de vel op men tal back ground re gard ing themethod or model. Oth ers are col lec tions of mod els for les sons and other ap pli ca tions. The lists are byno means ex haus tive. The ma te ri als listed were cho sen to give read ers ini tial en try into the method ormodel pre sented.

vii

In tro duc tionIn tro duc tionIn tro duc tion

What Is ESL?

The ac ro nym ESL stands for Eng lish as a sec ond lan guage. In the United States, ESL re fers to theteach ing of those stu dents for whom Eng lish is not a first lan guage. Some peo ple don’t like the term ESL,point ing out that in many cases Eng lish may be the third or fourth lan guage of the stu dents. In ad di tion, insome coun tries, like In dia, Sin ga pore, or Kenya, ESL has a slightly dif fer ent mean ing. In those places, itre fers to the fact that Eng lish is a sec ond of fi cial lan guage that is learned in school and of ten used in gov -ern ment and busi ness but may not be the first lan guage of the majority of people.

In fact, a num ber of other terms are used to de scribe ESL. You may see the term ESOL (Eng lish forstu dents of other lan guages). The ac ro nym TESOL re fers to “teach ing Eng lish to stu dents of other lan -guages.” TESOL is also the name of the pro fes sional in ter na tional or ga ni za tion of teach ers of ESOL. You may also see other terms such as ELL (Eng lish lan guage learn ing) and ELD (Eng lish lan guage de vel op -ment) used to de scribe stu dents and pro grams that serve stu dents who are learn ing Eng lish as a sec ondlan guage. You may also see the term LEP (lim ited Eng lish pro fi ciency) to de scribe ESL stu dents. How -ever, most ESL prac ti tio ners dis like this term be cause they do not feel that ESL students are limited.

You may also see the term EFL, which stands for Eng lish as for eign lan guage. Gen er ally, EFL isused to de scribe Eng lish teach ing that oc curs in places where Eng lish is not the na tive lan guage, and ESLis used to de scribe Eng lish teach ing that oc curs in places like the United States, Can ada, Eng land, andAus tra lia where the first lan guage of most people is English.

Who Are ESL Stu dents?

In the United States, many dif fer ent peo ple are ESL stu dents. Many are K–12 stu dents, of ten im mi -grants who have re cently ar rived with their fam i lies. In other cases, they and their fam i lies may have beenin the United States for a lon ger pe riod of time. Many im mi grant chil dren, es pe cially from ref u gee fam i -lies, may have re sided in a num ber of coun tries be fore ar riv ing in the United States. Some of them mayhave lim ited school ing. Some of them may not know how to read and write in their na tive lan guage. Butother ESL stu dents may have had very good school ing and may al ready be able to read and write in morethan one lan guage. Other stu dents who may need ESL ser vices are chil dren adopted from overseas byAmerican parents.

There are also na tive-born non-Eng lish stu dents who may re ceive ESL ser vices un der the um brellaof bi lin gual ed u ca tion. These may in clude Na tive Amer i cans, Pa cific Is land ers, and many His pan ics. An -other group that some times re ceives lan guage ser vices un der the um brella of ESL are di a lect-dif fer entstu dents. These are stu dents who speak a di a lect of Eng lish dif fer ent from the stan dard Eng lish used in aschool or job set ting in the United States. Many of these stu dents may come from the Ca rib bean or coun -tries such as Hong Kong and Ma lay sia where Eng lish is spo ken but the di a lect may be dif fer ent enough tocause communication problems in the United States.

Many ESL stu dents are adults. In some cases, they are in ter na tional stu dents who have come to theUnited States to study in higher ed u ca tion but need to im prove their Eng lish skills be fore en roll ing at acol lege or uni ver sity. In other cases, they are al ready en rolled but need Eng lish sup port to help them im -prove their Eng lish. In other cases, adults im mi grate to the United States. Like chil dren, they have a widerange of ed u ca tion and lan guage lev els. Some adults may not be lit er ate in their own lan guage. In othercases, adults may have ad vanced de grees from their own coun tries and al ready know a num ber of otherlan guages. Other adults come to the United States as vis it ing pro fes sion als in busi ness or gov ern ment.While here they may want to im prove their Eng lish. Thus, the needs of ESL students can vary widely.

ix

What’s the Dif fer ence be tween an Ap proach, a Method, and a Tech nique?

In gen eral an ap proach is viewed as an over all the ory about learn ing lan guage, which then lends it -self to “ap proach ing” lan guage teach ing and learn ing in a cer tain man ner. A method is of ten viewed as ase ries of pro ce dures or ac tiv i ties used to teach lan guage in a cer tain way. A tech nique is usu ally seen asone ac tiv ity or pro ce dure used within a plan for teach ing. The re al ity is, how ever, that lan guage teach ingpro fes sion als of ten find them selves in dis agree ment over these terms. De pend ing on how one is de fin ingthe term and the cir cum stances in which the term is be ing used, an ap proach may be come a method or amethod may be come a tech nique. For this rea son, we have de cided to use ap proaches to de scribe all theways of lan guage teach ing we pres ent in our book. Af ter our read ers are in tro duced to these var i ous ap -proaches, they may de cide for them selves how they wish to categorize them and how they fit into theirsyllabus.

So Which Ap proach Is Best?

There is no one best ap proach be cause the cir cum stances and needs of ESL stu dents vary so greatly.To choose ap proaches that are the most ap pro pri ate for your stu dents, you must take into ac count manyvari ables. What are your stu dents’ needs? Where will they use their Eng lish? Will they need their Eng lishfor school? Will they need their Eng lish for work? What kind of work do they do? How old are they? How much time do they have to learn Eng lish? Have they stud ied Eng lish or an other lan guage be fore? Howwell do they know their own lan guage?

Which Ap proach Is Best for Cer tain Groups?

Even within cer tain groups there may not be one best ap proach. None the less, there are cer tain ap -proaches that tend to be used more of ten with cer tain groups than oth ers. For ex am ple, in K–12 many ESL ap proaches are sim i lar to the lan guage arts ap proaches used to teach lan guage to na tive speak ers. We have grouped those ap proaches in the Lan guage Arts sec tion. But just as com mu ni ca tive ap proaches are alsoused with na tive speak ers learn ing their own lan guage, so they are fre quently part of the teach ing ped a -gogy of K–12 ESL teach ers. It is also im por tant to un der stand that stu dents in school must learn the Eng -lish used in school. This is es pe cially im por tant for ESL stu dents who ar rive in the United States at anolder age such as mid dle school or high school. You will find some ap pro pri ate ap proaches for these stu -dents discussed under the Academic/Professional section.

In the United States, there are pro grams avail able for var i ous types of adult ESL stu dents. Many stu -dents who have just ar rived may find them selves in adult ba sic ed u ca tion ESL pro grams spon sored by thegov ern ment. These pro grams of ten use some of the ap proaches dis cussed in the Adult Lit er acy sec tion.But such pro grams also make use of lan guage arts ap proaches. In some cases, such as fam ily lit er acy pro -grams, both K–12 and adult ba sic ed u ca tion pro grams are in volved in the same pro gram. Other adult stu -dents are here as stu dents in higher ed u ca tion or on a pro fes sional ba sis. Many of the ap proaches used forthese stu dents can be found in Chap ter 5, “Ac a demic and Pro fes sional Ap proaches.”

Why Do We Need to Know about Var i ous Meth ods and Ap proaches?

Al though there may be no sin gle best ap proach, there are best ap proaches for par tic u lar cir cum -stances, as we men tioned ear lier. In ad di tion, to be a pro fes sional and an ef fec tive ESL teacher, one mustbe aware of the dif fer ent the o ries and ap proaches that have de vel oped. Most ef fec tive teach ers choosefrom a num ber of ap proaches, meth ods, and tech niques to cre ate a learn ing en vi ron ment that fits the

x In tro duc tion

needs of their stu dents. They put these ap proaches to gether to cre ate a var ied syl la bus and an op ti mumlearn ing ex pe ri ence. Some times this is re ferred to as se lec tive eclec ti cism. It may also be re ferred to as anor ganic or in te grated syl la bus or cur ric u lum. This does not mean that teach ers can just put to gether abunch of ac tiv i ties to cre ate a plan. Good teach ers must al ways con sider what the re sults of these ac tiv i ties will be and how these will form a long-term, effective program to teach another language.

Aren’t Some Ap proaches Out dated?

Al though it is true that some ap proaches be come out dated as ESL prac ti tio ners find that they do notdo a very good job of meet ing ei ther teach ers’ or stu dents’ needs, most have some strong points aboutthem that tend to be bor rowed to use with other ap proaches and thus have be come a part of con tem po raryteach ing ap proaches. In ad di tion, there is a ten dency in ed u ca tion for the pop u lar ity of ap proaches toswing back and forth. Thus, an ap proach that may be pop u lar one de cade may find it self out a fa vor in thenext. This makes it all the more im por tant that teach ers be aware of the many ap proaches, with theirstrengths and weak nesses, so that they can use this knowl edge to create an effective curriculum.

In tro duc tion xi

1

His tor i cal Ap proaches1—His tor i cal Ap proachesHis tor i cal Ap proaches

1

Au dio-Lin gual MethodAu dio-Lin gual Method

Eng lish Skill Level: Be gin ning to In ter me di ateGrade Level: El e men tary to Adult (al though older adults may find the quick re call dif fi cult)

Back ground

The au dio-lin gual method (ALM) was de vel oped dur ing World War II in re ac tion to ap proaches that did not ad e quately de velop speak ing skills. ALM was strongly in flu enced by ideas from be hav ioral psy -chol ogy that led to the be lief that lan guage was a sys tem of hab its that could be taught by re in forc ing cor -rect re sponses and pun ish ing in cor rect re sponses. In an ALM les son, stu dents are asked to re peatcor rectly the word or phrase that the teacher has said. Stu dents are praised for cor rectly mim ick ing theteacher or are asked to re peat the phrase un til it is cor rect. Al though as pects of this method, such as drillsin the be gin ning stages of lan guage learn ing, con tinue to be used, most lan guage ed u ca tors now re al izethat language is more complex than mere mimicking.

Strat egy

1. The teacher orally pres ents a phrase to the stu dents.

2. Stu dents are then asked to re peat the phrase quickly.

3. If a stu dent pro nounces the phrase cor rectly and gram mat i cally, the stu dent is praised. Stu dentswho do not say it cor rectly are asked to re peat un til they can say it cor rectly.

4. The teacher mod i fies the phrase by chang ing a word in the phrase.

5. Stu dents con tinue with drills in which they try to say the phrase quickly and ac cu rately with var -i ous mod i fi ca tions.

Ap pli ca tions and Ex am ples

Teach ing Sim ple Pres ent Tense

1. The teacher pres ents the sim ple pres ent tense forms of a verb (or verbs) such as “like.”

2. The teacher says, “I like, he likes (em pha siz ing the end ing “s”), she likes, it likes, we like, youlike, they like.” The teacher may also add, “John likes, My mother likes,” etc.

3. Stu dents re peat cho rally, “I like, he likes, she likes, it likes, we like, you like, they like.”

4. The teacher then says the sen tence “I like cof fee.” Then the teacher cues an in di vid ual stu dentwith the word “he.” The stu dent is ex pected to re spond with “He likes cof fee.” If the re sponse isin cor rect, the stu dent is cor rected and asked to try again un til he or she can say the sen tence cor -rectly. The teacher cues other stu dents with other sub jects, so that a re place ment drill oc curs rap -idly around the room.

5. The teacher may then change not only the sub ject but also the ob ject. For ex am ple, the teachermay say to a stu dent, “He/tea.” The stu dent would cor rectly re spond, “He likes tea.” Then theteacher might give the cue, “They/par ties.”

6. The teacher might also use pic tures in stead of vo cal cues. The teacher might then in tro duce theneg a tive by mod el ing it, hav ing stu dents re peat it, and then do a drill in which stu dents are cued(per haps by an up turned or down-turned thumb) to make an af fir ma tive or neg a tive sentence.

2 1—His tor i cal Ap proaches

From A Ka lei do scope of Mod els and Strat e gies for Teach ing Eng lish to Speak ers of Other Lan guages by Deborah L. Norland, Ph.D.and Terry Pruett-Said. Westport, CT: Li brar ies Un lim ited/Teacher Ideas Press. Copy right © 2006.

Learn ing a Di a logue through ALM

1. The teacher pres ents a di a logue to the stu dents. The teacher shows a pic ture of two peo plespeak ing to each other. Go ing through the di a logue, the teacher points to the pic ture to in di catewho is speak ing.

2. The teacher then re peats each line of the di a logue. The stu dents re peat af ter the teacher.

3. The teacher re peats two lines of the di a logue as spo ken by each per son. One stu dent is cued tosay the first line of the di a logue. An other is cued to say the re spond ing line. The teacher cuesvar i ous stu dents around the room to say the same thing. The teacher and stu dents go through thedi a logue in this man ner un til they have prac ticed all the lines of dialogue.

4. Then stu dents are asked to per form the whole di a logue as a pair.

A Vi sual ALM Les son

Pre sented by Becky Sutter, a Lu ther Col lege ed u ca tion stu dent

1. The teacher holds up a se ries of pic tures of peo ple with spe cific oc cu pa tions. While show ingeach pic ture, the teacher says, “He is a firefighter” or “She is a po lice of fi cer,” etc. The stu dentsare in structed to re peat cho rally the ex act phrase that the teacher says right af ter she or he says it.

2. The teacher praises the stu dents as a group for re peat ing the phrase cor rectly or will ask them tore peat it again if sev eral stu dents have trou ble with it.

3. The teacher goes through the set of pic tures again, this time call ing on in di vid ual stu dents andprompt ing them with the same prompts pro vided be fore. The teacher praises the stu dents whore peat the phrase cor rectly and asks stu dents who re peat it in cor rectly to try again.

4. The teacher goes through the pic tures a third time, this time chang ing the prompt. She or he calls on a stu dent, prompts that per son with a pic ture of an oc cu pa tion, and says, “I,” “you,” “she,”“we,” or “they.” The stu dent is ex pected to pro duce a sen tence such as, “They are cooks.” Theteacher ei ther praises the stu dent or asks the stu dent to re peat the sen tence af ter her (or him) de -pend ing on the ac cu racy of the response.

Strengths

• Con trolled drills may en cour age shy stu dents to speak.

• Be cause ALM les sons and drills tend to go very quickly, they may help cre ate a sense of flu -ency for some stu dents.

Weak nesses

• Stu dents who need the writ ten word to re in force their speak ing and lis ten ing may find “pure”ALM very con fus ing.

• ALM fre quently uses nonauthentic lan guage.

• Some stu dents may be un able to make the tran si tion from con trolled drills to moreopen-ended and cre ative lan guage use.

Mod i fi ca tions

Al though “pure” ALM in sists on stu dents learn ing lis ten ing and speak ing be fore be ing ex posed tothe writ ten word, in many cases, teach ers may mod ify the method by writ ing in for ma tion on the board orgiv ing stu dents the di a logues in written form.

See also: Di rect Method

Au dio-Lin gual Method 3


Fur ther Read ing

Chastain, K. (1971). The de vel op ment of mod ern lan guage skills: The ory to prac tice. Phil a del phia:Cen ter for Cur ric u lum De vel op ment.

This book pro vides a lot of back ground as well as ex am ples of teach ing prac tices us ingAu dio-lin gual and cog ni tive ap proaches.

Colvin, R. J. (1986). I speak Eng lish: A tu tor’s guide to teach ing con ver sa tional Eng lish (3rd ed.).Syr a cuse, NY: Lit er acy Vol un teers of America.

Al though not a book on ALM, this book pres ents a num ber of drills that was of ten used inALM.

Larsen-Free man, D. (2000). The au dio-lin gual method. In Prin ci ples and tech niques of lan guageteach ing (2nd ed., pp. 35–51). Ox ford, Eng land: Ox ford Uni ver sity Press.

This re source is a pre sen ta tion and anal y sis of an au dio-lin gual class.

Rich ards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2001). The audiolingual method. In Ap proaches and meth ods inlan guage teach ing: A de scrip tion and anal y sis (pp. 50–69). Cam bridge, Eng land: Cam bridgeUni ver sity Press.

Rich ards and Rog ers pro vide an over view of ALM in clud ing its the o ret i cal and his tor i calback ground and ba sic ped a gog i cal pro ce dures.



Di rect Method1—His tor i cal Ap proachesDi rect Method

Eng lish Skill Level: Ad vanced Be gin ning to Ad vancedGrade Level: Up per El e men tary to Adult

Back ground

The ba sis of this method was de vel oped in Eu rope by Francois Gouin in the 1880s. His prem ise wasthat it was best to learn an other lan guage by lis ten ing to it and speak ing it just as chil dren do in stead oflearn ing a set of gram mar rules and vo cab u lary lists. The goal of this method is to teach stu dents, usu allyadults, how to con verse in ev ery day sit u a tions in an other lan guage. From this idea de vel oped the di rectmethod as an an tith e sis to the gram mar-trans la tion ap proach. A cou ple of de cades later, the di rect methodwas pop u lar ized in the United States by Charles Berlitz (who called it the Berlitz Method) and used it inhis com mer cial Berlitz lan guage schools. Other as pects of the di rect method in clude class room in struc -tion ex clu sively in the tar get lan guage, only ev ery day lan guage is taught, and gram mar be ing learned in -duc tively. Al though this method’s ini tial in sis tence on us ing only the sec ond lan guage (L2) in theclass room as well as its lack of ac tiv i ties to de velop read ing and writ ing pre vented it from be ing ac ceptedin pub lic ed u ca tion, it has, with mod i fi ca tions, in flu enced some con tem po rary ap proaches such as com -mu ni ca tive lan guage teach ing, the nat u ral ap proach, and to tal phys i cal re sponse.

Strat egy

This method of ten de vel ops around a set of pic tures that por trays life in the coun try of the tar get lan -guage. From the be gin ning, stu dents are taught, and must re spond, in the tar get lan guage. Be sides pic -tures, realia and sim ple ac tions are used to get across mean ing. Les sons of ten fo cus aroundques tion-and-an swer di a logues. Cor rect pro nun ci a tion is also em pha sized, but cor rect struc ture is not.Stu dents may also read pas sages for in for ma tion about the tar get cul ture. Teach ers may ask ques tionsabout the read ing to check com pre hen sion, but it is never trans lated.

1. The teacher shows a set of pic tures that of ten por tray life in the coun try of the tar get lan guage.

2. The teacher de scribes the pic ture in the tar get lan guage.

3. The teacher asks ques tions in the tar get lan guage about the pic ture.

4. Stu dents an swer the ques tions as best they can us ing the tar get lan guage. Pro nun ci a tion is cor -rected, but gram mat i cal struc ture is not.

5. Stu dents may also read a pas sage in the tar get lan guage.

6. The teacher asks ques tions in the tar get lan guage about the read ing.

7. Stu dents an swer ques tions as best they can us ing the tar get lan guage.


1. The teach ers shows a pic ture of a beach in Florida. (Tour ist post ers work well for this.)

2. The teacher de scribes the pic ture: “There is a beau ti ful beach in Mi ami. It is near the ocean.There are some peo ple on the beach. They are wear ing bath ing suits. The woman is wear ing ahat. The man is swim ming. The chil dren are build ing a sand cas tle. There is a man sell ing icecream. The chil dren want to buy some ice cream. Their fa ther will buy them some ice cream.”The teacher may also use realia and other ma te rial to help stu dents un der stand the vocabulary.

Di rect Method 5


3. Stu dents are asked ques tions such as:

Where is the beach?

What are the peo ple wear ing?

What is the woman wear ing?

What is the man do ing?

What are the chil dren do ing?

What is the man sell ing?

What do the chil dren want?

Who will buy them ice cream?

4. Stu dents give the an swers. The teacher cor rects pro nun ci a tion but is not overly con cerned aboutgram mat i cal cor rect ness. The main goal is that stu dents are com mu ni ca tive.

5. Stu dents are then given a short read ing about tour ist at trac tions in Mi ami.

6. Stu dents are then asked ques tions about the read ing.

Strengths

• This is a quick way for stu dents to learn ba sic con ver sa tion skills.

• This teach ing method is help ful to teach ers who do not know their stu dents’ first lan guage (L1).

Weak nesses

• Some stu dents may be over whelmed with out ac cess to their first lan guage.

• Higher-or der dis course is not likely to be learned through this method.

• Not ap pro pri ate for learn ing ac a demic lit er acy skills.

See also: Nat u ral Ap proach, Com mu ni ca tive Lan guage Learn ing

Fur ther Read ing

Bowen, J. D., Madsen, H., & Hilferty, A. (1985). Where we’ve been: in sights from the past. InTESOL: Tech niques and pro ce dures (pp. 3–30). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

This text pro vides an in for ma tive sum mary of past lan guage teach ing ap proaches.

Celce-Murcia, M. (2001) Lan guage teach ing ap proaches: An over view. In Teach ing Eng lish as asec ond or for eign lan guage (3rd ed., pp. 1–11). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

This text pro vides an over view of past lan guage teach ing ap proaches with bulleted lists oftheir main points.

Larsen-Free man, D. (2000). Tech niques and prin ci ples in lan guage teach ing (2nd ed.). Ox ford,Eng land: Ox ford Uni ver sity Press.

This vol ume pro vides a dis cus sion of the di rect method in clud ing a sam ple les son fol -lowed by an anal y sis of the prin ci ples of the method.



Gram mar-based Ap proaches1—His tor i cal Ap proachesGram mar-based Ap proaches


Back ground

Gram mar-based ap proaches to lan guage learn ing have been used since an cient times. The mostwell known of his tor i cal gram mar-based ap proaches is the gram mar-trans la tion method in which stu -dents are pre sented a text and are asked to trans late the text word for word. While trans lat ing, stu dents’at ten tion is brought to the ap pro pri ate gram mar points to be taught. Al though the gram mar-trans la tionmethod has fallen out of fa vor mainly be cause of its in abil ity to fos ter com mu ni ca tive abil ity, othertypes of gram mar-based ap proaches are still in com mon use. What most con tem po rary uses of gram mar-based teach ing have in com mon is the use of gram mat i cal struc tures to guide the syl la bus or les son. Un -like ear lier gram mar-based ap proaches, more con tem po rary ap proaches, while pre sent ing and us inggram mar points as a guid ing force, en large on the gram mar point to make the syl la bus or les son morecom mu ni ca tive and au then tic.

Strat egy

1. The teacher pres ents the gram mat i cal struc ture or rule.

2. Stu dents prac tice of the struc ture.

3. Stu dents use the struc ture in a ho lis tic, au then tic man ner (in con tem po rary gram mar-based ap -proaches).


Teach ing the Pres ent Per fect Verb Tense

1. Stu dents read a pas sage that makes use of the pres ent per fect. Stu dents are asked to rec og nizethe pres ent per fect. Stu dents may also be asked why they think the pres ent per fect is used in thereading.

2. The teacher then orally and vi su ally ex plains the pres ent per fect. One way to do this is to writethe fol low ing on the board or over head:

a. How to make: sub ject + has/have + past par ti ci ple

Ex am ple: He has done his home work over.

Ex am ple: They have vis ited Chi cago sev eral times.

b. When to use:

For ac tions that be gan in the past and con tinue in the pres ent.

– I have lived in New York for five years.

For re peated ac tions.

– John has seen that movie five times.

For an ac tion that hap pened at an un spec i fied or un known time.

– She has al ready eaten lunch.

Gram mar-based Ap proaches 7


For an ac tion that was just com pleted.

– Jane and George have just fin ished paint ing their house.

3. Stu dents then do ex er cises to prac tice the tense. These ex er cises may be spo ken or writ ten ex er -cises. Stu dents may be gin with ex er cises in which they only need to write in the cor rect form.Stu dents may then do ex er cises prac tic ing ad verbs that of ten go with the pres ent per fect such asre cently, un til now, and so far. In ad di tion, they may prac tice ex er cises that ask them to rec og -nize the dif fer ence be tween the sim ple pres ent and the present perfect tense.

4. Stu dents then do ex pan sion and ap pli ca tion ex er cises in which they prac tice writ ing or speak ingabout a topic that en cour ages them to make use of the pres ent per fect. For ex am ple, stu dentsmay write or speak about places they have vis ited or ac tiv i ties they have done since com ing tothe coun try they are in now.

Strengths

• Stu dents who are an a lyt i cal learn ers may need to know the gram mar to make sense of a lan -guage.

• Stu dents who have learned other lan guages through gram mar-based ap proaches may find iteas ier to learn through this ap proach.

• Stu dents, es pe cially older ones, may need to know some gram mar to re pro duce the lan guagecor rectly.

Weak nesses

• If gram mar isn’t taught as part of a whole, stu dents may find that they know the gram marrules but not how to use the lan guage. It must be em pha sized to stu dents that gram mar is a tool to help learn a lan guage, not a means to an end.

• Stu dents may fo cus so much on gram mar that they don’t learn the other as pects of lan guage.

• Stu dents who are more ho lis tic learn ers may find gram mar les sons bor ing or even con fus ing.

Fur ther Read ing

Barbier, S. (1994). Trou ble some Eng lish: A teach ing gram mar for ESOL in struc tors. EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Re gents.

This teacher-friendly ref er ence and source book in cludes ac tiv i ties that can be used toteach stu dents gram mar.

Celce-Murcia, M. (1991). Gram mar ped a gogy in sec ond and for eign lan guage teach ing. TESOLQuar terly, 25, 3.

This in for ma tive ar ti cle ex plains when gram mar should be taught based on age, ed u ca -tional back ground, need, and goals of the learner.

Larsen-Free man, D. (1997). Gram mar and its teach ing: Chal leng ing the myths. Wash ing ton, DC:Eric Clear ing house on Lan guage and Lit er a ture. Re trieved May 3, 2006, from http://www.cal.org/re sources/di gest/Larsen01.html

This brief ar ti cle re futes ten pop u lar lan guage-learn ing myths about gram mar learn ing and teach ing.

Lock, G. (1996). Func tional Eng lish gram mar: An in tro duc tion for sec ond lan guage learn ers. Cam -bridge, Eng land: Cam bridge Uni ver sity Press.

An in-depth pre sen ta tion on the as pects of see ing gram mar from a func tional point of view as op posed to cat e go riz ing gram mar for mally.



Pen ning ton, M. C. (Ed.). (1995). New ways in teach ing gram mar. Alexandra, VA: Teach ers of Stu -dents of Other Lan guages (TESOL).

This col lec tion of ac tiv i ties and les sons is cat e go rized by the gram mar points that can beused to teach. It also in cludes an in for ma tive dis cus sion of the sit u ated pro cess view of gram -mar learn ing and teach ing.

Com puter-As sisted Lan guage Learn ing (CALL)

Gram mar ap proaches lend them selves well to com puter pro grams. A num ber of re cent ESL gram -mar text books now have ac com pa ny ing CDs and Web sites. Other gram mar prac tice soft ware in clude thefollowing:

Eng lish on call, McGraw-Hill Con tem po rary.This three-level pro gram uses contextualized, in ter ac tive ac tiv i ties to prac tice gram mar.

ESL fit ness, Merit Soft ware.This be gin ner to low-in ter me di ate pro gram in cludes three lev els that help stu dents with

Eng lish gram mar, us age, and spell ing.

ESL pic ture gram mar, avail able from Au dio-Fo rum.This in ter ac tive pro gram helps stu dents de velop sen tences and form verb tenses.

Fo cus on gram mar CD-ROM, Longman.This four-level soft ware pro gram gives gram mar prac tice through read ing, lis ten ing, and

writ ing ac tiv i ties.

Gram mar 3D: Contextualized prac tice for learn ers of Eng lish, Heinle & Heinle.This four-level tu to rial in cludes five hun dred ac tiv i ties and thirty-four gram mar top ics.

The gram mar cracker, Miller Ed u ca tional Ma te ri als.This CD-ROM pres ents gram mar rules and ac tiv i ties in an or ga nized man ner with work

be gin ning with sen tences and lead ing to es says and re ports.

Let’s go, Miller Ed u ca tional Ma te ri als.Twelve CDs can be used to teach chil dren lan guage and gram mar with di a logues, songs,

vo cab u lary, pho nics, and games.

Rosetta stone, Fairfield Tech nol o gies.This se ries fo cuses on lis ten ing ex er cises and is or ga nized around gram mar points.

Verbcon, Au dio-Fo rum.This two-part pro gram fo cuses on verb tense, as pects, moods, and voice.

Gram mar-based Ap proaches 9


2

Solo Ap proaches2—Solo Ap proachesSolo Ap proaches

11

Com mu nity Lan guage Learn ingCom mu nity Lan guage Learn ing

Eng lish Skill Level: Be gin ning to In ter me di ateGrade Level: El e men tary to AdultAlso Called: Coun sel ing-Learn ing

Back ground

The psy chol o gist Charles Curran de vel oped com mu nity lan guage learn ing (Coun sel ing-Learn ing in Sec ond Lan guages, 1976). Curran be lieved that stu dents were of ten in hib ited in learn ing a sec ond lan -guage. In his method, teach ers are viewed more as coun sel ors and are ex pected to fa cil i tate lan guagelearn ing as op posed to teach ing it. He be lieved that cre at ing a hu man is tic learn ing com mu nity wouldlower stu dents’ de fenses and en cour age open com mu ni ca tion, thus al low ing stu dents to com pre hend andab sorb lan guage more ef fi ciently. This ap proach is an ex am ple of an af fec tive ap proach. Af fec tive ap -proaches at tempt to make stu dents more emo tion ally com fort able within the class room in the be lief that if students are relaxed and open, they will be able to perform better.

Strat egy

1. Stu dents sit in a small cir cle.

2. The teacher stands be hind a stu dent.

3. The stu dent makes a state ment or poses a ques tion in his or her own lan guage.

4. The teacher trans lates the state ment or ques tion into the lan guage be ing learned.

5. The stu dent re peats what the teacher said.

6. The new phrase is re corded on a tape re corder.

7. The pro ce dure is re peated with other stu dents un til a short con ver sa tion is re corded.

8. Stu dents take a tape home or copy writ ten con ver sa tion from the board to study at home.

9. Di rect in struc tion of gram mar or vo cab u lary may take place from con ver sa tion.


Bed time Rou tine

Sub mit ted by Megan Larsen, Lu ther Col lege ed u ca tion stu dent

1. The teacher reads the story ¿Es hora? (M. Janovitz, North-South Books,1994) to the class. Theclass fol lows along with their own cop ies.

2. The teacher brings the class to gether in a cir cle.

3. The teacher chooses a stu dent and stands be hind him or her.

4. The teacher starts the ac tiv ity by ask ing, “¿Que es la primera cosa Lobito hacer en la cuenta?”

5. The stu dent makes a state ment about the story in Span ish by an swer ing the ques tion. He or shemay an swer, “Lobito se da un chapuzon.”

6. The teacher re peats the state ment the stu dent made in Eng lish: “Si, Baby Wolf takes a bath.”

7. The stu dent re peats the state ment in Eng lish, “Baby Wolf takes a bath,” while the teacher re -cords it, ei ther on au dio or vid eo cas sette.

8. The teacher moves on to the next stu dent, who is asked to re spond to the story.

12 2—Solo Ap proaches


9. Af ter all the stu dents have had a turn at speak ing, the teacher and stu dents lis ten to the tape to -gether and make a list of new vo cab u lary the stu dents learned—in both Eng lish and Spanish.

10. Stu dents take home both the tape and the writ ten vo cab u lary from the board.

Strengths

• CLL’s hu man is tic ap proach, which views stu dents and teach ers as a com mu nity, and thus theteacher as more fa cil i ta tor than teacher, fits in nicely with cur rent trends in education.

Weak nesses

• CCL re quires a num ber of con di tions that may make it dif fi cult to use in many sit u a tions. Tobe most ef fec tive, it re quires teach ers who are spe cif i cally trained in this method and also,ide ally, trained in coun sel ing techniques.

• CLL re quires bi lin gual teach ers and small, ho mo ge neous classes.

Fur ther Read ing

Blair, R. W. (1991). In no va tive ap proaches. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teach ing Eng lish as a sec -ond or for eign lan guage (2nd ed.). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

A va ri ety of tech niques and ap proaches are pre sented in this text, in clud ing com mu nitylan guage learn ing.

Larsen-Free man, D. (2000). Com mu nity lan guage learn ing. In Tech niques and prin ci ples in lan -guage teach ing (2nd ed., pp. 89–106). New York: Ox ford Uni ver sity Press, 2000.

An ex am ple of a com mu nity lan guage learn ing les son is pre sented and then an a lyzed.

Rich ards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Com mu nity lan guage learn ing. In Ap proaches and meth -ods in lan guage teach ing (2nd ed., pp. 90–99). Cam bridge, Eng land: Cam bridge Uni ver sityPress.

Com mu nity lan guage learn ing is among the mod els in this text ex am ined for lan guageteach ers.

Stevick, E. W. (1998). Work ing with teach ing meth ods: What’s at stake? Boston: Heinle & Heinle.This is one of the vol umes of the TeacherSource se ries. In this text, Stevick mod els a tech -

nique for teach ers that en ables them to be more self-re flec tive about the choices they makeabout the strat e gies and ma te ri als they choose to use.

Com mu nity Lan guage Learn ing 13


Si lent Way2—Solo Ap proachesSi lent Way

Eng lish Skill Level: Be gin ning to In ter me di ateGrade Level: El e men tary to Adult

Back ground

The Si lent Way, de vel oped in the 1960s by Ca leb Gattegno, is grounded in the be lief that stu dentsshould learn in de pend ently of the teacher. Gattengno pro posed that stu dents would learn better if they de -vel oped per sonal re spon si bil ity for their own learn ing. Thus, for much of the les son, the teacher re mainssi lent. Teach ing is viewed as sub or di nate to learn ing. Stu dents are en cour aged to work with one an otherto fig ure out mean ing. Stu dents are in tro duced to new ma te rial once through the use of Cuisinare rods(small col ored rods of vary ing lengths) and a se ries of wall charts. Af ter the teacher in tro duces the ma te -rial, it is up to the stu dents to de ter mine what they need to learn and in de pend ently work to ward their ac a -demic goals. Cer tain as pects of this ap proach, such as the use of Cuisinare rods and de vel op ing stu dentin de pend ence, con tinue to be used. How ever, this ap proach alone is rarely used be cause it is not prac ti calwithin the class room, and students need and desire more teacher input.

Strat egy

1. The teacher in tro duces a dis crete sound or struc ture by point ing at Si lent Way charts or by us ingCuisinare rods to dem on strate a struc ture or gram mar point.

2. Stu dents then fig ure out what they are learn ing and re pro duce the sound or struc ture.

3. Be tween ac tiv i ties or ses sions, stu dents may ask ques tions of the teacher.

4. The teacher then in tro duces an other dis crete sound or struc ture in the same man ner.

5. Stu dents again fig ure out the mean ing and re pro duce the sound or struc ture.

6. As time goes on, stu dents are ide ally able to com bine dis crete sounds and struc tures to cre atelon ger strings of lan guage.

Strengths

• Stu dents are in an en vi ron ment that en cour ages in de pend ence.

Weak nesses

• Some stu dents may need more teacher in put than what is pro vided through this method.

• Lan guage is not learned as a whole nor is it au then tic.

• Teach ers must have ac cess to ma te ri als and to the sys tem.

Fur ther Read ing

Stevick, E. (1980). One way of teach ing: The si lent way. In Teach ing lan guages: A way and ways(pp. 37–84). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

The si lent way is only one of many strat e gies dis cussed for lan guage teach ers.

Rich ards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2001). The si lent way. In Ap proaches and meth ods in lan guageteach ing (2nd ed., pp. 81–89). Cam bridge, Eng land: Cam bridge Uni ver sity Press.

A col lec tion of strat e gies and tech niques are in cluded in this work for teach ers of lan guage.



Suggestopedia2—Solo Ap proachesSuggestopedia

Eng lish Skill Level: Be gin ning to In ter me di ate Grade Level: El e men tary to Adult (al though adults who dis like back ground noise may find

Suggestopedia frus trat ing)

Back ground

Suggestopedia was de vel oped in the 1970s by Georgi Lozanov, a Bul gar ian psy chol o gist who con -tended that stu dents have dif fi culty learn ing an other lan guage be cause of psy cho log i cal bar ri ers. He be -lieved it is nec es sary to reach the stu dents’ un con scious for the new lan guage to be suc cess fully ab sorbed. If these bar ri ers are re moved, then stu dents would be suc cess ful. To re move such bar ri ers, Lozanov sug -gested drama, art, phys i cal ex er cise, psy cho ther apy, and yoga. He also en cour aged stu dents to choosenew names and iden ti ties. He es pe cially be lieved that play ing mu sic in the back ground dur ing a class,par tic u larly Ba roque mu sic, cre ated a re laxed state of mind in the stu dents leading to the ability to absorblarge quantities of information.

Strat egy

1. Stu dents sit in com fort able arm chairs in a semi cir cle to cre ate a re laxed at mo sphere.

2. The teacher reads or speaks a new text in har mony with the mu sic.

3. Stu dents read the text that has been trans lated into the tar get lan guage at the same time as theteacher says it in the na tive lan guage.

4. There is a pe riod of si lence.

5. Next, the teacher re peats the text while the stu dents lis ten but do not look at the text.

6. At the end, stu dents si lently leave the class room.

7. Stu dents are told to read the text quickly once be fore go ing to bed and once af ter get ting up inthe morn ing.

Strengths

• Some of the re lax ation meth ods, in clud ing back ground mu sic, may be help ful to stu dents.

Weak nesses

• The method re quires a class in which all the stu dents share the same first lan guage.

• It does not ad dress speak ing and writ ing.

• It is not com mu ni ca tive or cre ative.

• The ma jor ity of lan guage ac qui si tion re search ers feel that Suggestopedia does not work.

• Few class rooms have com fort able arm chairs.

• Some stu dents may be both ered in stead of re laxed by back ground mu sic.

Suggestopedia 15


Fur ther Read ing

Rich ards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Suggestopedia. In Ap proaches and meth ods in lan guagelearn ing (2nd ed., pp. 100–107). Cam bridge, Eng land: Cam bridge Uni ver sity Press.

Suggestopedia is ex am ined in this col lec tion of tech niques for lan guage learn ing.

Stevick, E. (1980). The work of Georgi Lozanov. In Teach ing lan guage: A way and ways (pp.229–243). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Suggestopedia is one of mul ti ple strat e gies for teach ing and learn ing lan guage pre sented.

Stevick, E. (1980). Some Suggestopedic ideas in non-Suggestopedic meth ods. In Teach ing lan -guage: A way and ways (pp. 244–259). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Suggestopedia is one of nu mer ous strat e gies for teach ing and learn ing lan guage pre sented.



3

Com mu ni ca tive Ap proaches3—Com mu ni ca tive Ap proachesCom mu ni ca tive Ap proaches

17

Com mu ni ca tive Lan guage Learn ingCom mu ni ca tive Lan guage Learn ing

Eng lish Skill Level: Be gin ning to Ad vancedGrade Level: El e men tary to Adult

Back ground

Com mu ni ca tive lan guage teach ing (CLT) was de vel oped in the 1960s from the re search and writ -ings of ap plied lin guists in both Eu rope and North Amer ica who em pha sized that lan guage equaled com -mu ni ca tion (Canale & Swain, 1980; Savignon, 1983; van Ek, 1975). In Eu rope, this ap proach led ini tiallyto the in sti tu tion of the no tional-func tional ap proach. In CLT, the goal of lan guage teach ing should not betrans lat ing and learn ing a set of rules but should be based on the goal of com mu ni ca tive com pe tence.Com mu ni ca tive com pe tence is most fre quently de fined as the abil ity to cre ate mean ing when in ter act ingwith oth ers in the tar get lan guage. Thus, the fo cus in CLT is on com mu ni ca tion in au then tic sit u a tions.Since the 1970s, this ap proach has been ex panded on and has come to play a central role in mostcontemporary language teaching situations.

Strat egy

Be cause CLT is such a broad ori en ta tion, it is dif fi cult to give spe cific strat e gies. How ever, the broad guide lines are as fol lows:

1. De ter mine the com mu ni ca tive goals of the stu dents.

2. Cre ate sit u a tions and ac tiv i ties in which stu dents pro duce au then tic, mean ing ful, andcontextualized com mu ni ca tion.

3. Fo cus on ac cu racy only in as much as er rors that would im pede com mu ni ca tion are cor rected.


Au then tic Role-Plays

In this les son, stu dents are in tro duced to a num ber of con ver sa tions that might oc cur when one is avis it ing in ter na tional stu dent. Ex am ples might in clude be ing in vited to some one’s house, mak ing smalltalk at a party, be ing of fered re fresh ments, and be ing asked to go out.

1. Stu dents are asked what they would do and say in these var i ous sit u a tions. This gives the teacher the chance to dis cuss not only vo cab u lary used but also cul tural dif fer ences that might oc cur.

2. Stu dents are given di a logues to prac tice in groups of two or three.

3. Stu dents are en cour aged to cre ate their own vari a tions on the di a logues.

4. Stu dents are then given color-coded in dex cards that give them in for ma tion about their role. Forex am ple:

a. Blue card 1 says: You in vite a friend over for pizza and beer.

b. Blue card 2 says: A friend in vites you over for pizza and beer. You want to come, butyou don’t drink al co hol.

OR

c. Pink card 1 says: You and a friend are at the mall shop ping when you run into yourroom mate.

18 3—Com mu ni ca tive Ap proaches


d. Pink card 2 says: Your friend in tro duces you to his or her room mate. You re al izeyou’ve al ready met.

e. Pink card 3 says: You run into your room mate at the mall. The room mate in tro ducesyou to her or his friend.

5. Stu dents with the same color cards come to the front of the room at the same time. Stu dents arenot al lowed to see the other stu dents’ cards. The teacher tells the first per son to start. Then theother stu dents do ing the role-play must re spond spon ta ne ously.

6. Other groups with the same color cards then par tic i pate in their role-plays.

7. By not al low ing stu dents to see each other’s cards, the scene is set for a more spon ta ne ous sit u a -tion that is more au then tic than if stu dents prac tice set role-plays.

Pre sent ing a Cul tural Item to the Class

1. Stu dents are asked what things or ob jects come to mind when they think of the coun try they arevis it ing. For ex am ple, if they are study ing in the United States, they might say Amer i can foot -ball, rap mu sic, ham burg ers, or cow boy mov ies. The teacher writes these on the board as the stu -dents say them.

2. Stu dents are asked to ex plain why they chose this par tic u lar ob ject. Other stu dents may also give their ideas on why this ob ject rep re sents the coun try they are vis it ing. Stu dents may be asked ifthey agree or disagree.

3. Stu dents are given the as sign ment for the next class pe riod, when they are to bring in an ob jectthat rep re sents an as pect of their cul ture. If they don’t have the ob ject, they may bring a pic tureor a mock-up.

4. Stu dents show the ob ject to their class mates. They ex plain what the ob ject is, what it is used foror how it is used, and in what way it rep re sents their cul ture. Other stu dents are en cour aged toask ques tions.

Strengths

• Be cause the orig i nal im pe tus for this ori en ta tion was in re ac tion to gram mar-based and au dio- lin gual ap proaches, the strength of CLT is that it cre ates a learn ing en vi ron ment that closelyrep li cates how stu dents will use lan guage in real-life sit u a tions. That is, stu dents par tic i pate in real, au then tic, and in ter ac tive language use in the classroom.

Weak nesses

• A ca veat to this ap proach is that some prac ti tio ners may see com mu ni ca tion as only oral/au ral skills and may not put enough em pha sis on the read ing and writ ing skills that some stu dentsmay need. An other ca veat is that in an at tempt to pro duce com mu ni ca tive skills quickly, ac -cu racy may be over looked or given lit tle at ten tion. Whether stu dents will ob tain that ac cu racy in time on their own con tin ues to be an area of discussion in the ESOL field.

See also: Co op er a tive Lan guage Learn ing; Ex pe ri en tial Lan guage Teach ing; Learner-Cen tered Ap -proach; No tional-Func tional Ap proach

Com mu ni ca tive Lan guage Learn ing 19


Fur ther Read ing

Brumfit, C. J., & John son, K. (Eds.). (1979). The com mu ni ca tive ap proach to lan guage teach ing.Ox ford, Eng land: Ox ford Uni ver sity Press.

This vol ume com piles one of the first col lec tions of ar ti cles ad vo cat ing the com mu ni ca -tive ap proach.

Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). The o ret i cal bases of com mu ni ca tive ap proaches to sec ond lan -guage learn ing and test ing. Ap plied Lin guis tics, I(1), 1–47.

Larimer, R. E., & Schleicher, L. (Eds.). (1999). New ways in us ing au then tic ma te ri als in the class -room. Alexandra, VA: TESOL.

This col lec tion of les sons uses re sources such as TV, ra dio, video, news pa pers, mag a -zines, ac a demic and pro fes sional texts, and other au then tic ma te ri als.

Lee, J. F., & VanPatten, B. (1995). Mak ing com mu ni ca tive lan guage teach ing hap pen. New York:McGraw-Hill.

This teacher train ing text dis cusses what is meant by com mu ni ca tive lan guage teach ingand pro ceeds to de scribe com mu ni ca tive lan guage teach ing in spo ken lan guage and read ingand writ ing.

Savignon, S. J. (1983). Com mu ni ca tive com pe tence: The ory and class room practice. Read ing, MA:Ad di son-Wes ley.

This was one of the first texts de voted to de fin ing the need for the com mu ni ca tive ap -proach in lan guage teach ing.

Savignon, S. J. (1997). Com mu ni ca tive com pe tence: The ory and class room prac tice (2nd ed.). NewYork: McGraw-Hill.

Savignon is one of the ini tial pro po nents of com mu ni ca tive lan guage teach ing in theUnited States. This is the most re cent edi tion of her dis cus sion of com mu ni ca tive com pe tenceand com mu ni ca tive lan guage teach ing. She ex plores the the o ret i cal and ped a gog i cal back -ground to the com mu ni ca tive ap proach, dif fer ent ap proaches to syl la bus de sign, var i ous learn -ing ac tiv i ties, and test ing in the com mu ni ca tive class room.

Savignon, S. J. (2001). Com mu ni ca tive lan guage teach ing for the twenty-first cen tury. In M.Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teach ing Eng lish as a sec ond or for eign lan guage (3rd ed., pp. 13–28).Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

In this chap ter, Savignon pro vides an over view and dis cus sion of the evo lu tion of com mu -ni ca tive lan guage teach ing.

Scarcella, R. C., An der son, E. S., & Krashen, S. (Eds.). (1990). De vel op ing com pe tence in a sec ondlan guage. New York: Harper & Row.

The ed i tors com piled a col lec tion of ar ti cles that ex plore com mu ni ca tive com pe tencefrom a more the o ret i cal lan guage ac qui si tion per spec tive.

Scarcella, R. C., & Ox ford, R. L. (1992). The tap es try of lan guage learn ing; The in di vid ual in thecom mu ni ca tive class room. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

This teacher train ing text uses com mu ni ca tive lan guage teach ing as its base.

Shameem, N., & Tickoo, M. (Eds.). (1999). New ways in us ing com mu ni ca tive games in lan guageteach ing. Alexandra, VA: TESOL.

Us ing a col lec tion of games, this text pres ents op por tu ni ties for stu dents to be more com -mu ni ca tive in the class room.



Co op er a tive Lan guage Learn ing3—Com mu ni ca tive Ap proachesCo op er a tive Lan guage Learn ing

Eng lish Skill Level: AllGrade Level: AllAlso Called: Col lab o ra tive Lan guage Learn ing, In ter ac tive Lan guage Learn ing

Back ground

An in ter ac tive ap proach re fers to lan guage learn ing that is au then tic and gen u ine and takes place be -tween two or more peo ple, and co op er a tive learn ing is the most fre quent ap pli ca tion of this ap proach. The goal of an in ter ac tive ap proach such as co op er a tive learn ing is to cre ate mean ing ful learn ing ex pe ri encesthat will help stu dents de velop gen u ine flu ency in an other lan guage. Co op er a tive learn ing con sists ofgroups of stu dents work ing to gether in a co op er a tive, as op posed to com pet i tive, man ner to com plete atask, an ac tiv ity, or a pro ject. While work ing to gether, the stu dents have mean ing ful in ter ac tion with onean other in the tar get lan guage. Both co op er a tive and col lab o ra tive learn ing re fer to stu dents work ing to -gether in a group to ward a goal, but col lab o ra tive group ings may also re fer to teach ers and stu dents,parents and students, students and the community, or the school and the family collaborating.

Strat egy

1. To im ple ment co op er a tive learn ing, the teacher must de cide whether co op er a tive ac tiv i ties willhelp meet the goals of the class. The teacher must also de cide which type of co op er a tive ac tiv ityto use. Co op er a tive ac tiv i ties might in clude peer tu tor ing, jig saw ac tiv i ties in which dif fer entmem bers of the group have dif fer ent in for ma tion that they must put to gether to find the re sults,group pro jects in which stu dents work to gether to ac com plish a task, and group pro jects inwhich stu dents work in de pend ently but come to gether to com plete the task. Then the teacher de -cides on one of many co op er a tive tech niques to use, such as games, role-play, drama, pro jects,in ter views, in for ma tion gap ac tiv i ties, or opin ion ex change.

2. The teacher de cides how to put the groups to gether. Teach ers might do this by count ing off; byplac ing stu dents in mixed-pro fi ciency, sim i lar-pro fi ciency, or dif fer ent or same lan guagegroups; or by al low ing the stu dents to choose their own part ners. In gen eral, the teacher shouldde cide this ahead of time.

3. Once the teacher has de cided on the co op er a tive ac tiv ity, he or she ex plains to the group mem -bers what they will do. Some times each per son in a group will be as signed a role such as re -corder, leader, or ne go ti a tor. At times, it may also be nec es sary to model the tech nique and toex plain why they will be work ing in groups. Then di vide the class into groups.

4. Stu dents be gin, and the teacher checks with the groups to make sure that they un der stand whatthey are sup posed to be do ing. The teacher mon i tors the groups by walk ing around to make surethey stay on task if this is an in-class ac tiv ity. He or she is also avail able to an swer any ques tionsor prob lems that may arise.

5. When the group is fin ished with its ac tiv ity, which may take sev eral min utes to sev eral weeksde pend ing on the ac tiv ity, there should, in most cases, be a fi nal prod uct or dis cus sion. Gen er -ally the fi nal prod uct, or parts of it, should be shared with the whole class. This might take theform of a for mal pre sen ta tion, a dis cus sion, or a chance for ev ery one to ask questions.

Co op er a tive Lan guage Learn ing 21



Group Ac tiv ity in an EAP Bridge Course

1. Stu dents are or ga nized into mixed-lan guage groups. They ask each other pre view ques tions that pre pare them to be gin a group study of an ac a demic area such as psy chol ogy, so ci ol ogy, mar ket -ing, lan guage learn ing, or ag ri cul ture. For ex am ple, if the topic were lan guage learn ing, stu dents might be asked to discuss the following:

a. What lan guages do you know?

b. How did you learn those lan guages?

c. Did you study them in school or learn them in some other way?

d. What way do you think is best to learn a lan guage?

e. How old were you when you learned those lan guages?

f. Do you think age makes a dif fer ence?

g. What are some other vari ables that af fect lan guage learn ing?

As a group, de scribe your con clu sions about the best ways to learn an other lan guage.

2. Af ter stu dents are fin ished dis cuss ing the pre view ques tions, the teacher asks each group toshare its con clu sions with the other groups.

3. Stu dents are given an ar ti cle to read about lan guage learn ing. They are told to mark any ar eas ofthe ar ti cle they find con fus ing.

4. Af ter read ing the ar ti cle, stu dents meet in groups to dis cuss both the con tent and the me chan icsof the ar ti cle. First, stu dents com pare the ar eas of the ar ti cle that they found con fus ing or dif fi -cult and ask for help from other group mem bers. The teacher then asks the groups mem bers what they found dif fi cult or con fus ing about the ar ti cle and clar i fies any in for ma tion that may begiving them difficulties.

5. Stu dents are given a set of ques tions or ex er cises to do as fol low-up to the ar ti cle. Stu dents canei ther do the ex er cises in de pend ently and then com pare an swers, or they can work on the ex er -cises to gether. The teacher can put an swers to ex er cises on the board or an over head, or the stu -dents and teacher can dis cuss follow-up questions.

6. Stu dents are as signed to do a group speech on lan guage learn ing. Stu dents must re search theirspeech by find ing one jour nal ar ti cle, do ing an in ter view, and find ing in for ma tion on theInternet. Stu dents are given in-class time to work on or ga niz ing their speeches.

7. Stu dents give their group speeches. Each per son in the group must give part of the speech, but itis up to the group to de cide how the speech will be or ga nized and who will be re spon si ble foreach part.

8. Other class mem bers are also asked to make writ ten com ments on the group speeches. Af ter allspeeches have been given, groups write up their com ments re gard ing the other speeches andturn this in to the teacher.

9. At the end of group work, stu dents are asked to as sess their groups as well as their con tri bu tionto the group.

10. The teacher gives a group grade for both the speeches and the group par tic i pa tion as well as in di -vid ual grades based on each stu dent’s work and par tic i pa tion in the group.



Tall Tales

Sub mit ted by Megan Larsen, Lu ther Col lege education stu dent

1. This les son is based on the book Amer i can Tall Tales by M. P. Osborne (Al fred A. Knopf,1991). Groups of stu dents per form dif fer ent tall tales for the class. The teacher en ters the class -room dressed as a char ac ter from a tale from Amer i can Tall Tales and tells that tall tale to theclass.

2. The stu dents are placed in groups of four or five. They can choose their groups by pick ing anum bered card; all stu dents with the same num ber com bine to form a group.

3. Each group chooses a tall tale and re ports to the teacher which they have cho sen. The teacherpro vides a copy of that par tic u lar story to the group.

4. The groups read their sto ries aloud among them selves. Each group mem ber will take a turnread ing.

5. The mem bers of the group make a list of the var i ous char ac ters in their tale. They then de cidewho will play each role and place that per son’s name next to the char ac ter’s. The char ac ters donot nec es sar ily have to be peo ple; a group mem ber could play a tor nado or Babe the Blue Ox.This list should be turned in to the teacher.

6. The groups re hearse act ing out their tale. Stu dents use their own words to act out the tale, al -though they can use lan guage sim i lar to that in the book. The teacher walks around the class -room help ing groups and check ing their prog ress.

7. Af ter stu dents have had a chance to re hearse, each group per forms its tale for the class.

8. Af ter each group has per formed its tale, stu dents write a jour nal en try on the var i ous tall talesthat were per formed, as well as the spe cific tall tale their group per formed. Stu dents write abouthow they felt about work ing with their group to com plete the fi nal pre sen ta tion and about whathis or her per sonal role in the group. It can also in clude in for ma tion that they have learned abouttall tales so far.

Strengths

• When stu dents are in ter act ing in groups, they are re quired to use au then tic and fairly flu entcom mu ni ca tions skills, which pre pare them for the ac tual com mu ni ca tion skills they willneed in real life.

Weak nesses

• For group work to be suc cess ful, it must be care fully planned. A weak ness in this method isthat some teach ers may just put stu dents in groups with out plan ning and find that the groupsare not par tic u larly suc cess ful. Some stu dents may re sist co op er a tive work if they do not un -der stand the purpose.

Fur ther Read ing

Brown, H. D. (1994). Teach ing by prin ci ples: An in ter ac tive ap proach to lan guage ped a gogy. Up -per Sad dle, NJ: Prentice Hall.

This book pres ents an over view of when teach ers should use or avoid group work and how to im ple ment group work suc cess fully in the class room.

Co op er a tive Lan guage Learn ing 23


Enright, D. S. (1991). Teach ing Eng lish as a sec ond or for eign lan guage. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.This gen eral ar ti cle on sup port ing Eng lish lan guage learn ers in the class room in cludes

sec tions on col lab o ra tion group ing and de vel op ing a sense of com mu nity in the class room. (Alater edi tion of the book does not in clude this sec tion.)

John son, D. M. (1994). Ed u cat ing sec ond lan guage chil dren: The whole child, the whole cur ric u -lum, the whole com mu nity. Cam bridge, Eng land: Cam bridge Uni ver sity Press.

John son main tains that it is not enough to fo cus on only lan guage learn ing in the Eng lishlan guage class room. Ed u ca tors also need to re view and con sider the col lab o ra tive roles of fam -ily, school, and com mu nity.

Kessler, C. (1992). Co op er a tive lan guage learn ing: A teacher’s re source book. Englewood Cliffs,NJ: Prentice Hall.

This col lec tion of ar ti cles cov ers a wide range of is sues with lots of teach ing ex am ples. Apar tic u larly strong sec tion on co op er a tive meth ods in main stream sub ject ar eas will help ESLand multi cul tural stu dents suc ceed.

Nunan, D. (1992). Col lab o ra tive lan guage learn ing and teach ing. Cam bridge, Eng land: Cam bridgeUni ver sity Press.

The chap ters in this text rep re sent a va ri ety of is sues per tain ing to col lab o ra tive learn ingand teach ing, in clud ing ex per i men tal lan guage learn ing, lit er acy con sid er ations for Eng lishlan guage learn ers, how to build col lab o ra tive lan guage learn ing en vi ron ments, co op er a tivelearn ing, and team teach ing and cur ric u lum de vel op ment.

Prapphal, K. (1993). Meth ods that work: Ideas for lit er acy and lan guage teach ers (2nd ed.). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Rivers, W. (1987). In ter ac tive lan guage teach ing. Cam bridge, Eng land: Cam bridge Uni -ver sity Press.

TESOL Jour nal (1999, Sum mer). Col lab o ra tive class rooms: Where com pe tence, con fi dence, andcre ativ ity con verge, 8(2).

This spe cial is sue is de voted to col lab o ra tive lan guage teach ing with ar ti cles on col lab o ra -tive writ ing, build ing cul tural com mu nity, and do’s and don’ts of col lab o ra tive learn ing.



Ex pe ri en tial Lan guage Teach ing3—Com mu ni ca tive Ap proachesEx pe ri en tial Lan guage Teach ing

Eng lish Skill Level: Ad vanced Be gin ning to Ad vancedGrade Level: El e men tary to AdultAlso Called: Task-based Teach ing, Pro ject-based Teach ing

Back ground

Ex pe ri en tial lan guage teach ing (ELT) ini tially grew out of ed u ca tional and psy cho log i cal the o riespro pos ing that a sub ject is learned best if stu dents are in volved in con crete, hands-on ex pe ri ences with the sub ject. The Amer i can ed u ca tor John Dewey was one ad vo cate of the method. The be lief is that stu dentswill learn better if they use the lan guage as op posed to be ing pas sive re cep tors of ar ti fi cial lan guage. It isalso thought that stu dents will be able to an a lyze and dis cover their own in for ma tion about the topic andlan guage use as they are in volved with tasks or pro jects. In lan guage teach ing, ELT cre ates sit u a tions inwhich stu dents use their new lan guage in stead of just learn ing about it. This method is seen as par tic u larly well suited for use with chil dren but is now be ing practiced with students of all ages in many learningsituations.

Strat egy

ELT’s main strat egy is to have stu dents be in volved in do ing. An ex pe ri en tial lan guage les son can be con ducted in mul ti ple ways, and a num ber of dif fer ent ac tiv i ties can be in cluded un der the um brella ofELT. For ex am ple, realia, show-and-tell, games, and vid eos are ex am ples of teacher-fronted ELT ac tiv i -ties. Be cause the fo cus of ELT is more of ten on the stu dent than on the teacher, how ever, stu dent-cen tered ac tiv i ties such as hands-on pro jects, cross-cul tural ex pe ri ences, field trips, role-plays, and sim u la tions are fre quently used ELT ac tiv i ties. In ad di tion, po etry, songs, and drama may also be considered ELTactivities.

1. The teacher iden ti fies a task or ac tiv ity that will help stu dents learn the lan guage needed in theirpar tic u lar con text.

2. The teacher plans how the task should be im ple mented in clud ing any nec es sary lan guage itemsthat may need to be in tro duced or re viewed for the stu dents to per form the task or activity.

3. The teacher ex plains the task to the stu dents.

4. The stu dents dis cuss the task and iden tify their roles.

5. The stu dents do their task or ac tiv ity.

6. The stu dents per form or dem on strate what they have learned or ac com plished.

Ex am ples and Ap pli ca tions

If a stu dent needs to know how to do a job in ter view in Eng lish, the fol low ing ac tiv i ties might be ex e cuted:

1. The stu dent does an ex er cise in which he or she is asked to com pre hend ques tions with ques tionwords such as what, where, how, who, when, and so on.

2. The stu dent lis tens to ex am ples of job in ter views.

3. The stu dent and teacher an a lyze the gram mar, vo cab u lary, and dis course of the in ter views.

4. The teacher or the stu dents (or both to gether) cre ate the di a logue for their own in ter view.

5. The stu dents prac tice and then role-play in ter views.

Ex pe ri en tial Lan guage Teach ing 25


Strength

• Stu dents are in volved in ac tu ally us ing the lan guage in au then tic sit u a tions.

Weak nesses and Mod i fi ca tions

• Ex pe ri en tial ac tiv i ties must be care fully thought out with their goals and ped a gog i cal pur -poses kept in mind or ex pe ri en tial ac tiv i ties may end up hav ing lit tle or no educational value.

See also: Co op er a tive Lan guage Learn ing; Whole Lan guage

Fur ther Read ing

Bygate, M., Skehan, P., & Swain, M. (Eds.). (2001). Re search ing ped a gogic tasks: Sec ond lan -guage learn ing, teach ing and test ing. Harlow, Eng land: Longman

This col lec tion of re search-based ar ti cles ex plores the foun da tions of tasks for lan guagelearn ing in clud ing their use in the class room and test ing.

Eyring, J. L. (2001). Ex pe ri en tial and ne go ti ated lan guage learn ing. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.),Teach ing Eng lish as a sec ond or for eign lan guage (pp. 333–344). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

The au thors be gin the ar ti cle by sum ma riz ing the his tory of ex pe ri en tial learn ing and con -clude with lots of in for ma tion about var i ous pro jects and guide lines on how to or ga nize pro jectwork.

Moss, D., & Van Duzer, C. (1998). Pro ject-based learn ing for adult Eng lish lan guage learn ers. Na -tional Cen ter for ESL Lit er acy Ed u ca tion. Re trieved No vem ber 17, 2005, from http://www.cal.org/caela/esl_re sources/di gests/ProjBase.html

This on line ar ti cle on line pres ents an over view of pro ject-based learn ing.

Nunan, D. (1989). De sign ing tasks for the com mu ni ca tive class room. Cam bridge, Eng land: Cam -bridge Uni ver sity Press.

Nunan’s sem i nal book on de sign ing tasks cov ers the de sign and im ple men ta tion of tasksin the class room. It also in cludes an ap pen dix of tested ex am ples.

Rodrigues, R. J., & White, R. H. (1993). From role play to the real world. In J. W. Oller (Ed.), Meth -ods that work: Ideas for lit er acy and lan guage teach ers (2nd ed.). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

This is an early col lec tion of prac ti cal strat e gies for teach ing read ing, writ ing, lis ten ing,and speak ing.

Wil lis, D., & Wil lis, J. (2001). Task-based lan guage learn ing. In R. Carter & D. Nunan (Eds.), TheCam bridge guide to teach ing Eng lish to speak ers of other lan guages (pp. 173–179). Cam -bridge, Eng land: Cam bridge Uni ver sity Press

The text at tempts to con nect lan guage the ory and re search into prac ti cal class roomap pli ca tions.

Wil lis, J. (1996). A frame work for task-based learn ing. Essex, Eng land: Ad di son Wes ley Longman.Wil lis’s teacher-friendly text guides teach ers through the pro cess of set ting up task-based

learn ing in their class rooms.



No tional-Func tional Ap proach3—Com mu ni ca tive Ap proachesNo tional-Func tional Ap proach

Eng lish Skill Level: Ad vanced Be gin ning to Ad vancedGrade Level: El e men tary to Adult

Back ground

The Coun cil of Eu rope de vel oped this ap proach in the 1970s to serve as a par a digm for lan guageteach ing in Eu rope. In this model, the con tent of what should be taught fo cuses on no tions and func tionsas op posed to a gram mar-based cur ric u lum. No tions are con tent ar eas such shop ping, health, travel, per -sonal iden ti fi ca tion, and so on. Func tions are how we use lan guage such as ex press ing opin ions, ask ingfor ad vice, apol o giz ing, and so on. Con cepts pre sented in this ap proach have been sub sumed byexperiential language teaching.

Strat egy

The fol low ing for mat is of ten used:

1. A di a logue fo cus ing on cer tain func tions and no tions is pre sented.

2. Stu dents prac tice the di a logue with class mates.

3. Stu dents may cre ate their own di a logues for role-play ing.

4. Stu dents may re in force us age through as sign ments in which they choose or fill in the ap pro pri -ate words in a writ ten di a logue.

5. Stu dents may ex pand on the pre vi ous tasks by go ing into the com mu nity and prac tic ing“real-life” di a logues.

Strengths

• Prag matic, au then tic use of lan guage is em pha sized.

• The ap proach helps stu dents to un der stand dif fer ent reg is ters of lan guage.

Weak nesses

• The ap proach can be too lim ited with lit tle fo cus on ac a demic or pro fes sional needs and skills.

Fur ther Read ing

Finocchiaro, M., & Brumfit, C. (1983). The func tional-no ta tional ap proach. New York: Ox fordUni ver sity Press.

A pre sen ta tion of the func tional-no ta tional ap proach with an em pha sis on learn ing lan -guage in real-life sit u a tions.

No tional-Func tional Ap proach 27


To tal Phys i cal Re sponse (TPR)3—Com mu ni ca tive Ap proachesTo tal Phys i cal Re sponse (TPR)

Eng lish Skill Level: Be gin ning to In ter me di ateGrade Level: El e men tary to Adult (al though method may need to be mod i fied for sec ond ary and

adult Eng lish lan guage learn ers)

Back ground

James Asher de vel oped to tal phys i cal re sponse, fre quently called TPR, in the 1960s and 1970s. Hebe lieved that learn ing new vo cab u lary in con junc tion with cor re spond ing mo tor ac tiv ity would re in forcethe learn ing of words and ex pres sions—es pe cially in chil dren, but he also ad vo cated its use with adults.Ac tive par tic i pa tion also keeps stu dents in ter ested. Asher also be lieved that the use of such com mandswould re duce anx i ety levels and make use of the right brain.

Strat egy

1. The teacher gives com mands such as

Open the door Touch your nose Draw a cir cle

Close the win dow Stand up, sit down Draw a square

2. The stu dent com pletes the ac tion of the com mand.

3. If the stu dent does the com mand cor rectly, the teacher knows the stu dent un der stands the com -mand.

4. The stu dent’s un der stand ing is re in forced by per form ing the ac tion.


Class room Com mands

1. The teacher gives the fol low ing com mand to all the stu dents: “Open your book.”

2. Stu dents open their books.

3. The teacher gives an other com mand such as, “Put your pen cil on your desk.”

4. Stu dents put their pen cils on their desks.

5. The teacher gives an other com mand such as, “Raise your hands.”

6. The teacher con tin ues to give com mands re lated to class room ac tions. The teacher may modelthe ac tions if stu dents have not at tempted such com mands or ac tions be fore. The teacher mayalso give com mands to in di vid ual stu dents such as, “Erase the board.”

7. Stu dents may also give com mands or in struc tions to each other.

TPR Sto ry tell ing

In sto ry tell ing, TPR is used to in tro duce a story to stu dents.

1. The teacher should se lect a story with plenty of ac tion.

2. The teacher uses TPR com mands to teach vo cab u lary used in the story. Stu dents can also act outcom mands. Stu dents can be put in pairs to give and act out com mands.

3. The teacher pres ents a mini-story (of ten part of a lon ger story) that stu dents learn and re tell oreven re vise. More mini-sto ries are pre sented and prac ticed.



4. The teacher pres ents the whole story. Stu dents then re tell the story. Stu dents may also do var i -ous ex er cises re lated to the story such as true-false, open-ended ques tions, writ ing about thechar ac ters, and so on.

5. Stu dents cre ate their own sto ries. Stu dents may write and il lus trate their sto ries, use drama to act them out, or vid eo tape their sto ries.

Strengths

• Re sults in lower anx i ety lev els among lan guage learn ers.

• An ac tiv ity or move ment re in forces lan guage learn ing in au then tic ways.


• In its orig i nal form, TPR may be too lim ited to use alone. Thus, TPR is of ten used at the be -gin ning lev els or as part of a more com plex les son. It is also pos si ble that com mands can belength ened into a pro cess. For ex am ple, the teacher can say, “draw a square with a linethrough it. Then draw a tri an gle on the right side of the square,” and so on. Teach ers can havestu dents use prob lem-solv ing tasks such as show ing three boxes with dif fer ent pic tures in side and say, “touch the box where the woman is stand ing.”

• Other mod i fi ca tions in clude hav ing stu dents take a more par tic i pa tory role by giv ing com -mands or in struc tions to one an other. TPR can also be done in a game form such as “Si monSays.” Ad vo cates of TPR have also de vel oped the method into TPR Storytelling.

Fur ther Read ing

Asher, J. (2000). Learn ing an other lan guage through ac tions (6th ed.). Los Gatos, CA: Sky OaksPro duc tions.

This vol ume out lines class room ap pli ca tions of the TPR ap proach.

Marsh, V. (2000). To tal phys i cal re sponse sto ry tell ing: A com mu ni ca tive ap proach to lan guagelearn ing. Re trieved April 26, 2006, from http://www.tprstorytelling.com/story.htm

This site in cludes in for ma tion, les sons, and ma te ri als on TPR sto ry tell ing, a strat egy thatcom bines the use of sto ries with TPR ac tions.

Nel son, G., & Win ters, T. (1993). Op er a tions in Eng lish: 55 nat u ral and log i cal se quences for lan -guage ac qui si tion. Brattleboro, VT: Pro Lin gua Associates.

Ex er cises in this book can be used in the class room to fa cil i tate learn ing of Eng lish for stu dents who speak it as a sec ond lan guage. Tasks in which stu dents give in struc tions on how to do var i ousop er a tions such as us ing a cal cu la tor, mail ing a let ter, or mak ing a pa per air plane are pre sented.

Rich ard-Amato, P. A. (1996). The to tal phys i cal re sponse and the au dio-mo tor unit. In Mak ing ithap pen: In ter ac tion in the sec ond lan guage class room (pp. 115–126). White Plains NY:Longman.

Rich ard-Amato’s chap ter ex am ines to tal phys i cal re sponse with ex am ples of com mands;the role of the au dio-mo tor unit of com mands in clu sive of the nat u ral lan guage ap proach; theap pli ca tion of jazz chants, mu sic, and po etry; sto ry tell ing, drama, and games; and af fec tiveac tiv i ties.

Seely, C., & Romijn, E. K. (1995). TPR is more than com mands—at all lev els. Los Gatos, CA: SkyOaks Pro duc tions.

Seely and Romijn’s re source ex plains how teach ers can use TPR to move stu dents fromzero Eng lish lan guage pro fi ciency to flu ency in Eng lish. The TPR com mands are com plex andin clude di a logues, role-play ing, and sto ry tell ing.

To tal Phys i cal Re sponse (TPR) 29


4

Lan guage Arts Ap proaches4—Lan guage Arts Ap proachesLan guage Arts Ap proaches

31

Lan guage Ex pe ri ence Ap proachLan guage Ex pe ri ence Ap proach

Eng lish Skill Level: Be gin ning to In ter me di ateGrade Level: Pri mary (Lower El e men tary) to Adult

Back ground

Orig i nally de vel oped to teach read ing and writ ing to preliterate mono lin gual stu dents, this ap proachwas later used to teach lit er acy skills to adults, in clud ing those learn ing Eng lish as an ad di tional lan guage. Sup port ers of the lan guage ex pe ri ence ap proach (LEA) be lieve that stu dents can learn to read and writeby us ing their own level of oral vo cab u lary. In ad di tion, be cause stu dents are us ing sub ject mat ter fa mil iar to them, the in for ma tion will be relevant to their needs.

Strat egy

1. The stu dent tells a story, usu ally based on a real-life ex pe ri ence, to the teacher.

2. The teacher writes down the story ex actly as it is told in clud ing the er rors made.

3. The stu dent reads the writ ten story with the teacher help ing as needed.

4. Af ter the stu dent is com fort able read ing the story, in di vid ual words, gram mar points, and so onmay be stud ied.

Strengths

• Schema is al ready pres ent so stu dents have im me di ate un der stand ing of text.

• Stu dents can see that the sym bols of read ing have per sonal and au then tic mean ing.

• Stu dents are learn ing lit er acy skills at their own level.

Weak nesses

• Be cause it re quires some knowl edge of oral L2 vo cab u lary, it may not work with adults orolder chil dren with lim ited speak ing skills or who are afraid to speak in the tar get lan guage.

• Some be lieve this ap proach may re in force er rors if there is not enough ad e quate fol low-up.

Mod i fi ca tions

• Sto ries may be done as a group with stu dents giv ing sen tences that the teacher writes on theboard. Stu dents may take turns giv ing sen tences to cre ate a nar ra tion. Ed it ing can also bedone as a group.

• Teach ers may de cide to write the story (or some as pects of it) cor rectly at the same time as thestu dent shares the story.

• Stu dents can be put in mul ti level groups to write sto ries so that those with more writ ing skillscan help those just learn ing.

• Stu dents can write plays or act out sto ries.

32 4—Lan guage Arts Ap proaches


Fur ther Read ing

Hawkins, B. (1991). Teach ing chil dren to read in a sec ond lan guage. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.),Teach ing Eng lish as a sec ond or for eign lan guage. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

This meth od ol ogy re source pro vides the ory and prac ti cal ap pli ca tions for the class room.

Rich ard-Amato, P. A. (1996). Mak ing it hap pen: In ter ac tion in the sec ond lan guage class room—from the ory to prac tice. New York: Longman

Rich ard-Amato’s sourcebook ex am ines the ory, class room meth ods, ac tiv i ties, and prac ti -cal con cerns about class room man age ment and or ga ni za tion.

Tay lor, M. T. (1993). The lan guage ex pe ri ence ap proach and adult learn ers. Re trieved May 4,2006, from the Na tional Cen ter for ESL Lit er acy Ed u ca tion Web site: http://www.cal.org/caela/esl_re sources/di gests/LEA.html

This is an over view of the lan guage ex pe ri ence ap proach with im ple men ta tion ideas forthe class room.

Lan guage Ex pe ri ence Ap proach 33


Lit er a ture-based Ap proach

4—Lan guage Arts Ap proachesLit er a ture-based Ap proach


Back ground

In stead of teach ing read ing through tra di tional, bot tom-up ap proaches us ing basal read ers, stu dentsare given the op por tu nity to ex plore read ing through the use of au then tic texts. There are var i ous meth odswithin the pa ram e ters of this ap proach, in clud ing lit er a ture-based dis cus sion groups outlined here.

Strat egy

1. Stu dents use au then tic lit er a ture to ex plore var i ous gen res in clud ing re al is tic fic tion, fan tasy,his tor i cal fic tion, bi og ra phy, and so on.

2. Stu dents work in co op er a tive groups for shared read ing and are ex pected to com plete var i oustasks in di vid u ally, such as notating un fa mil iar vo cab u lary, mak ing pre dic tions, par tic i pat ing ingroup discussions, and so on.

3. Stu dents within the group are as signed var i ous tasks or roles, such as dis cus sion leader, groupre corder (au dio and writ ten), word wiz ard, ge og ra phy lo ca tor, and re search specialist.

4. Stu dents work to gether to de ter mine var i ous lit er ary el e ments in the story—char ac ters, plot, set -ting, and so on.

5. The teacher checks the ac cu racy of stu dents’ in ter pre ta tions through group or in di vid ual di a -logue.

6. Stu dents are en cour aged to make mean ing by dis cuss ing var i ous is sues in the text with rel e -vance to their lives.

7. A mul ti tude of break out ac tiv i ties can be in cor po rated af ter read ing the text.

8. As sess ment can be au then tic or tra di tional.


1. Stu dents di vide into groups. Af ter the teacher pres ents booktalks for sev eral books, stu dents se -lect the one they want to read. Stu dents can use the “five-fin ger” strat egy to de ter mine whether abook is the ap pro pri ate read ing level. Also, when ini tially start ing lit er a ture groups, it is help fulto start with one book for the en tire class to work through the pro cess to gether. (Num ber theStars by Lois Low ry is one ex am ple.)

2. Within the group, var i ous roles are as signed.

3. Stu dents can choose to read the book aloud or si lently, meet ing af ter read ing a spec i fied por tion. The teacher can as sign this, or with more au ton o mous groups, the stu dents can set the pace.

4. The teacher wan ders from group to group, lis ten ing to dis cus sions, pro vid ing in put as needed,and per haps in quir ing to en sure ac cu racy in com pre hen sion.

5. Af ter read ing the book, stu dents se lect from a mul ti tude of ac tiv i ties to ex tend the text. Stu dentscan choose to work in di vid u ally, in pairs, in a group, or on mul ti ple pro jects, if time al lows. Theteacher ini tially pro vides help, but stu dents can make sug ges tions of their own.



6. When stu dents com plete their pro jects, they share them with the class and per haps the rest of theschool com mu nity.

Strengths

• Eng lish lan guage learn ers en coun ter au then tic lit er ary texts. This means that stu dents readbooks and sto ries writ ten as lit er a ture rather than spe cially writ ten sto ries de signed with con -trolled vo cab u lary to de velop par tic u lar reading skills.

• Stu dents may de velop a love of read ing. They feel a sense of em pow er ment and be come vo ra -cious read ers.

• Books are read in Eng lish.

Weak nesses

• Ef fec tive only with in ter me di ate and ad vanced stu dents.

• Vo cab u lary can be po ten tially over whelm ing if Eng lish lan guage learn ers do not have ap pro -pri ate strat e gies to use. Texts in clude words used in new ways, used col lo qui ally, used withspe cific cul tural ref er ents, or used met a phor i cally. Teach ers need to teach strat e gies such asinferencing to help learners.

• Lit er a ture re flects cul tural val ues, shared knowl edge, and dis course or ga ni za tion, which maybe dif fer ent from that of stu dents’ na tive cultures.

• “Speed read ers” fin ish the books ahead of the rest. Oth ers may be slower read ers.

Fur ther Read ing

Fidere, A. (1999). Prac ti cal as sess ments for lit er a ture-based read ing class rooms. New York:Scho las tic.

Fidere’s read ing in struc tion has stu dents en gag ing in ex pe ri ences with au then tic texts andraises a sig nif i cant con cern about as sess ment. This book pro vides mul ti ple strat e gies for as sess -ing stu dents in a lit er a ture-based read ing pro gram to pro vide teach ers with an ac cu rate pic tureof the stu dents’ skill and plan fu ture in struc tion.

Fitzsimmons, P. (2002). Kick start ing the in ner site: Read ing to see and feel. Bris bane, Aus tra lia:An nual Meet ing for the Aus tra lian As so ci a tion for Re search in Ed u ca tion. ERIC Doc u mentRe pro duc tion Service No. ED478114

This ar ti cle ex plores the emo tional and ac a demic im pact that read ing aloud and dis cuss ing au then tic lit er a ture in the class room can have on stu dents. It also gives ex am ples of how towork to ward a lit er a ture-based read ing pro gram.

Lit er a ture-based Ap proach 35


Nat u ral Ap proach4—Lan guage Arts Ap proachesNat u ral Ap proach

Eng lish Skill Level: Ad vanced Be gin ning to In ter me di ateGrade Level: El e men tary to AdultMethod: Nat u ral Ap proach

Back ground

An ap proach or method de vel oped in the 1970s by Ste phen Krashen and Tracy Terrell em pha siz ingthat peo ple “ac quire” lan guages best by learn ing nat u rally like chil dren do. Krashen and Terrell be lievedthat com pre hen sion should pre cede pro duc tion and that stu dents should not be forced to speak un til theyare ready. They pro posed that pro duc tion would emerge in stages. They be lieved that the course syl la busshould be based on com mu ni ca tive goals and that ac tiv i ties should be planned to lower the af fec tive fil terand elim i nate, as much as pos si ble, any anx i ety that stu dents may feel about speak ing a new lan guage. Inthe ory, if these prin ci ples are fol lowed, stu dents will feel com fort able with the new lan guage and learn the lan guage at an au to matic level just as chil dren learn their first lan guage (L1). The ap proach is in tended tohelp stu dents ac quire, as op posed to learn, a new lan guage so that they will be able to understand andspeak it automatically and fluently.

Strat egy

1. The teacher speaks to the stu dents in the tar get lan guage at a level they can more or less un der -stand. The teacher may use pic tures, ac tions, or realia to com mu ni cate meaning.

2. The teacher asks ques tions that the stu dents can an swer. As stu dents be come more com fort ablewith the lan guage, more dif fi cult tasks such as role-plays, open-ended di a logues, dis cus sion,and group work can be used.

3. Stu dents do not have to speak un til they are ready to. They can be en cour aged to speak butshould not be forced to do so. The fo cus should be on com mu ni ca tion, and er ror cor rec tionshould be lim ited and nonthreatening.

Strengths

• Stu dents are more likely to par tic i pate ac tively and mean ing fully when they feel they areready to do so.

• Stu dents can be come flu ent in the tar get lan guage.

• Such an ap proach low ers the anx i ety level of stu dents, which is not only kinder but also morelikely to pro duce pos i tive re sults.

Weak nesses

• The ap proach does not ad dress ac a demic needs of stu dents, in clud ing read ing and writ ing.

• Some stu dents may need more im pe tus to speak.

• Stu dents, es pe cially older learn ers, do not nec es sar ily learn a sec ond lan guage (L2) as theylearned their first lan guage (L1).



Mod i fi ca tions

• When war ranted, teach ers may need to trans late the di rec tions into the stu dent’s first lan -guage (L1). This changes the ap proach, how ever, and as sumes the teacher is flu ent in the stu -dent’s first language.

Fur ther Read ing

Krashen, S. (1995). What is in ter me di ate nat u ral ap proach? In P. Hashinpur, R. Maldonado, & M.VanNaerson (Eds.), Stud ies in lan guage learn ing and Span ish lin guis tics in honor of Tracy D.Terrell (pp. 92–105). New York: McGraw-Hill.

This col lec tion of schol arly ar ti cles fo cuses on lan guage teach ing meth od ol ogy.

Krashen, S., & Terrell, T. (1983). The nat u ral ap proach: Lan guage ac qui si tion in the class room.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

This text pres ents an over view of the nat u ral ap proach, a method for stu dents that are in the be gin ning stages of learn ing so cial lan guage skills in a sec ond lan guage

Rich ard-Amato, P. A. (1996). The nat u ral ap proach: How it is evolv ing. In P. A. Rich ard-AmatoMak ing it hap pen; In ter ac tion in the sec ond lan guage class room (pp. 127–154). White Plains,NY: Ad di son-Wes ley.

This is a sourcebook for lan guage teach ers that ex plores the ory, class room meth ods andac tiv i ties, and prac ti cal con cerns about class room man age ment and or ga ni za tion.

Terrell, T. (1991). The role of gram mar in struc tion in a com mu ni ca tive ap proach. The Mod ern Lan -guage Jour nal, 75(1), 52–63.

Sug ges tions on ways ex plicit gram mar in struc tion may be use ful in an ac qui si tion-basedcom mu ni ca tive ap proach.

Nat u ral Ap proach 37


Whole Lan guage Ap proach

4—Lan guage Arts Ap proaches

Whole Lan guage Ap proach

Eng lish Skill Level: AllGrade Level: All

Back ground

Whole lan guage phi los o phies or ap proaches fo cus on the use of au then tic lan guage that is mean ing -ful to stu dents, pro ceed ing from whole to part and in te grat ing de vel op ment of lan guage modes and do -mains. This ap proach is a constructivist phi los o phy of learn ing that places em pha sis on the in te gra tion oflan guage and con tent, fos ter ing per son ally and ac a dem i cally mean ing ful lan guage de vel op ment. Lis ten -ing, speak ing, read ing, and writ ing—the four lan guage modes or skills—are taught as an in te gratedwhole, with writ ten and oral lan guage de vel oped si mul ta neously. Whole lan guage fo cuses on us ing lan -guage, fo cus ing on mean ing first, get ting stu dents to write early and of ten, ac cept ing in vented spell ing for be gin ners but ex pect ing con ven tional spell ing as stu dents ad vance in the writ ing pro cess, ex pos ing stu -dents to high-qual ity lit er a ture and au then tic texts from di verse writ ten gen res, al low ing stu dents to makechoices in read ing, and en cour ag ing all to be vo ra cious read ers. Les sons are learner cen tered and mean -ing ful to stu dents’ lives in side and out side of school. Lan guage les sons en gage stu dents in so cial in ter ac -tion and col lab o ra tive learn ing. The fo cus is on the so cial con struc tion of mean ing and un der stand ingthrough the pro cess of read ing and writ ing. Stu dents first ac quire lit er acy through their own writ ings andshare chil dren’s lit er a ture as well as ex pe ri ences across the cur ric u lum through sci ence ex per i ments, rec i -pes, games, in struc tions for mak ing things, math prob lem solv ing, in ter ac tive com puter com mu ni ca tions, and map read ing. Lan guage is de vel oped for mean ing ful pur poses in side and out side of school. Wholelan guage avoids the practices of teaching skills in isolation (sounds, letters, grammar rules, and words) orin a strict sequence, using books with controlled vocabulary, or using worksheets and drills.

Strat egy

1. This ap proach im merses stu dents in a rich lan guage and lit er acy en vi ron ment.

2. The teacher pro vides time, ma te ri als, space, and ac tiv i ties for stu dents to be lis ten ers, speak ers,read ers, and writ ers.

3. The teacher fo cuses on the whole be cause the mind makes sense of or con structs mean ing fromex pe ri ences—whether the ex pe ri ences are spo ken, lis tened to, read, or de scribed in writ -ing—when they are com mu ni cated as wholes.

4. The teacher acts as a com mu ni ca tion role model in lis ten ing, speak ing, read ing, and writ ing sothat in struc tion, func tion, and pur pose are mean ing ful.

5. The teacher cre ates an at mo sphere of ex pec tancy and a cli mate that is en cour ag ing and sup port ive inwhich stu dents are ex pected to con tinue their lit er acy de vel op ment and feel com fort able do ing so.


1. To make the story The Lit tle Red Hen more rel e vant to stu dents’ lives, the teacher could ask stu -dents about times when they’ve needed help but no one was will ing to give them aid, or a dis cus -sion could be shared about bread—eat ing it, bak ing it, fa vor ite kinds, and so on.

2. The teacher reads aloud from the big book The Lit tle Red Hen, writ ten in the na tive lan guage tolay the foun da tion for ini tial com pre hen sion in a bi lin gual class room. If in a class room with di -verse na tive lan guages, this step is omitted.



3. The teacher reads aloud the Eng lish big book ver sion of The Lit tle Red Hen. While read ing, theteacher mod els pre dict ing, dem on strates by point ing left-to-right di rec tional read ing, looks atpic tures for clues, uses voice pro jec tion dur ing di a logue, and so on.

4. In sub se quent read ings, the stu dents read (cho ral read ing) the main di a logue sec tions, “Not I,said the (an i mal)?” and the teacher may use cloze tech niques (i.e., stop ping to have stu dents fillin words). As a cloze ex er cise, trans form the pas sage “Once there were four friends—a pig, aduck, a cat, and a lit tle red hen,” to “Once there were __________ friends—a pig, a _________,a cat, and a lit tle red.” Chil dren com plete the blanks us ing the pic tures in the story as clues.

5. Af ter cho ral read ing, the teacher asks the stu dents to re tell the story and writes on sen tencestrips. The teacher may teach stu dents about us ing di a logue (quo ta tion marks) to in di catespeaking.

6. Stu dents use the sen tence strips to put the story into the cor rect se quence.

7. The stu dents make an i mal masks and role-play the story.

8. Stu dents are al lowed to check out stu dent cop ies of The Lit tle Red Hen to read at home for plea -sure.

9. Stu dents could cre ate their own cop ies of the book or per haps ex pand the orig i nal by add ingmore an i mals to the story.

10. Ex ten sion ac tiv ity: Stu dents could make bread or pret zels in class.

Pret zels(from http://bread.allrecipes.com/az/BrdPrtzls.asp)

In gre di ents1 1/2 tea spoons ac tive dry yeast

3/4 cup warm wa ter (110 de grees F/45 de grees C)

1/2 tea spoon white sugar

1/4 tea spoon salt

2 cups bread flour

1 egg, beaten

2 ta ble spoons ko sher salt

Di rec tions

1. In a small bowl, dis solve yeast in warm wa ter. Let stand un til creamy, about 10 min utes.

2. In a large bowl, com bine yeast mix ture, sugar, salt, and 1 cup flour; beat well. Beat in the re -main ing flour, 1/2 cup at a time, un til a stiff dough is formed. Place dough in a lightly oiledbowl, cover, and let rise un til dou bled in vol ume.

3. Pre heat oven to 450 de grees F (230 de grees C). Lightly grease a cookie sheet.

4. Turn dough out onto a lightly floured sur face and di vide into 12 pieces. Roll pieces out intolong sticks and form into pret zel shape. Place pret zels on pre pared bak ing sheet. Brush withbeaten egg and sprin kle with ko sher salt.

5. Bake in pre heated oven for 12 to 15 min utes, un til golden brown.

Whole Lan guage Ap proach 39


Strengths

• Whole lan guage al lows in ter ac tions with a va ri ety of texts, ex pe ri ences, and ac tiv i ties in aclass room at mo sphere that sup ports lit er acy development.

Weak nesses

• Per for mance can be dif fi cult to eval u ate ob jec tively when us ing au then tic as sess ment.

Fur ther Read ing

Barton, B. (Reteller). (1993). The Lit tle Red Hen big book. New York: HarperTrophy.This is a Big Book edi tion of the clas sic fairy tale The Lit tle Red Hen.

Free man, Y. S., & Free man, D. E. (1998). ESL/EFL teach ing: Prin ci ples for suc cess. Portsmouth,NH: Heinemann.

Free man and Free man pro vide a dis cus sion of teach ing Eng lish as a sec ond lan guage/Eng lish as a for eign lan guage, in clud ing de scrip tions of ex em plary teach ing meth ods and ideas.

Froese, V. (Ed.). (1996). Whole lan guage prac tice and the ory (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Ba con.A text that guides teach ers through struc tur ing, plan ning, and de liv er ing in struc tion us ing

a whole lan guage pro gram.

Harp, B. (Ed.). (1991). As sess ment and eval u a tion in whole lan guage pro grams. Norwood, MA:Chris to pher-Gordon.

Harp of fers tech niques and ideas to guide stu dent as sess ment and eval u a tion in whole lan -guage pro grams.

Raines, S. C. (Ed.). (1995). Whole lan guage across the cur ric u lum: Grades 1, 2, and 3. New York:Teach ers Col lege Press; New ark, DE: In ter na tional Read ing As so ci a tion.

This book from the Lan guage and Lit er acy Se ries pub lished by the In ter na tional Read -ing As so ci a tion helps teach ers de sign and im ple ment cur ric u lum us ing the whole lan guagephi los o phy.

Whitmore, K. F., & Crowell, C. G. (1994). In vent ing a class room: Life in a bi lin gual, whole lan -guage learn ing com mu nity. York, ME: Sten house.

Ac tiv i ties, in clud ing Drop Ev ery thing and Read (DEAR), link the ory and prac tice in thisre source that pres ents the foun da tions of a whole lan guage phi los o phy within the con text of abi lin gual learn ing en vi ron ment.



5

Ac a demic and Pro fes sionalAp proaches

5—Ac a demic and Pro fes sional Ap proachesAc a demic and Pro fes sional Ap proaches

41

Cog ni tive Ac a demic Lan guage Learn ing Ap proachCog ni tive Ac a demic Lan guage Learn ing Ap proach


Back ground

This ap proach was de vel oped by Anna Chamot and J. Mi chael O’Malley to help sec ond ary-levelstu dents make a suc cess ful tran si tion into their reg u lar high school classes. The cog ni tive ac a demic lan -guage learn ing ap proach (CALLA) is a three-pronged ap proach fo cus ing equally on ac a demic lan guagelearn ing, ac a demic con tent learn ing, and learn ing strat egy in struc tion. Les sons built around ac a demiccon tent in clude var i ous ex er cises that fo cus on lan guage skills, study skills, and con tent-spe cific con -cepts. Chamot and O’Malley en cour age the use of the fol low ing in struc tional meth ods and con cepts intheir ap proach: lan guage across the cur ric u lum, lan guage ex pe ri ence ap proach (LEA), whole lan guage,pro cess writ ing, co op er a tive learn ing, and cog ni tive in struc tion. Al though this ap proach be gan as asecondary level approach, its use has been expanded to other levels.

Strat egy

A CALLA les son is built around the fol low ing five steps:

1. Prep a ra tion—stu dents’ back ground knowl edge and sche mata about the con tent be ing stud ied as well as their learn ing strat e gies are explored

2. Pre sen ta tion—the teacher pres ents the nec es sary new con tent and learn ing skills needed for thelesson

3. Prac tice—stu dents per form var i ous ac tiv i ties to re in force the ma te rial to be learned

4. Eval u a tion—stu dents eval u ate their own learn ing

5. Ex pan sion—stu dents use what they have learned and ap ply it to new sit u a tions


A CALLA Amer i can His tory (Rev o lu tion ary War) Les son

1. Stu dents are given ques tions and ex er cises to help them and the teacher probe their back groundknowl edge about the Rev o lu tion ary War. Stu dents might be asked: What is a rev o lu tion? Has yourcoun try of or i gin had a rev o lu tion? Why do you think rev o lu tions hap pen? Stu dents might be shownpic tures of the Amer i can Rev o lu tion’s events and/or sym bols and asked what they are look ing at.

2. Stu dents read about the Amer i can Rev o lu tion. Stu dents are asked what they need to do to readthe pas sage suc cess fully. They look at the sub head ings, pic tures, and any pre view or re viewques tions to help them de velop their learn ing strat e gies. They might be asked to pre dict whatthey think the text will be about. Stu dents might also hear a lec ture about the Amer i can Rev o lu -tion, in which case, they would also be taught methods of note taking.

3. Stu dents do ex er cises and ac tiv i ties re lated to the read ing. They might an swer ques tions aboutthe read ing, make a timeline of the events, make charts or ta bles to help them cat e go rize in for -ma tion, or write sen tences de scrib ing peo ple or events of the Revolutionary War.

4. Stu dents use a learn ing log to check what they know. Stu dents mark off on a list the ac a demicvo cab u lary they know, if they can use cer tain learn ing strat e gies, what they know about the Rev -o lu tion ary War. They might also be asked ques tions such as: What was in ter est ing about this

42 5—Ac a demic and Pro fes sional Ap proaches


les son? What was easy? What was dif fi cult? How can you learn what is dif fi cult? Stu dents areen cour aged to re view in for ma tion they don’t know.

5. Stu dents ex pand and ap ply their knowl edge through var i ous ac tiv i ties. Stu dents might write about afa mous Rev o lu tion ary War per son. In groups stu dents might de bate the pros and cons of the Rev o lu -tion ary War. Stu dents might give pre sen ta tions about a fa mous his tor i cal event in their coun try.

A Be gin ning Level CALLA Math Les son

1. Stu dents are shown dif fer ent num bers and asked to say them in Eng lish as a re view of num bers.

2. Stu dents are then shown sim ple arith me tic prob lems and learn the words “ad di tion,” “sub trac -tion,” “mul ti pli ca tion,” and “di vi sion.”

3. Stu dents then see a num ber of prob lems and are asked to say which op er a tion (ad di tion, sub trac -tion, mul ti pli ca tion, di vi sion) they are seeing.

4. Stu dents are given a worksheet that shows the dif fer ent words used to ex press math op er a tionssuch as “four plus four equals eight” or “eight mi nus six is two.” Stu dents are shown word prob -lems and asked to say the prob lems.

5. Stu dents are then given worksheets where they see word prob lems and write them out or see aprob lem writ ten out and write it as a word prob lem. For ex am ple: The stu dent sees 4 + 6 = 10.The stu dent writes: Four plus six equals ten. Or the stu dent reads: Seven plus two equals nine.The stu dent writes: 7 + 2 = 9.

6. As an ex ten sion, stu dents are asked to write prob lems us ing ob jects that they and their part nersma nip u late. For ex am ple, Chin has three books. He gives one book to Mohamed. They willwrite, “Three books mi nus one equals two books.”

7. Af ter stu dents who are com plete their ac tiv i ties, they will fill out a log that asks them what theylearned, what they need to re view, and what they else they need to know.

Weak nesses and Mod i fi ca tions• Stu dents not in school may find ac a demic con tent not rel e vant. How ever, the ba sic strat e gies

of prep a ra tion, pre sen ta tion, prac tice, eval u a tion, and ex pan sion are ap pli ca ble to manyteaching situations.

See also: Con tent-based Sec ond Lan guage In struc tion; Co op er a tive Learn ing; Lan guage Ex pe ri -ence Ap proach; Whole Language

Fur ther Read ingChamot, A. U., & O’Malley, J. M. (1994). The CALLA hand book: Im ple ment ing the cog ni tive ac a -

demic lan guage learn ing ap proach. Read ing, MA: Ad di son-Wes ley.This is a thor ough ex plo ra tion of the CALLA ap proach with lots of ideas and ex am ples for

im ple ment ing the ap proach in var i ous sit u a tions. It also in cludes in for ma tion on as sess ment.

Chamot, A. U., O’Malley, J. M., & Kupper, L. (1992). Build ing bridges: Con tent and learn ing strat -e gies for ESL (Books 1–3). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

In this se ries of text books (be gin ning, in ter me di ate, high in ter me di ate) aimed at sec ond ary level stu dents and im ple ment ing the CALLA ap proach, chap ters are con tent-based and in cludetop ics such as math, sci ence, world civ i li za tions, and lit er a ture.

Chamot, A. U., & O’Malley, J. M. (1992). The cog ni tive ac a demic lan guage learn ing ap proach: Abridge to the main stream. In P. A. Rich ard-Amato & M. A. Snow (Eds.), The multi cul turalclass room: Read ings for con tent-area teach ers. Read ing, MA: Ad di son-Wes ley.

This is the for ma tive ar ti cle on this ap proach and has ap peared in a num ber of jour nals.

Cog ni tive Ac a demic Lan guage Learn ing Ap proach 43


Con tent-based Sec ond Lan guage In struc tion5—Ac a demic and Pro fes sional Ap proachesCon tent-based Sec ond Lan guage In struc tion


Back ground

Con tent-based sec ond lan guage in struc tion (CBI) grew out of a re sponse against cur ric u lum builtaround gram mar points. In CBI, the cur ric u lum is built around a topic, theme, or sub ject area. Stu dentslearn an other lan guage via sub ject mat ter. CBI pro po nents be lieve that stu dents are more likely to learnau then tic and com mu ni ca tive lan guage if they learn via con tent than if they just learn a set of gram marrules. In ad di tion, stu dents are more apt to be in ter ested in lan guage if it is contextualized and thus willlearn it better. CBI has used a num ber of mod els, the three most com mon be ing a theme-based ap proach,shel tered classes, and adjunct classes (described below).

Strat egy

Be cause con tent-based in struc tion is a broad ap proach, there are a num ber of strat e gies that can beused. One is the theme-based model. In this model:

1. A topic or theme is cho sen that will be of in ter est and rel e vance to the whole class.

2. Ac tiv i ties then fo cus around the theme. For ex am ple, if the topic is the moon, the stu dents mightread both fic tion and non fic tion lit er a ture about the moon; watch a video about it; prac tice num -bers, dis tances, and mea sure ments of it; learn about and use tele scopes; study the his tory ofmoon ex plo ra tion; learn about the phases of the moon; and study tidal ac tiv ity on the earth.

3. De pend ing on the length of the unit, stu dents might do only a few or sev eral dif fer ent ac tiv i tiesand ex er cises re lated to the topic of the moon.

4. In ad di tion to learn ing the con tent, stu dents would also be taught the vo cab u lary and lan guagestruc ture that are com pat i ble with such a topic.

5. Stu dents prac tice writ ing and speak ing in the tar get lan guage about the topic.


Fol low ing are some theme-based les sons.

Body Lan guage

1. The teacher asks the stu dents if they know what the term “body lan guage” means.

2. Af ter dis cuss ing the def i ni tion, stu dents are shown pic tures of var i ous ges tures. They are asked,“What do these mean in your cul ture?” They are also asked what they think they mean in theUnited States. Stu dents are asked for other examples.

3. Stu dents read an ar ti cle about body lan guage.

4. Af ter read ing the ar ti cle, stu dents an swer ques tions about the ar ti cle and dis cuss whether bodylan guage has ever caused them dif fi cul ties.

5. Stu dents re view vo cab u lary learned so far.



6. Stu dents re view or are taught how to make the im per a tive (call a waiter, show you are hun gry,tell some one you don’t un der stand). Stu dents are put into groups and think of sit u a tions inwhich mem bers of the class might use body lan guage. Stu dents tell other stu dents to use bodylan guage in cer tain situations.

7. In groups, stu dents com pare how ges tures in cer tain cul tures can have dif fer ent mean ings.

8. Stu dents re view or learn ex pres sions of com par i son such as “sim i lar to,” “dif fer ent from,” and“the same as.”

9. Stu dent groups pres ent to the class some of the dif fer ences and sim i lar i ties they have learned.

10. Stu dents look back at the read ing, and re view some of the struc tures and vo cab u lary in the read -ing.

11. Stu dents are as signed to write the first draft of a pa per com par ing body lan guage be tween twocul tures such as their own and the cul ture of the coun try they are vis it ing or to which they havemoved.

In tro duc tion to Psy chol ogy

1. Stu dents are given an ad vice col umn to read.

2. Stu dents are asked what they think of the prob lem in the ad vice col umn. Would they give thesame ad vice? If not, what ad vice would they give? Do they think a psy chol o gist would give thesame ad vice? If not, what kind of ad vice might a psy chol o gist give?

3. Stu dents are asked to look for modals (can, should, must, had to, etc.) in the ad vice col umn.

4. Stu dents are put into groups and asked to come up with a prob lem. They then ask the othergroups for ad vice. An swers must be given us ing modals.

5. Stu dents are given a lon ger pas sage from an in tro duc tory psy chol ogy book on the topic of frus -tra tion. Stu dents pre view the ar ti cle by look ing at the pic tures, charts, and sub head ings. Stu -dents read the article at home.

6. The next class pe riod, stu dents are asked if they have any ques tions about the ar ti cle, in clud ingparts they did not un der stand.

7. Stu dents are given ac tiv i ties to do that re late to the read ing such as dis cus sion ques tions, vo cab -u lary ques tions, com pre hen sion ques tions, out lin ing, and fill ing in graphic organizers.

8. In ad di tion, stu dents may view a video re lated to the topic. Stu dents may take notes dur ing thevideo and com pare their notes with other class mem bers.

9. Stu dents are as signed to write about the topic of a frus trat ing ex pe ri ence they have had and whatthey did in re ac tion to that ex pe ri ence. To pre pare for this writ ing as sign ment, stu dents are putinto groups to share sto ries of frus tra tion with each other.

10. Stu dents may also be given a test or quiz about the ma te rial they learned in class.

Ap ples

Sub mit ted by Kelly Moen, Lu ther Col lege ed u ca tion stu dent

1. The teacher shows the stu dents a pic ture of an ap ple or chard. The teacher also shows realia suchas ap ples, ap ple seeds, and bas kets. The teacher asks stu dents what they know about ap ples andap ple or chards:

a. What do you see in the pic ture?

b. Have you ever picked ap ples be fore?

Con tent-based Sec ond Lan guage In struc tion 45


c. How would you pick ap ples at the top of the tree?

d. Are the trees in this pic ture very young or sev eral years old?

2. The teacher in tro duces stu dents to plant ing and grow ing pro ce dures. The teacher pres ents achart to the class show ing the stages of growth of a plant.

3. Stu dents plant their own ap ple seeds.

4. Stu dents are taken on a field trip to an ap ple or chard.

5. Stu dents learn about the nu tri tional value of ap ples.

6. Stu dents learn to read a rec ipe by mak ing a treat from ap ples in class. For ex am ple, they mightmake ap ples dipped in car a mel or ap ples with pea nut butter.

7. Stu dents write about what they have learned about ap ples.

Strengths

• Stu dents are learn ing au then tic lan guage that is rel e vant to their needs.

Weak nesses

• Lan guage teach ers may not know enough about the con tent.

• Ad junct classes may take a lot of ex tra time that teach ers do not have.

Mod i fi ca tions

• Shel tered classes: Shel tered classes are main stream classes such as sci ence, math, and lan -guage arts that are spe cif i cally geared to ward stu dents who are learn ing the tar get lan guage.In these classes, the same con tent is taught as that in other main stream classes, but spe cial at -ten tion can be paid to par tic u lar prob lems that lan guage-mi nor ity stu dents may have such asvo cab u lary, lan guage struc ture, and cul tural con texts that may not be fo cused on in themainstream class.

• Ad junct classes: In this model, stu dents are en rolled in a con cur rent con tent course and asup port lan guage course. Of ten the lan guage teacher sits in on the con tent class to see whatthe stu dents need to know and do. Then in the lan guage sup port class, the lan guage teachercan give ex tra sup port to help stu dents un der stand the lec ture and read ing as well as help inwrit ing re ports, giv ing speeches, and other ac tiv i ties re quired in the con tent class. The con tent teacher and the lan guage teacher may also work to gether so that the lan guage teacher can pre -pare stu dents be fore hand about in for ma tion and ac tiv i ties that will be covered in the contentclass.

See also: Cog ni tive Ac a demic Lan guage Learn ing Ap proach (CALLA); Com mu ni ca tive Ap -proach; Eng lish for Ac a demic Pur poses; Eng lish for Spe cific Purposes

Fur ther Read ing

Brinton, D. M., & Mas ter, R. P. (Eds.). (1997). New ways in con tent-based in struc tion. Alexandra,VA: TESOL.

A vol ume in the New Ways Se ries, this book in cludes pre scrip tive les son plans for teach -ing Eng lish lan guage learn ers.



Brinton, D. M, Snow, M. A., & Wesche, M. B. (1989). Con tent-based sec ond lan guage in struc tion.Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

The au thors de scribe the prin ci ples of con tent-based in struc tion.

Brinton, D. M., Snow, M. A., & Wesche, M. B. (1993). Con tent-based sec ond lan guage in struc tion.In J. W. Oller (Ed.), Meth ods that work: Ideas for lit er acy and lan guage teach ers (2nd ed.).Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

The par a digm of con tent-based in struc tion is ex plained.

Chamot, A. U., & O’Malley, J. M. (1994). Part three: Im ple ment ing CALLA in the class room. InThe CALLA hand book: Im ple ment ing the cog ni tive ac a demic lan guage learn ing ap proach (pp. 191–320). Read ing, MA: Ad di son-Wes ley.

De tails of CALLA are pre sented.

Crandall, J. (Ed.). (1995). ESL through con tent-area in struc tion: Math e mat ics, sci ence, so cial stud -ies (Lan guage Ed u ca tion: The ory and Prac tice 67). McHenry, IL: Cen ter for Ap pliedLinguistics.

The au thors of fer ideas on how to di rect ESL in struc tion in math, sci ence, and so cial stud -ies class rooms.

Kasper, L. F. (Ed.). (2000). Con tent-based col lege ESL in struc tion. Mahwah, NJ: Law renceErlbaum As so ci ates.

Tech niques of con tent-based ESL in struc tion are pre sented. A bal ance of the ory and prac -tice con trib ute to the read abil ity and prac ti cal ity of this re source.

Krashen, S. D. (1993). Shel tered sub ject-mat ter teach ing. In J. W. Oller (Ed.), Meth ods that work:Ideas for lit er acy and lan guage teach ers (2nd ed.). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Krashen’s the ory of sec ond lan guage ac qui si tion is trans lated into meth ods ap pli ca ble tothe class room set ting.

McGarry, R. G. (1998). Pro fes sional writ ing for busi ness ad min is tra tion: An ad junct, con tent-basedcourse. TESOL Jour nal, 7(6), 28–31.

McGarry sug gests courses that in te grated ESL and con tent-based in struc tion help learn ers to de velop lan guage skills as they gain knowl edge in their courses.

Pally, M., & Bailey, N. (Eds.). (1999). Sus tained con tent teach ing in ac a demic ESL/EFL: A prac ti -cal ap proach. Boston: Hought on-Mifflin.

Read ers gain a gen eral idea of the po ten tial ap pli ca tions in class rooms of sus tainedcon tent-based in struc tion in an ELL en vi ron ment.

Rich ard-Amato, P. A., & Snow, M. A. (1996). A sec ond ary shel tered Eng lish model. In Mak ing ithap pen: In ter ac tion in the sec ond lan guage class room (pp. 334–338). Read ing, MA: Ad di son-Wes ley.

The au thors pro vide a brief de scrip tion of sus tained con tent teach ing.

Sagliano, M., & Green field, K. (1998). A col lab o ra tive model of con tent-based EFL in struc tion inthe lib eral arts. TESOL Jour nal, 7(3), 23–28.

Sagliano and Green field pro pose ap ply ing a con tent-based model in higher ed u ca tion forstu dents learn ing Eng lish as a for eign lan guage as they ac quire knowl edge in spe cific fields ofstudy.

Snow, M. A. (2001). Con tent-based and im mer sion mod els for sec ond and for eign lan guage teach -ing. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teach ing Eng lish as a sec ond or for eign lan guage (3rd ed., pp.303–318). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Mod els for con tent-based in struc tion in teach ing Eng lish as a sec ond or for eign lan guageare pre sented with prac ti cal ideas for teach ers to fol low.

Con tent-based Sec ond Lan guage In struc tion 47


Snow, M. A., & Brinton, D. M. (Eds.). (1997). Con tent-based class room: Per spec tives on in te grat -ing lan guage and con tent. White Plains, NY: Longman.

A thor ough col lec tion of ar ti cles cov er ing all bases from spe cific in struc tion at var i ouslev els to as sess ment and re search.

ESL Text books with a Con tent-based In struc tion Ap proach

Bernache, C. (1994). Gate way to achieve ment in the con tent ar eas. New York: McGraw-Hill/Con tem po rary.

Brinton, D. (1997). In sights: A con tent-based ap proach to ac a demic prep a ra tion. White Plains, NY: Longman.

Chamot, A. U. (1999). Amer ica: The early years (up to the 1800’s). White Plains, NY: Longman.

Chamot, A. U. (1999). Amer ica: Af ter in de pend ence (1800–1900). White Plains, NY: Longman.

Christison, M. A., & Bassano, S. (1997). Earth and phys i cal sci ence: Con tent and learn ing strat e -gies. Read ing, MA: Longman.

Christison, M. A., & Bassano, S. (1997). Life sci ence: Con tent and learn ing strat e gies. Read ing,MA: Longman.

Christison, M. A., & Bassano, S. (1997). So cial stud ies: Con tent and learn ing strat e gies. Read ing,MA: Longman.

Connerton, P., & Reid, F. (1997). Link ages: A con tent-based in te grated skills pro gram. Heinle &Heinle.

DeFilippo, J., & Skidmore, C. (2004). Skill sharp ener (2nd ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman.

Espeseth, M. (1996). Ac a demic lis ten ing en coun ters: Lis ten ing, note tak ing, and dis cus sion, con tent fo cus: Hu man be hav ior. New York: Cam bridge Uni ver sity Press.

Gomez, S., et al. (1995). Eu reka: Sci ence dem on stra tions for ESL classes. Read ing, MA: Ad di -son-Wes ley.

Iwamoto, J. R. (1994) Com ing to gether, book 1: In te grat ing math and lan guage in a shel tered ap -proach to math e mat ics for sec ond ary stu dents. White Plains, NY: Longman.

Iwamoto, J. R. (1994) Com ing to gether, book 2: In te grat ing math and lan guage in a shel tered ap -proach to math e mat ics for sec ond ary stu dents. White Plains, NY: Longman.

Kauffman, D., & Ap ple, G. (2000). The Ox ford pic ture dic tio nary for the con tent ar eas. New York:Ox ford Uni ver sity Press.

Lubawy, S. (2000). World view: A global study of ge og ra phy, his tory, and cul ture. Pal a tine, IL:Linmore.

Nel son, V. (1999). Build ing skills for so cial stud ies: Read ing skills, writ ing skills, com mu ni ca tionskills, math skills, map skills, chart ing & graph ing skills, sci ence skills, timeline skills. NewYork: McGraw-Hill/Con tem po rary.

Seal, B. (1996). Ac a demic en coun ters: Read ing, study skills, and writ ing, con tent fo cus: Hu man be -hav ior. New York: Cam bridge Uni ver sity Press.

Terdy, D. (1986). Con tent area ESL: So cial stud ies. Pal a tine, IL: Linmore.

Zimmerman, F. (1989). Eng lish for sci ence. White Plains, NY: Longman.



Eng lish for Ac a demic Pur poses5—Ac a demic and Pro fes sional Ap proachesEng lish for Ac a demic Pur poses


Back ground

Eng lish for ac a demic pur poses (EAP) has been de vel oped to teach precollege or col lege-level stu -dents the nec es sary skills and vo cab u lary needed to be suc cess ful at the col lege and uni ver sity level. Suchan ap proach is of ten used in in ten sive pro grams as so ci ated with col leges and uni ver si ties. Tra di tional cur -ric u lum in this ap proach has of ten been built around the dis crete lan guage skills of read ing, writ ing, lis -ten ing, speak ing, and some times gram mar and vo cab u lary. More re cently other pro grams have be comemore in te grated or built around ac a demic con tent ar eas. Ac a demic skills may in clude teach ing stu dents to give speeches, write re search pa pers, work in groups, read ac a demic texts, for ex am ple. Stu dents learn not only the Eng lish to go with these tasks, but also the dis course and rhe tor i cal pat terns spe cific to the tar getac a demic cul ture. Al though vo cab u lary and lan guage struc ture may fo cus on spe cific fields, fo cus is of -ten on vo cab u lary and struc ture that is com mon to all ac a demic fields as well.

Strat egy

Al though there is no one spe cific way to ap proach Eng lish for Ac a demic Pur poses, most pro gramstry to fo cus their cur ric u lum around the skills and con tent that stu dents will use in their col lege or uni ver -sity classes.

1. Teach ers con duct a needs anal y sis of the ac a demic skills, con tent, dis course, and vo cab u larywhich stu dents will need to be suc cess ful in an ac a demic setting.

2. Teach ers con sider the fol low ing ques tions:

a. Will the pro gram be built around con tent or dis crete skills?

b. Are the stu dents un der grad u ates, grad u ates, or a mix?

c. Are the stu dents in one field only or sev eral dif fer ent ones?

d. Will stu dents be only in EAP classes, or will they also be tak ing reg u lar ac a demicclasses?

e. How will the teacher de cide when stu dents’ Eng lish and ac a demic skills are goodenough to meet the de mands of the col lege or uni ver sity?

3. From the in for ma tion ob tained from the needs anal y sis as well as an swers to these ques tions, the teacher de signs a cur ric u lum that pro vides the stu dents with what they will need to know in anac a demic set ting. The con tent of the cur ric u lum might in clude top ics such as sci ence, psy chol -ogy, and busi ness. Skill ar eas might in clude giv ing speeches, read ing text books, writ ing pa pers,work ing in groups, lis ten ing to lectures, and taking notes.

4. Teach ers de velop as sess ment in stru ments that will give them and other con cerned par ties the in -for ma tion needed to feel con fi dent that stu dents will be suc cess ful when they en ter their field ofstudy.

Eng lish for Ac a demic Pur poses 49



An In ter me di ate Speak ing and Lis ten ing Class in a Dis crete-Skills Pro gram

The fo cus of the class is the topic of space ex plo ra tion. Stu dents are given a short ex er cise that listsfa mous events in space ex plo ra tion such as when the tele scope was in vented, when Pluto was dis cov ered,when the first space flight took place, when a hu man first walked on the moon. Stu dents are asked tomatch dates with the events. As a class, stu dents guess the dates to see if they know the an swer. Stu dentsare asked if they think space ex plo ra tion is a good thing and why or why not. These in tro duc tory ex er cises are used to dis cover and high light stu dents’ knowl edge about space. In ad di tion, vo cab u lary or con ceptsthat stu dents may need to know for the up com ing lec ture can be pre viewed. Stu dents lis ten to a fairly brief lec ture about space. This lec ture might be given by the teacher, be on video, or be on audiocassette. Stu -dents lis ten only to the lec ture the first time. The sec ond time, as stu dents lis ten they fill in the miss ing in -for ma tion in an out line. Stu dents may com pare their an swers with other stu dents or check their an swerson an over head the teacher dis plays. Stu dents then lis ten a third time so they can attend again to thoseparts they had difficulty understanding.

Stu dents are asked what they think liv ing in space would be like. Stu dents are then put in groups andgiven time to de sign a space col ony. Stu dents plan and draw their col ony. Once stu dents have de signedtheir space col ony, they give a pre sen ta tion about it to the rest of the class. Stu dents can be re mindedabout the use of the fu ture and the con di tional tenses for their pre sen ta tion. Other stu dents ask ques tionsabout the stu dents’ col o nies. Then stu dents are asked which col ony they would like to live on and why.The teacher or the stu dents (or both to gether) can fill out an as sess ment form eval u at ing the stu dents’presentations.

An In te grated Skills Course for Grad u ate Stu dents Al ready En rolled in Some Ac a demic Classes

The se mes ter course is di vided up into ac a demic top ics such as de mog ra phy, ap plied lin guis tics, bi o -log i cal sci ences, mar ket ing, and com puter tech nol ogy. For each ac a demic topic, stu dents break intogroups for about a two- to three-week pe riod and prac tice work ing in groups. Stu dents are given in for ma -tion on how to dis agree po litely, how to make a point, how to in ter rupt an other speaker, and so on. Stu -dents are given tasks to com plete. For ex am ple, stu dents may de velop a plan for a busi ness they hope tode velop. They will do re search on their line of busi ness. They may pres ent their plan to oth ers to get sup -port. This in cludes putt ing nec es sary in for ma tion on graphs, ta bles, and charts and be ing able to explainthe information. Students write up their results.

In ad di tion, through out the se mes ter stu dents will do in di vid ual pro jects re lated to their field ofstudy. For ex am ple, grad u ate stu dents may give a twenty-min ute pre sen ta tion on an as pect of their fieldthat will be un der stood by a gen eral ac a demic au di ence. Stu dents will also prac tice lis ten ing to lec turesand note tak ing. Stu dents will also be guided in writ ing ac a demic ma te rial such as sum ma ries, es says, andre search pa pers. Through out the se mes ter stu dents will be re quired to hand in var i ous parts of their re -search pa per such as an ab stract, a the sis state ment, an out line, and sev eral rough drafts checked for struc -ture, vo cab u lary, and or ga ni za tion and co her ence. This pa per can be a real pa per they are writ ing for oneof their uni ver sity classes. In fact, as of ten as pos si ble, as sign ments are re lated to what is ac tu ally go ing on in their uni ver sity classes. Stu dents are eval u ated through tests that in clude mul ti ple-choice ques tions,short-an swer ques tions, and es say ques tions so that students may practice the types of exams they willlikely encounter in their academic classes.


• Be cause EAP fo cuses on the par tic u lar needs of stu dents in higher ed u ca tion, those stu dentsnot in volved in or plan ning on con tin u ing their ac a demic stud ies may find the ac a demic ori -en ta tion ir rel e vant or even boring.



• Mod i fi ca tions can be made if you have a mix of stu dents by in clud ing top ics that all for eignlan guage stu dents will en coun ter, such as shop ping, num bers, fi nance, and trans por ta tion.

See also: Con tent-based Sec ond Lan guage In struc tion; Eng lish for Spe cific Pur poses

Fur ther Read ing

Fer ris, D., & Tagg, T. (1996). Ac a demic lis ten ing/speak ing tasks for ESL stu dents: Prob lems, sug -ges tions, and im pli ca tions. TESOL Quar terly, 30(2), 297–317.

The au thors con cen trate on the views of col lege and uni ver sity pro fes sors on the chal -lenges of their ESL stu dents with speak ing and lis ten ing Eng lish lan guage tasks. Pro fes sorsgen er ally be lieve that stu dents are less pro fi cient with ac a demic Eng lish than con ver sa tional“ev ery day” lis ten ing and speak ing.

Flowerdew, J., & Pea cock, M. (2001) Re search per spec tives on Eng lish for ac a demic pur poses.Cam bridge, Eng land: Cam bridge Uni ver sity Press.

This col lec tion of ar ti cles be gins with a dis cus sion of the so cial and po lit i cal as pects ofEAP and con tin ues with an ex plo ra tion of re search in cur ric u lum de sign in EAP sit u a tions.

Grabe, W., & Stoller, F. L. (2001). Teach ing Eng lish as a sec ond or for eign lan guage (3rd ed.).Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

This ar ti cle dis cusses the im por tance of read ing in EAP with guide lines for cre at ing an ef -fec tive EAP read ing cur ric u lum.

Jor dan, R. (1997). Eng lish for ac a demic pur poses: A guide and re source book for teach ers. Cam -bridge, Eng land: Cam bridge Uni ver sity Press.

Jor dan pro vides a thor ough cov er age of the back ground of EAP with in for ma tion on EAPsyl la bus de sign and more spe cific EAP ar eas such as ac a demic read ing and writ ing, ac a demicspeak ing, and vo cab u lary de vel op ment.

Pally, M. (2000). Sus tained con tent teach ing in ac a demic ESL/EFL. Boston: Hought on-Mifflin.This col lec tion of ar ti cles gives dif fer ent ex am ples of EAP in struc tion through con tent.

Top ics in clude writ ing for en gi neer ing stu dents, U.S. his tory, health, and in for ma tion on as -sess ment in sus tained con tent teach ing.

Jour nals

Jour nal of Eng lish for Ac a demic Pur posesIn for ma tion avail able at http://www.elsevier.com/lo cate/jeap

Eng lish for Ac a demic Pur poses 51


Eng lish for Spe cific Pur poses5—Ac a demic and Pro fes sional Ap proachesEng lish for Spe cific Pur poses

Eng lish Skill Level: In ter me di ate to Ad vancedGrade Level: Sec ond ary to Adult

Back ground

As Eng lish be came a lin gua franca world wide, par tic u larly in fields such as busi ness and sci ence,there de vel oped a need to fo cus on the lan guage needs of those peo ple us ing Eng lish as an in ter na tionallan guage and to de velop pro grams spe cif i cally to meet their needs. Eng lish for Spe cific Pur poses (ESP)classes fo cus on both the struc ture and lexis needed for a par tic u lar field as well as the types of ac tiv i tiesthat the stu dent is ex pected to perform within the profession.

Strat egy

1. The first step in ESP is to do a needs anal y sis of the field or pro fes sion in which the stu dents willbe work ing.

2. From the needs anal y sis, find the ac tiv i ties that the stu dents will be re quired to do in Eng lishwithin their field. Ac tiv i ties might in clude giv ing speeches, read ing jour nals, con duct ing boardmeet ings, and so on.

3. Also in clude in the cur ric u lum vo cab u lary, struc ture, spo ken dis course, and rhe tor i cal pat ternsthat are spe cific to the stu dents’ field and future tasks.


Cre at ing a Small Busi ness

This ac tiv ity could be used ei ther for busi ness stu dents or art and de sign stu dents.

1. Stu dents are put into groups.

2. As a group, stu dents de cide which small busi ness they would like to start. They might choose ares tau rant, a travel agency, a cloth ing store, or any other small busi ness.

3. Stu dents de cide what will need to be done to start a small busi ness such as:

a. How to find fund ing

b. Where to lo cate the busi ness

c. How to ad ver tise

d. How to de sign and dec o rate the es tab lish ment

The ar eas of fo cus might de pend on the spe cialty of the stu dents. For ex am ple, busi nessstu dents might de cide to con cen trate on the fi nan cial as pects of the busi ness, whereas artand de sign stu dents might de cide to con cen trate on the de sign of ad ver tis ing and theestablishment.

4. Each group of stu dents pres ents its busi ness plan to the other stu dents in the class, who can re -spond to the plan as po ten tial in ves tors might. The other stu dents should be en cour aged to askques tions of the pre sent ing group re gard ing the busi ness plan. Fi nally, the “in ves tors” can ex -plain why they would or would not approve the plan.



Pre par ing to Write about Art

This les son teaches stu dents art ter mi nol ogy and de scrip tive ad jec tives to help them write a cri tiqueof a piece of art.

1. Stu dents are in tro duced to the art de sign el e ments of line, shape, space, light, color, and tex turethrough the view ing of vi sual rep re sen ta tions that show dif fer ent uses of the elements.

2. Stu dents are given a re pro duc tion of a paint ing and asked to an a lyze its de sign el e ments. Stu -dents can pres ent their anal y sis orally or in writing.

3. Stu dents choose dif fer ent pages of a text that de scribes a piece of art. Stu dents un der line or write the de scrip tive ad jec tives. Stu dents share their words with the class while the teacher writesthem on the board.

4. The teacher then shows stu dents a va ri ety of art re pro duc tions. For each re pro duc tion, stu dentsmust give one or two de scrip tive ad jec tives. Stu dents can not re peat what other stu dents havesaid. This is to en cour age stu dents to come up with more words that can be used to de scribe thesame object.

5. Stu dents are then as signed to write a de scrip tion of a piece of art.

Strengths

• Stu dents’ real and spe cific needs are met.

• Au then tic ma te ri als are used.

• ESP courses tend to be short and in tense be cause of the nar row fo cus.

Weak nesses

• Classes may be so nar rowly fo cused that the broader needs of some stu dents are not met.

• The time, ef fort, and co op er a tion needed to do a good needs anal y sis may not al ways be avail able.

Fur ther Read ing

Douglas, D. (2000). As sess ing lan guages for spe cific pur poses. Cam bridge, Eng land: Cam bridgeUni ver sity Press.

A dis cus sion of test ing that fo cuses on as sess ing lan guage used in spe cific sit u a tions as op -posed to test ing for gen eral pur poses. It in cludes a dis cus sion of some tests that are al readymade for that pur pose. Part of the Cam bridge Lan guage As sess ment Se ries.

Dudley-Ev ans, T. (2001). Eng lish for spe cific pur poses. In R. Carter & D. Nunan (Eds.), The Cam -bridge guide to teach ing Eng lish to speak ers of other lan guages (pp. 131–136.) Cam bridge,Eng land: Cam bridge Uni ver sity Press.

This brief ar ti cle de fines ESP with par tic u lar at ten tion to needs anal y sis and text anal y sis.

Dudley-Ev ans, T., & St. John, M. J. (1998). De vel op ments in ESP: A multi-dis ci plin ary ap proach.Cam bridge, Eng land: Cam bridge Uni ver sity Press.

In this book, the au thors of fer a dis cus sion of why and how to as sess lan guage used forspe cific pur poses as op posed to gen eral lan guage tests.

Eng lish for Spe cific Pur poses 53


Holme, R. (1996) ESP ideas: Rec i pes for teach ing ac a demic and pro fes sional Eng lish. Can ter bury,Eng land: Pil grims/Longman UK.

In this col lec tion of teacher-friendly ac tiv i ties, the au thors or ga nize the con tent un der gen -eral ar eas of ex per tise such as ne go ti at ing, data map ping, rea son ing out a prob lem, and get tingacross a point.

Hutch in son, T., & Wa ters, A. (1987). Eng lish for spe cific pur poses: A learn ing-cen tred ap proach.Cam bridge, Eng land: Cam bridge Uni ver sity Press.

The au thors’ thor ough ex plo ra tion of ESP cov ers def i ni tion of the ap proach, course de -sign, ap pli ca tion, and the role of the ESP teacher.

Johns, A. M., & Price-Machado, D. (2001). Eng lish for spe cific pur poses: Tai lor ing courses to stu -dent needs—and to the out side world. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teach ing Eng lish as a sec ondor for eign lan guage (3rd ed., pp. 43–54). Boston: Heinle and Heinle.

This ar ti cle de fines ESP and dis cusses how to pre pare an ESP cur ric u lum in clud ing dif fer -ent meth ods of needs as sess ment.

Mas ter, P., & Brinton, D. (Eds.). (1998). New ways in Eng lish for spe cific pur poses. Al ex an dria,VA: TESOL.

Mas ter and Brinton pro vide col lec tion of les sons for the ESP ar eas of EAP, art and de sign,busi ness and eco nom ics, le gal pur poses, sci ence and tech nol ogy, and vo ca tional pur poses.

Wilberg, P. (1987). One to one: A teacher’s hand book. Hove, Eng land: Lan guage Teach ingPub li ca tions.

Al though the main pur pose of this book is ex plain ing how to teach one on one, it has manygood ideas on how to cre ate les sons aimed at stu dents in volved with Eng lish for spe cific pur poses.



Lex i cal Ap proach5—Ac a demic and Pro fes sional Ap proachesLex i cal Ap proach


Back ground

The lex i cal ap proach was de vel oped by Mi chael Lewis (The Lex i cal Ap proach, 1993) who be lievesthat the pri mary ap proach in for eign lan guage teach ing should be fo cused on the lex i con (vo cab u lary) ofthe lan guage as op posed to us ing the more tra di tional gram mat i cal or struc tural ap proach. He also be -lieves that vo cab u lary needs to be taught di rectly as rather than through nat u ral and com mu ni ca tive ap -proaches that pro pose vo cab u lary will be learned in duc tively as stu dents be come ex posed to the tar getlan guage. His main the sis is that vo cab u lary should be taught in “chunks” in stead of as in di vid ual words.These chunks are re ferred to as col lo ca tions. That is, words that fre quently go to gether, such as “an cienthis tory” not “old his tory” or “for mer his tory” should be learned to gether. Fol low ers of the lexical ap -proach fre quently make use of con cor dances, com puter pro grams that can scan large amounts of ma te rialfor use of spe cific words and their col lo ca tions. Such in for ma tion can also be found in con cor dance dic -tio nar ies.

Strat egy

1. Stu dents are in tro duced to the con cept of col lo ca tions. The teacher may do this as cer tain wordsand their col lo ca tions come up in les sons. Or teach ers may give stu dents a list of words and askthem to find them in a text as well as the words they go with. Teach ers may also in tro duce col lo -ca tions by mak ing word charts that show with which other words the oth ers can be used. Stu -dents may also be in tro duced to con cor dance programs on computers.

2. Once stu dents are in tro duced to the con cept of col lo ca tions, they can con tinue im prov ing on this by keep ing their own note books with lists of words and their col lo ca tions (see ex am ple thatfollows).

3. Stu dents can also do var i ous ex er cises or writ ing as sign ments in which they are asked to pro -duce to rec og nize and then pro duce cer tain col lo ca tions.


Keep ing a Col lo ca tion Note book

In some ways, col lo ca tion note books are sim i lar to the vo cab u lary note books that many stu dentslearn ing other lan guages keep. In a col lo ca tion note book, how ever, there are few in di vid ual words listed.In stead, stu dents keep track of words that go to gether with other words such as col lo ca tions and fixed ex -pres sions. The teacher may make pho to cop ied sheets that stu dents can use, or stu dents can de velop theirown or ga ni za tional sys tem. Some col lo ca tion cat e go ries that are useful are the following:

• Verbs that go with cer tain nouns (do home work, fin ish home work, com plete home work, cor -rect home work, hand in home work)

• Ad jec tives that go with cer tain nouns (hard work, in ter est ing work)

• Noun + noun (trans port costs, over head costs, la bor costs)

• Verb + ad verb (drive fast, drive care fully)

• Ex pres sions (I should em pha size that, I should point out that, I should re mind you that)

Lex i cal Ap proach 55


Stu dents may learn col lo ca tions as they are read ing or lis ten ing. Teach ers may ask stu dents to lookfor col lo ca tions in a read ing. Other stu dents may add their own col lo ca tions when they know them.Teach ers can also give lists of col lo ca tions to stu dents as they come up in class. Stu dents may lo cate col -lo ca tions in col lo ca tion dic tio nar ies or in concordance programs as well.

Col lo ca tion Ex er cise

• Stu dents can be asked to iden tify which words go with other words.

• Stu dent can fin ish set ex pres sions.

• Stu dents can be given cards with nouns, verbs, ad jec tives, and ad verbs and asked to cre ate ex -pres sions or sen tences with the words on those cards.

Fur ther Read ing

DeCarrico, J. S. (2001). Vo cab u lary learn ing and teach ing. In Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teach ing Eng lish as a sec ond or for eign lan guage (3rd ed., pp. 285–299). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

This chap ter pres ents an ex pla na tion of lex i cal com pe tence rel a tive to com mu ni ca tivecom pe tence.

Fox, G. (1998). Us ing cor pus data in the class room. In B. Tomlinson (Ed.), Ma te ri als de vel op mentin lan guage teach ing (pp. 25–43). Cam bridge, Eng land: Cam bridge Uni ver sity Press.

Fox’s ar ti cle shows sev eral ex am ples of con cor dances and var i ous ways such in for ma tioncan be used in the class room.

Lewis, M. (1997). Im ple ment ing the lex i cal ap proach: Putt ing the ory into prac tice. Hove, Eng land:Lan guage Teach ing Pub li ca tions.

Lewis of fers ideas that pro mote de vel op ing stu dents’ abil ity with words and word com bi na tions.

Lewis, M. (Ed.). (2000). Teach ing col lo ca tion: Fur ther de vel op ments in the lex i cal ap proach.Hove, Eng land: Lan guage Teach ing Pub li ca tions.

Lewis ex plains how lan guage is learned based on the ory sup port ing the lex i cal ap proach.

Na tion, P. (Ed.). (1995). New ways in teach ing vo cab u lary. Alexandra, VA: Teach ers of Eng lish toStu dents of Other Lan guages (TESOL).

In no va tive ideas in teach ing Eng lish to speak ers of other lan guages us ing the lex i cal ap -proach are ex plained.

Nattinger, J. R., & DeCarrico, J. S. (1992). Lex i cal phrases and lan guage teach ing. Ox ford, Eng -land: Ox ford Uni ver sity Press.

In cludes a thor ough dis cus sion of lex i cal phrases and ex am ples of how to teach with them.

Schmitt, N., & Carter, R. (2000). The lex i cal ad van tages of nar row read ing for sec ond lan guagelearn ers. TESOL Jour nal, 9(1), 4– 9.

This ar ti cle ex plains the use of con cor dances.

Wichman, A., Fligelstone, S., McEnery, T., & Knowles, G. (Eds.). (1997). Teach ing and lan guagecor pora. Lon don: Longman

This col lec tion of ar ti cles fo cuses largely on the com puter side of cor pora (col lec tion oflin guis tic data).

Wil lis, J. (1998). Con cor dances in the class room with out a com puter: As sem bling and ex ploit ingcon cor dances of com mon words. In B. Tomlinson (Ed.), Ma te ri als de vel op ment in lan guageteach ing (pp. 44–66). Cam bridge, Eng land: Cam bridge University Press.

The au thors ex plain how stu dents can cre ate their own lex i cal phrases and lin guis tic fea -tures with out the use of a com puter.



Com pe tency-based Ap proach5—Ac a demic and Pro fes sional Ap proachesCom pe tency-based Ap proach

Eng lish Skill Level: Be gin ning to Ad vancedGrade Level: Up per El e men tary to Adult

Back ground

Com pe tency-based ed u ca tion (CBE), an ap proach to adult and lit er acy ed u ca tion, be gan to be usedin adult ed u ca tion ESL in the 1970s. Com pe tency-based ESL is cen tered around teach ing to com pe ten -cies. A com pe tency is a task-based goal to be met by the learner. Com pe ten cies fre quently in clude ba sicsur vival skills like tak ing trans por ta tion, go ing to the doc tor, and buy ing ne ces si ties. How ever, com pe -ten cies could also be goals to be met by stu dents or pro fes sion als. A com pe tency-based ap proach in cludes an as sess ment of learn ers’ needs, se lec tion of com pe ten cies based on those needs, in struc tion tar geted onmeet ing those needs, and eval u a tion of learn ers’ per for mance in meet ing the com pe ten cies. A com pe tency-based approach con tin ues to be the pri mary method used in U.S. gov ern ment–funded adult ed u ca tionESL pro grams. The two most widely known com pe tency based pro grams in the United States are (1)SCANS, which is the Sec re tary’s Com mis sion on Achiev ing Nec es sary Skills, a re port put out in 1991 bythe U.S. gov ern ment de tail ing what com pe ten cies, skills, and per sonal qual i ties are needed to suc ceed inthe work place, and (2) CASAS (Com pre hen sive Adult Stu dent As sess ment Sys tem), a pri vate or ga ni za -tion that has cre ated its own com pe ten cies with its own ma te ri als and as sess ment and is now used by anum ber of adult ed u ca tion pro grams in the United States. In ad di tion, CBE is also used ex ten sively inAus tra lian adult ESL pro grams for im mi grants.

Strat egy

1. The teacher con ducts a needs as sess ment to see how and where stu dents will need to use Eng lish to be suc cess ful in the fu ture.

2. The teacher de fines tasks, or com pe ten cies, that stu dents will need to ac com plish. Ex am ples ofcom pe ten cies might in clude re quest ing and giv ing per sonal in for ma tion, ask ing for the time,prac tic ing trans ac tions in the post of fice, and mak ing a doc tor’s appointment.

3. The teacher cre ates les sons and ac tiv i ties that will teach stu dents how to ac com plish the tasks, or com pe ten cies, that have been pre scribed. Les sons might in clude new vo cab u lary, un der stand ing and prac tic ing di a logues, read ing and fill ing out forms, and dis cuss ing pre vi ous ex pe ri ences and fu ture problems that might occur.

4. Stu dents are eval u ated on their abil ity to per form the des ig nated task or com pe tency.


Shop ping for Clothes

1. A pic ture of a cloth ing store with a clerk and a woman is shown to stu dents. Stu dents are asked,“What is hap pen ing in this pic ture?” If stu dents have dif fi culty an swer ing, the teacher can askmore di rect ques tions: “Where are they?” “Who is this woman?” “What is she do ing?” Stu dentsare then asked about their shop ping ex pe ri ences with ques tions such as, “Do you like to shop?”“What do you like to buy?” “Where do you shop?” “How of ten do you shop?” Such ques tionsnot only help stu dents fo cus on the topic but also help the teacher as sess what the stu dents knowand what they need to know.

2. Stu dents are then shown pic tures of dif fer ent ar ti cles of cloth ing. Stu dents re view the names and col ors of ar ti cles of clothing.

Com pe tency-based Ap proach 57


3. Stu dents then lis ten to a di a logue be tween the shop per and the store clerk. Stu dents may fol lowthe writ ten di a logue as they listen.

Clerk: Can I help you?Shop per: Yes, I’m look ing for a new dress to wear to work.Clerk: What size do you wear?Shop per: I wear a size 12.Clerk: What color would you like?Shop per: I’d like some thing in blue.Clerk: How about this dress?Shop per: No, I don’t re ally care for that dress.Clerk: How about this one?Shop per: Yes, I like that one.Clerk: Would you like to try it on?Shop per: Yes, where is the dress ing room?

(Shop per tries on the dress)Clerk: How does it fit?Shop per: Just fine. I think I’ll get it.

Note: Within the di a logue are a num ber of id i om atic ex pres sions that are used when shop ping.

4. The teacher points out new vo cab u lary in the di a logue such as

Look ing for

Size

How about

Don’t care for

Try it on

Dress ing room

Does it fit

I’ll get it

5. Stu dents prac tice parts of the di a logues. First, stu dents prac tice say ing in di vid ual lines as aclass. Then stu dents prac tice the di a logue in pairs. Then stu dents prac tice shop ping in pairs us -ing the prac tice di a logue or their own. Stu dents then role-play the situation.

6. Once stu dents can ac com plish this com pe tency, they can go on to sim i lar com pe ten cies such asshop ping for gro cer ies, buy ing clothes for chil dren, shop ping in a hard ware store. Stu dents canalso go on to other top ics such as go ing to the doc tor, ap ply ing for a job, or vis it ing with theirchil dren’s teachers.

See also: Learner-Cen tered Ap proach; Vo ca tional Eng lish as a Sec ond Lan guage

Fur ther Read ing

Au er bach, E. R. (1986). Com pe tency-based ESL: One step for ward or two steps back? TESOLQuar terly, 20(3), 411–429.

Au er bach ex am ines the un der ly ing prin ci ples of com pe tency-based ESL pro grams. Ac -cord ing to Au er bach, com pe tency-based pro grams fo cus on life skills and are based on mu tu -ally agreed-on, con tin u ally as sessed per for mance out comes.



CASAS Com pe tency List. Re trieved from http://www.casas.org/01AboutCasas/Complist2003.pdfThe CASAS Web site ex plains the sys tem and pro vides in for ma tion about the com pe ten -

cies, in struc tional re sources, and train ing op por tu ni ties.

Peyton, J., & Crandall, J. (1995). Phi los o phies and ap proaches in adult ESL lit er acy in struc tion. Re -trieved May 3, 2006, from http://www.ericdigest.org/1996-2/esl.html

The Web site for the Cen ter for Ap plied Lin guis tics con tains a pleth ora of in for ma tionabout a va ri ety of ap proaches for teach ing Eng lish lan guage learn ers.

Rich ards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Com pe tency-based lan guage teach ing in ap proaches andmeth ods in lan guage teach ing (2nd ed., pp. 141–150). Cam bridge, Eng land: Cam bridge Uni -ver sity Press.

The au thors pro vide a good sum mary cov er ing the his tory, the ory, and cur rent use of thisap proach.

U.S. De part ment of La bor. (1993). Teach ing the SCANS com pe ten cies. ERIC Doc u ment ED 354 400.This doc u ment dis cusses the in flu ence the SCANS or the Sec re tary’s Com mis sion on

Achiev ing Nec es sary Skills, the U.S. De part ment of La bor re port on ed u ca tional re form.

Whetzel, D. (1992). The Sec re tary of La bor’s Com mis sion on Achiev ing Nec es sary Skills. ERICDoc u ment ED339749.

This ERIC doc u ment de scribes the pro cess used to iden tify the ba sic skills listed in SCANS.

ESL Text books Cor re lated to Com pe ten cies Such as SCANS, CASAS, and OtherState-Level Com pe ten cies

Brown, D. H. (1998). New vis tas. White Plains, NY: Longman.

Bur ton, E. (1995). Go ing places: Pic ture-based Eng lish. White Plains, NY: Longman.

Carver, T. K., & Fotinos, S. D. (1997). A con ver sa tion book (books 1 and 2). White Plains, NY:Longman.

Chamot, A. U., et al. (2000). Per spec tives 2000 (books 1 and 2). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Foley, B. H., & Neblett, E. R. (2003) The new gram mar in ac tion: An in te grated course in Eng lish.Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Foley, B. H., & Pomann, H. (1982) Life lines: Cop ing skills in Eng lish, books. White Plains, NY:Longman.

Har ris, T. (1995). Ex plor ing Eng lish. A. Rowe, Il lus tra tor. White Plains, NY: Longman.

Jenkins, R., & Sabbagh, S. L. (2001). Stand out: Stan dards-based Eng lish (books 1–4). Boston:Heinle & Heinle.

Kerwin, M. (1995). Top ics and lan guage com pe ten cies. White Plains, NY: Prentice Hall.

Magy, R. (1998). Work ing it out: In ter ac tive Eng lish for the work place. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Molinsky, S. J., & Bliss, B. (1995). Ex press ways. White Plains, NY: Longman.

Molinsky, S. J., & Bliss, B. (2000). Side by side (3rd ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman.

Nunan, D. (2001) Ex pres sions: Mean ing ful Eng lish com mu ni ca tion. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Price-Machado, D. (1998). Skills for suc cess: Work ing and study ing in Eng lish. New York: Cam -bridge Uni ver sity Press.

Saslow, J., & Col lins, T. (2001). Work place plus. White Plains, NY: Longman.

Weinstein-Shr, G., & Huizenga, J. (1996). Col lab o ra tions: Eng lish in our lives, a 5-level se ries.Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Com pe tency-based Ap proach 59


Crit i cal Ped a gogy5—Ac a demic and Pro fes sional Ap proachesCrit i cal Ped a gogy

Eng lish Skill Level: Ad vanced Be gin ning to Ad vancedGrade Level: Sec ond ary to AdultAlso Called: Crit i cal Lit er acy, Par tic i pa tory ESL, Prob lem-Pos ing Ed u ca tion

Back ground

Crit i cal lit er acy is a teach ing ori en ta tion that fo cuses on en cour ag ing stu dents to an a lyze crit i cally atext’s pur pose and the cul ture and power struc ture it rep re sents. It also en cour ages stu dents to choose is -sues for their class room study that have real mean ing in their own lives. Paulo Friere, a Bra zil ian ed u ca -tor, is of ten viewed as the founder of this ori en ta tion (Ped a gogy of the Op pressed, 1970). He be lieved that ed u ca tion and knowl edge could only have power when they help learn ers lib er ate them selves from op -pres sive con di tions. Al though some ap proaches to crit i cal lit er acy only ask stu dents to come away with abetter un der stand ing of so ci ety and their role in it, other ap proaches en cour age stu dents to go a stepfurther and become activists in their own communities.

Strat egy

1. The teacher en cour ages stu dents and lis tens as they dis cuss their ev ery day lives.

2. The teacher fa cil i tates open dis cus sion and en cour ages stu dents to ex press con cerns.

3. The teacher as sesses stu dents’ sit u a tion to help them de ter mine top ics that truly con cern them.

4. The teacher chooses a pic ture, story, or song to pres ent to stu dents to help them take an ob jec tive look at their ex pe ri ences and con cerns.

5. Stu dents meet in small groups, called cul ture cir cles, to dis cuss and pro pose a pro ject re lated totheir con cerns.

6. Stu dents plan a pro ject, which of ten in cludes so cial ac tion, to im prove their sit u a tion.


My Neigh bor hood

1. The teacher asks stu dents, “What do you do ev ery day?” Stu dents an swer and may also ask otherstu dents. The teacher helps stu dents with vo cab u lary and struc ture as stu dents talk about theirtyp i cal day. The teacher and other stu dents can ask stu dents more ques tions about their day, in -clud ing ques tions about what they like to do and why or what they don’t like to do and why.

2. The teacher shows a pic ture of a city neigh bor hood. He or she asks stu dents what they see.Again, the teacher helps stu dents with vo cab u lary and struc ture as needed. The teacher then asks stu dents, “What do you like about this neighborhood?” “What don’t you like about it?” “Whatdoes your neigh bor hood look like?” “What do you like about your neigh bor hood?” “What don’t you like about?”

3. Stu dents, to gether or in groups, de cide on a prob lem they want to solve in their neigh bor hoods.They may do this as a class pro ject to be pre sented to their teacher and the other stu dents, or theymay de cide to con tinue with their pro ject out side of class.



Di ver sity in Our Town

Sub mit ted by Becky Sutter, Lu ther Col lege ed u ca tion stu dent

1. The ob jec tive of this les son is for learn ers to ob serve and dis cuss the amount of help that dif fer -ent pub lic places pro vide for peo ple who speak lan guages other than Eng lish. The learner iden ti -fies var i ous ways that pub lic places could be more help ful to peo ple who speak lan guages otherthan English.

2. Dur ing the week be fore the les son, the teacher en cour ages the stu dents to pay at ten tion to thingsthat pub lic in sti tu tions do or do not do to make it eas ier for peo ple who speak a lan guage otherthan Eng lish. Stu dents should look for signs writ ten in other lan guages, for pic tures, and for di a -grams. Stu dents should also look to see whether pub lic in sti tu tions like schools, doc tor’s of -fices, and stores have bi lin gual em ploy ees. The teacher could also bring in pam phlets and otherma te ri als put out by var i ous institutions for students to analyze.

3. The teacher be gins the les son by read ing Marianthe’s Story: Painted Words/Spo ken Mem o riesby Aliki (Greenwillow Books, 1998). This is a book in two parts about a girl who im mi grates tothe United States. She shares her story of the dif fi cul ties she faced in her first days in a class room where ev ery one speaks a dif fer ent lan guage from hers. The teacher asks the stu dents the fol low -ing questions:

a. What were some prob lems that Marianthe had when she didn’t un der stand the lan -guage that her teacher and friends were speak ing?

b. What things were hard for her to un der stand?

c. What things could she un der stand?

d. How did she com mu ni cate?

4. The teacher asks the stu dents if they ever felt like Marianthe and asks them to share sto ries oftimes when they or their fam ily have had prob lems be cause of lan guage bar ri ers. For those stu -dents who may feel un com fort able dis cuss ing their own dif fi cul ties, this part of the dis cus sionshould be optional.

5. The teacher will ask stu dents to get into pre as signed het er o ge neous small groups. The teacherin structs the stu dents to dis cuss ob ser va tions that they made over the week about how pub lic in -sti tu tions do or do not pro vide help for non-Eng lish speakers.

6. Stu dents con struct a chart of their ob ser va tions as fol lows:

Help ful Not Help fulWells Fargo Banks has signs John son Health Care has no doc torsin Span ish, Hmong, and Eng lish or trans la tors who speak Span ish

7. The teacher asks each group to think of so lu tions to their ob ser va tions listed in the “Not Help -ful” col umn.

8. In a fol low-up les son, stu dents write a let ter to one of the in sti tu tions that they iden ti fied asnonhelpful, giv ing sug ges tions on how it could better serve non-Eng lish speak ers. Stu dents aregiven the op tion of whether to mail the letter.

An a lyz ing a Text for Bias

1. Stu dents are given a news pa per ar ti cle about a cur rent event or a topic that con cerns them. Thear ti cle is pre viewed by look ing at the ti tle, any sub ti tles, and the pic tures. Stu dents are askedwhat they know about this and what they think about this topic.

Crit i cal Ped a gogy 61


2. Stu dents read the ar ti cle more thor oughly. They are asked to write down what they think arefacts and what they think are opin ions. More ad vanced stu dents can be asked to point out termsthat show bias or emo tional overdramatization. Stu dents are asked their opin ions about thetopic. They are asked their opin ion about the writ ing. Is it fair? Is it bi ased? What has been leftout? What should have been included?

3. Stu dents, in di vid u ally, in groups, or as a class, write a let ter to the ed i tor re spond ing to the ar ti -cle. Stu dents may de cide whether they want to send the let ter to the newspaper.

Strengths

• In struc tion is grounded in the ex pe ri ences of stu dents and teach ers, not a stan dard ized cur ric -u lum con trolled by text book pub lish ers, teach ers, and administrators.

• Mean ing ful con ver sa tion is the norm be cause the di a logue is based on the ex pe ri ences of stu -dents and teachers.

• Stu dents are part ners with teach ers in learn ing.


• Some stu dents may be un com fort able dis cuss ing is sues that are too per sonal or too po lit i cal.Teach ers should try to keep the dis cus sion at an ob jec tive, gen eral level so that stu dents donot feel com pelled to dis cuss per sonal is sues if they do not wish to do so. Stu dents shouldnever be put on the spot nor should they be re quired to go pub lic with ac tiv i ties un less theydesire to attend them.

See also: Learner-Cen tered Ap proach

Fur ther Read ing

Au er bach, E. R. (1992). Mak ing mean ing, mak ing change: Par tic i pa tory cur ric u lum de vel op mentfor adult ESL lit er acy. Wash ing ton, DC: Cen ter for Ap plied Linguistics.

This is the clas sic text by one of the lead ing pro po nents of the par tic i pa tory ap proach inadult ed u ca tion ESL.

Au er bach, E. R. (1996). Adult ESL/lit er acy from the com mu nity to the com mu nity: A guide book forpar tic i pa tory lit er acy train ing. Mahwah, NJ: Law rence Erlbaum Associates.

A teach ing man ual pre sent ing sev eral real-life pro grams of where the par tic i pants in adulted u ca tion be came the teach ers.

Au er bach, E. R. (2001). “Yes, but…”: Problematizing par tic i pa tory ESL ped a gogy. In P. Camp bell& B. Burnaby (Eds.), Par tic i pa tory prac tices in adult ed u ca tion (pp. 287–305). Mahwah, NJ:Law rence Erlbaum Associates.

This ar ti cle pres ents some of the ar gu ments or di lem mas that have been posed by thosethat have prac ticed par tic i pa tory ped a gogy with Au er bach’s an swers and sug ges tions.

Hones, D. F. (1999). US Jus tice? Crit i cal ped a gogy and the case of Mumia Abu-Jamal. TESOL Jour -nal, 8(4), 27–33.

This ar ti cle pres ents the de tails of an in-class ESL course us ing crit i cal lit er acy and con tent-based in struc tion as its guide lines.



Mor gan, B. D. (1998). The ESL class room: Teach ing, crit i cal prac tice, and com mu nity de vel op -ment. To ronto: Uni ver sity of To ronto Press.

This text pro vides an in te grated ap proach to teach ing Eng lish to adult learn ers. The bookex plores the ne ces sity of in clud ing so cial and po lit i cal is sues in lan guage ed u ca tion and the“site of trans for ma tion” that lan guage learn ing pro vides. Les son plans for the in ter me di ate toad vanced adult ESL learner are in cluded.

Shore, I. (1987). Friere for the class room. Portsmouth, NH: Heineman.An an thol ogy of es says by teach ers us ing Paulo Freire’s meth od ol ogy in their class rooms.

TESOL Quar terly (1999). TESOL Quar terly 33(3).The en tire is sue of the jour nal is de voted to crit i cal ped a gogy.

Van Duzer, C., & Cunningham Florez, M. A. (1999). Crit i cal lit er acy for adult Eng lish lan guagelearn ers. Wash ing ton, DC: Na tional Clear ing house for ESL Lit er acy Ed u ca tion(EDO-LE-99-07). Re trieved from http://www.cal.org/caela/esl_re sources/di gests/critlit.html

This is an over view of an ar gu ment for crit i cal lit er acy. Ac tiv i ties and strat e gies for us ingthe the ory in the class room are pro vided.

Wink, J. (1997). Crit i cal ped a gogy: Notes from the real world. Los An geles: Cal i for nia As so ci a tionof Bi lin gual Education.

Wink pro vides an anal y sis and ar gu ment for crit i cal ped a gogy and how it opens the doorto broader and deeper per spec tives.

Wolfe, P. M. (1996). Lit er acy bar gains: To ward a crit i cal lit er acy in a mul ti lin gual class room.TESOL Jour nal, 5(4), 22–26.

Wolfe’s ar ti cle pres ents the steps in volved in set ting up a les son in which high school stu -dents use the crit i cal lit er acy ap proach to an a lyze shop ping malls.

Crit i cal Ped a gogy 63


Fam ily Lit er acy5—Ac a demic and Pro fes sional Ap proachesFam ily Lit er acy


Back ground

Fam ily lit er acy is based on the be lief and re lated re search that stu dents will be more suc cess ful inschool if their par ents pre pare and sup port them. Fam ily lit er acy was first de vel oped to pre pare emer gentread ers for school suc cess by giv ing in for ma tion and ac tiv i ties that par ents could use with their chil drento help sup port their lit er acy ef forts. Dur ing the 1980s, fam ily lit er acy ac tiv i ties be came a part of the ESLcur ric u lum in both adult ed u ca tion ESL pro grams and K–12. As ESL fam ily lit er acy pro grams evolved, itbe came ap par ent that schools also needed to learn about the cul tures and be liefs of the multi cul tural com -mu ni ties they were serv ing. Thus, at least in ESL pro grams, fam ily lit er acy is viewed as a two-way pro -cess (Au er bach, 1989). Some ac tiv i ties may in clude hav ing par ents and chil dren learn about the U.S.ed u ca tion sys tem and the ex pec ta tions of their par tic u lar school sys tem. Other ac tiv i ties may in clude hav -ing par ents read or tell tra di tional sto ries to their chil dren, hav ing chil dren read sto ries to their par ents inEng lish or their na tive lan guage, or hav ing fam i lies cre ate vid eos or Web pages about them selves andtheir com mu ni ties.

Strat e gies

Fam ily lit er acy can in clude any num ber of ap proaches and ac tiv i ties. The fol low ing strat e gies givesome gen eral guidelines.

1. Com plete a needs anal y sis that in cludes both the per ceived needs of the school sys tem as well asthe strengths, be liefs, and needs of the com mu nity be ing served. One ap proach to dis cover theneeds of the com mu nity is to meet with lo cal lead ers. An other way is to be aware of the con cernsof the com mu nity that may be ex pressed in stu dents’ writ ing or dis cus sions.

2. De velop ac tiv i ties and pro grams that meet the needs of all con cerned, in clud ing par ents, stu -dents, teach ers, and other mem bers of the school and community.

3. As sess ac tiv i ties and pro grams to see if they are re ally meet ing the needs of all con cerned andfos ter ing an en vi ron ment that helps stu dents achieve in school.


• Par ents and guard ians are ac tively in volved in the ed u ca tion of their chil dren.

• Par ents and guard ians may par tic i pate in shared learn ing ex pe ri ences, thus con vey ing themes sage to their chil dren that ed u ca tion is valid.


• Fam ily lit er acy pro grams that come only from the top down may prove un suc cess ful if theycon flict with the cul ture and prac tices of the group be ing served. There fore, it is im por tantthat fam ily lit er acy pro grams in clude the needs and prac tices of everyone involved.

• In di vid ual teach ers may not be in the po si tion to cre ate fam ily lit er acy pro grams, but they canuse some of the ac tiv i ties used in es tab lished pro grams to de velop con nec tions be tween theclass room, stu dents, and parents.

See also: Crit i cal Ped a gogy; Whole Lan guage



Fur ther Read ing

Au er bach, E. (1989). To ward a socio-con tex tual ap proach to fam ily lit er acy. Har vard Ed u ca tionalRe view, 59, 165–181.

This ar ti cle sug gests that schools need to learn about the cul tures and be liefs of the multi -cul tural com mu ni ties they are serv ing. Thus, at least in ESL pro grams, fam ily lit er acy is viewed as a two-way pro cess.

Holt, D. H., & Van Duzer, C. H. (Eds.). (2000). As sess ing suc cess in fam ily lit er acy and adult ESL.Wash ing ton, DC: Cen ter for Ap plied Lin guis tics and Delta Systems.

This col lec tion of ar ti cles looks at the use of al ter na tive as sess ment and eval u a tion in lit er -acy and adult ed u ca tion ESL pro grams.

Hurley, S. R., & Tinajero, V. J. (2001). Lit er acy as sess ment of sec ond lan guage learn ers. Boston:Allyn & Ba con.

This col lec tion of ar ti cles fo cuses on K–12. It dis cusses and gives ex am ples of var i ous as -sess ment ac tiv i ties that can be used with sec ond lan guage learn ers.

Jour nal of Ed u ca tional Is sues of Lan guage Mi nor ity Stu dents, 16. (1996, Sum mer). [Spe cial is sue].This spe cial is sue of the jour nal fo cuses on pa ren tal in volve ment.

Mor row, L. M. (Ed.). (1995). Fam ily lit er acy: Con nec tions in schools and com mu ni ties. NewBruns wick, NJ: Rutgers Uni ver sity Press.

A col lec tion of ar ti cles that ex plore var i ous prac tices and pro grams in fam ily lit er acy col -lected in re sponse to Barbara Bush’s ini tia tive on fam ily lit er acy.

Mor row, L. M., Tracey, D. H., & Maxwell, C. M. (Eds.). (1995). A sur vey of fam ily lit er acy in theUnited States. New ark, DE: In ter na tional Read ing As so ci a tion.

This sourcebook lists nu mer ous ex am ples of fam ily lit er acy pro grams for both na tive andnon na tive speak ers with short de scrip tions of each. There is also in for ma tion on re search tak ing place and agen cies that are in volved in fam ily lit er acy.

Tay lor, D. (Ed.). (1997). Many fam i lies, many literacies: An in ter na tional dec la ra tion of prin ci ples.Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

This col lec tion of ar ti cles fo cuses on the prin ci ples that fam ily lit er acy pro grams shouldfol low. It in cludes sec tions on as sess ment, re search, ped a gogy, fund ing, and pol icy.

Weinstein, G. (1998). Fam ily and intergenerational lit er acy in mul ti lin gual com mu ni ties. Na tionalCen ter for ESL Lit er acy Ed u ca tion (NCLE). Re trieved De cem ber 26, 2002, from May 3, 2006,http://www.cal.org/caela/esl_re sources/di gests/Famlit2.html

Weinstein of fers a good over view of fam ily lit er acy from an adult ed u ca tion per spec tive.

Weinstein, G. (Ed.). (1999). Learn ers’ lives as cur ric u lum: Six jour neys to im mi grant lit er acy.Wash ing ton, DC: Delta Sys tems and the Cen ter for Ap plied Linguistics.

Weinstein dis cusses six suc cess ful fam ily lit er acy pro jects in this col lec tion.

Weinstein-Shr, G., & Quintero, E. (Eds.). (1995). Im mi grant learn ers and their fam i lies: Lit er acy tocon nect the gen er a tions. McHenry, IL: Cen ter for Ap plied Lin guis tics and Delta Systems.

This col lec tion of ar ti cles de scribes sev eral fam ily lit er acy pro grams de vel oped for mul ti -lin gual fam i lies.

Fam ily Lit er acy 65


Learner-cen tered Ap proach5—Ac a demic and Pro fes sional Ap proachesLearner-cen tered Ap proach

Eng lish Skill Level: AllGrade Level: AllAlso Called: Learner-Cen tered Cur ric u lum

Back ground

The learner-cen tered ap proach is a gen eral ori en ta tion to ward lan guage teach ing that has evolvedsince the 1970s in re ac tion to teacher-fronted, top-down lan guage teach ing class rooms and cur ric u lum. In gen eral, a learner-cen tered ap proach fo cuses on the back ground, needs, and ex pec ta tions of stu dents tocre ate a more ef fec tive, au then tic, and fo cused lan guage-learn ing en vi ron ment. In for ma tion about stu -dents is ob tained through var i ous types of in stru ments used to de ter mine stu dents’ needs and wants. From this in for ma tion, cur ric u lum and a syl la bus are de signed to help the stu dents ob tain their tar get goals. Ac -tiv i ties in class also fo cus on ac tiv i ties in which stu dents take an ac tive role. As stu dents’ needs andabilities change, so may the curriculum and syllabus.

Strat egy

1. An anal y sis is done to as sess stu dents’ needs. Such an as sess ment may ask stu dents what theirgoals are and what they are ca pa ble of do ing now. A need anal y sis may also sur vey fu ture pro -fes sors or em ploy ers to see what they per ceive to be the needs of fu ture stu dents or employees.

2. Cur ric u lum, les sons, and ac tiv i ties are de signed to help stu dents reach the goals that they are tar get ing.

3. Cur ric u lum, les sons, and ac tiv i ties may change through out the length of the course as stu dents’strengths, weak nesses, and goals are re eval u ated.

4. At the end of the course, stu dents may eval u ate them selves or each other (or both). Ul ti matelythe suc cess of a learner-cen tered ap proach is based on whether stu dents have the skills nec es sary to meet their tar get goals.

Strengths

• In struc tion is based on stu dent in ter ests, needs, and back ground.

• Cur ric u lum changes as needs change.

Weaknesses

• The on go ing as sess ment of stu dent achieve ment needed to max i mize ef fec tive ness of this ap -proach may frus trate teachers.

See also: Com mu ni ca tive Lan guage Learn ing; Com pe tency-based Ap proach; Crit i cal Ped a gogy;Eng lish for Spe cific Purposes

Fur ther Read ing

Brindley, G. (1989). As sess ing achieve ment in the learner-cen tered cur ric u lum. Syd ney, Aus tra lia:Na tional Cen tre for Eng lish Lan guage Teach ing and Re search, Macquarie Uni ver sity. Brindley’s dis cus sion of cri te rion-ref er enced meth ods and tech niques pro vides nu mer ousex am ples, some of which come from prac tices of adult ed u ca tion ESL pro grams in Australia.



Ekbatani, G., & Pierso, H. (2000). Learner-di rected as sess ment in ESL. Mahwah, NJ: Law renceErlbaum As so ci ates.

This col lec tion of es says dis cusses and dem on strates how to cre ate as sess ment that fo -cuses on the learner in clud ing sev eral ar ti cles on self-as sess ment strat e gies.

Jacobsen, D. A., Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D. (1999). Meth ods for teach ing: Pro mot ing stu dent learn -ing (5th ed.). Up per Sad dle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.

This teacher-train ing text book fo cuses on learner-cen tered plan ning, learner cen tered in -struc tion, and learner-cen tered as sess ment.

Nunan. D. (1988). The learner-cen tered cur ric u lum: A study of sec ond lan guage teach ing (Cam -bridge Ap plied Lin guis tics se ries). Cam bridge, Eng land: Cam bridge Uni ver sity Press.

Mod els of lan guage in struc tion are syn the sized within the con text of a cur ric u lum de sign.

Tu dor, I. (1996). Learner-cen tered ness as lan guage ed u ca tion. Cam bridge, Eng land: Cam bridgeUni ver sity Press.

Tu dor of fers a ho lis tic view of lan guage learn ing in which stu dents are viewed as the cen -ter of the class room and teach ers serve as fa cil i ta tors of in struc tion.

Learner-cen tered Ap proach 67


Vo ca tional Eng lish as a Sec ond Lan guage5—Ac a demic and Pro fes sional Ap proachesVo ca tional Eng lish as a Sec ond Lan guage

Eng lish Skill Level: Ad vanced Be gin ning to Ad vancedGrade Level: Sec ond ary to Adult

Back ground

By and large, vo ca tional Eng lish (VESL) grew out of adult ed u ca tion ESL pro grams that de ter mined the need for pro grams that are more par tic u larly fo cused on work place skills. VESL de vel oped to meetthe needs of ESL stu dents who planned on en ter ing the workforce or who found em ploy ment and neededEng lish skills to help them ob tain other jobs or per form more ef fec tively in their cur rent po si tions. SomeVESL pro grams fo cus on job-en try skills such as fill ing out job ap pli ca tions and in ter view ing. Other pro -grams fo cus on skills needed in the work place. De pend ing on the needs of the work place, these pro gramsmay fo cus on cler i cal skills, com puter skills, safety pre cau tions, or the ability to communicate withcoworkers.

Strat egy

1. De cide where the pro gram will take place (on or off the job site).

2. De ter mine, if not al ready known, who will pay for the pro gram (e.g., the gov ern ment, a pri vatefoun da tion, the place of work, or the stu dent).

3. Com plete a needs anal y sis of the stu dents and the work place. Which peo ple need the train ing?What are their jobs? Will the stu dents be paid for this train ing as part of their job, or will it bedone out side of work?

4. As sess the Eng lish needs of the stu dents and the com pany. Un der what cir cum stances do stu -dents need to im prove their Eng lish? What do the stu dents feel they need to un der stand better?What do man ag ers or other per son nel feel isn’t be ing understood?

5. De velop a cur ric u lum and les sons to meet the needs of all con cerned.

Strengths

• There is a fo cus on work place skills. Stu dents learn spe cific lan guage and skills needed to en -ter the workforce or im prove work place com mu ni ca tion.

• Classes can be of fered at the work place to ac com mo date stu dents’ sched ules.

Weak nesses

• The lan guage and skills are spe cific to the work place and may not in clude other es sen tial lifeskills.

• Em ploy ers or em ploy ees may not re al ize the dif fi culty of learn ing an other lan guage and thushave un rea son able ex pec ta tions.

See also: Com pe tency-based Ap proach; Eng lish for Spe cific Pur poses



Fur ther Read ing

Bu chanan, K. (1990). Vo ca tional Eng lish as a sec ond lan guage pro grams. ERIC Clear ing house onLan guages and Lin guis tics Wash ing ton, DC. Re trieved May 3, 2006, http://www.nifl.gov/nifl-esl/2000/1333.html

Bu chanan of fers an over view of VESL pro grams.

Grognet, A. G. (1996). Plan ning, im ple ment ing, and eval u at ing work place ESL pro grams. Re -trieved May 3, 2006, from the Cen ter for Adult Eng lish Ac qui si tion Web site: http://www.cal.org/caela/esl_re sources/di gests/PLANNINGQA.html

The site of fers a pleth ora of re sources and ad di tional in for ma tion on a va ri ety of in struc -tional mod els and pro gram for teach ing adults learn ing Eng lish as a sec ond lan guage. Gognet’sar ti cle sup ports the SCANS (Sec re tary’s Com mis sion on Achiev ing Nec es sary Skills) find ingsthat ad vo cate the in te gra tion of ESL and con tent in struc tion.

McGroarty, M., & Scott, S. (1993). Work place ESL in struc tion: Va ri et ies and con straints. Ad junctERIC Clear ing house for ESL Lit er acy Ed u ca tion, Wash ing ton DC. Re trieved from the Na -tional Clear ing house for ESL Lit er acy Ed u ca tion Web site: http://www.ericdigests.org/1996-2/workplace.html

This doc u ment is a sum mary of pro grams that pre pare non-Eng lish-speak ing adults for the work place.

Thomas, R. J., Gover, J., Cichon, D. J., Bird, L. A., & Harns, C. M. (1991). Job-re lated lan guagetrain ing for lim ited Eng lish pro fi cient em ploy ees: A hand book for pro gram de vel op ers. Wash -ing ton, DC: De vel op ment As sis tance Cor po ra tion. Eric Document ED 342 277.

The au thors ad vo cate per form ing an ex ten sive needs as sess ment that can in form the de -vel op ment of a job-re lated Eng lish lan guage course for adults.

Vo ca tional Eng lish as a Sec ond Lan guage 69


Bib li og ra phyBib li og ra phyBib li og ra phy

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Com puter As sisted Lan guage Learn ing (CALL)Com puter As sisted Lan guage Learn ing (CALL)

Gram mar ap proaches lend them selves well to com puter pro grams. A num ber of re cent ESL gram -mar text books now have ac com pa ny ing CDs and Web sites. Other gram mar-prac tice soft ware in clude the fol low ing:

Eng lish on call, McGraw-Hill Con tem po rary

ESL fit ness, Merit Soft ware

ESL pic ture gram mar, avail able from Au dio-Fo rum

Fo cus on gram mar CD-ROM, Longman

Gram mar 3D: Contextualized prac tice for learn ers of Eng lish, Heinle & Heinle

The gram mar cracker, Miller Ed u ca tional Ma te ri als

Let’s go, Miller Ed u ca tional Ma te ri als

Rosetta stone, Fairfield Tech nol o gies.

Verbcon, Au dio-Fo rum

Com puter As sisted Lan guage Learn ing (CALL) 79

In dexIn dexIn dex

Ac a demic/pro fes sional ap proaches, 41–69Adult lit er acy ap proaches, 57Asher, J., 28, 29Au dio-lin gual method (ALM), 1–4Au er bach, E. R., 58, 62, 65

Barbier, S., 8Barton, B., 40Berlitz, Charles, 5Bernache, C., 48Blair, R.W., 13Bowen, J. D., Madsen, H., & Hilferty, A., 6 Brindley, G., 66Brinton, D., 48Brinton, D. M., & Mas ter, R. P., 46Brinton, D. M., Snow, M. A., & Wesche, M., 47Brown, H. D., 23, 59Brumfit, C. J., & John son, K., 20Bu chanan, K., 69Bur ton, E., 59Bygate, M., Skehan, P., & Swain, M., 4

Carver, T. K., & Fotinos, S. D., 59CASAS com pe tency list, 59Celce-Murcia, M., 6, 8Chamot, A. U., & O’Malley, J. M., 42, 47Chamot, A. U., O’Malley, J. M., & Kupper, L.,

42, 57Chamot, A., 40, 46Chastain, K., 4Christison, M. A., & Bassano, S., 48Cog ni tive ac a demic lan guage learn ing ap proach

(CALLA), 42–3, 46Col lab o ra tive lan guage learn ing, 21–4Colvin, R. J., 4Com mu ni ca tive ap proaches, 17–29Com mu ni ca tive learn ing teach ing (CLT), 12, 18,

66Com mu nity lan guage learn ing,

coun sel ing-learn ing, 12–13Com pe tency-based ap proach, 57–9, 66Com pre hen sive adult stu dent as sess ment sys tem

(CASAS), 57Connerton, P., & Reid, F., 48Con tent-based sec ond lan guage in struc tion

(CBI), 43–48, 51

Co op er a tive lan guage learn ing, 19, 21–4, 43Crandall, J., 47Crit i cal lit er acy, 60Crit i cal ped a gogy, 60–63, 64, 66Cuisinare rods, 16Curran, Charles, 12

DeCarrico, J. S., 56DeFilippo, J., & Skidmore, C., 48Dewey, J., 25Di rect method (ap proach), 5–6Douglas, D., 53Dudley-Ev ans, T., 53Dudley-Ev ans, T., & St. John, M. J., 53

Ekbatani, G., & Pierso, H., 67Eng lish for ac a demic pur poses (EAP), 46, 49–51Eng lish for spe cific pur poses (ESP), 46, 51,

52–3, 66Enright, D. S., 24Espeseth, M., 48Ex pe ri en tial learn ing teach ing, 19, 25–6Eyring, J. L., 26

Fam ily lit er acy, 64–5Fer ris, D., & Tagg, T., 51Fidere, A., 34Fiere, P., 60Finocchiaro, M., & Brumfit, C., 27Fitzsimmons, P., 34Flowerdew, J., & Pea cock, M., 51Foley, B. H., & Neblett, E. R., 59Foley, B. H. & Pomann, H., 59Fox, G., 57Free man, Y. S., & Free man, D. E., 39Froese, V., 39

Gattegno, C., 16 Gomez, S., 48Gouin, F., 5Grabe, W., & Stoller, F. L., 51Gram mar-based ap proaches, 7–9Gram mar-trans la tion ap proach, 5Grognet, A. G., 69

81

Harp, B., 39Har ris, T., 59Hawkins, B., 32His tor i cal ap proaches, 1–9Holme, R., 53Holt, D., & Van Duzer, C. H., 65Hones, D. F., 53Hurley, S. R., & Tinajer, V. J., 65Hutch in son, T., & Wa ters, A., 53

In ter ac tive lan guage learn ing, 21Iwamoto, J. R., 48

Jacobsen, D. A., Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D., 67Jenkins, R., & Sabbagh, S. L., 59Johns, A. M., & Price-Machado, D., 53John son, D. M., 24Jor dan, R., 51

Kasper, L. F., 47Kauffman, D., & Ap ple, G., 48Kerwin, M., 59Kessler, C., 24Krashen, S., & Terrell, T., 36, 37Krashen, S. D., 35, 35, 37, 47

Lan guage arts ap proaches, 31–40Lan guage ex pe ri ence ap proach (LEA), 32–3, 44Larsen-Free man, D., 4, 6, 8, 13Learner-cen tered ap proach, 19, 58, 62, 66Learner-cen tered cur ric u lum, 66Lewis, M., 55, 56Lex i cal ap proach, 55Lit er a ture-based ap proach, 34–5Lock, G., 8Lozano, G. 14Lubawy, S., 48

Magy, R., 59Marsh, V., 29Mas ter, P., & Brinton, D., 53McGarry, R. G., 49McGroacty, M., & Scott, S., 69Molinsky, S. J., & Bliss, B., 59Mor gan, B. D., 63Mor row, L. M., 65Mor row, L. M., Tracey, D. H., & Maxwell, C.

M., 65Moss, D., & Van Duzer, C., 26

Na tion, P., 56Nattinger, J. R., & DeCarrico, J.S., 56

Nat u ral ap proach, 6, 36–7Nel son, G., & Win ters, T., 29Nel son, V., 48No tional-func tional ap proach, 18, 19, 27, 32Nunan, D., 24, 26, 59, 67

O’Malley, J. M., 42

Pally, M., 51Pally, M., & Bailey, N., 47Par tic i pa tory ESL, 60Pen ning ton, M. C., 9Peyton, J., & Crandall, J., 59Price-Machado, D., 59Prapphal, K., 24Prob lem-pos ing ed u ca tion, 60

Raines, S. C., 40Rich ard-Armato, P. A., 29, 33, 37Rich ard-Amato, P. A., & Snow, M. A., 49Rich ards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S., 4, 13, 15, 16,

59Rodrigues, R. J., & White, R. H., 26

Sagliano, M., & Green field, K., 7Saslow, J., & Col lins, T., 59Schmitt, N., & Carter, R., 56Seal, B., 48Sec re tary’s Com mis sion on Achiev ing

Nec es sary Skills (SCANS), 57Seely, C., & Romijn, E. K., 29Shore, I., 63Si lent way, 14–5Snow, M. A., 47Snow, M. A., & Brinton, D. M., 48Solo ap proaches, 11–16Stevick, E. W., 13, 15, 16Suggestopedia, 16

Tay lor, D., 65Tay lor, M. T., 31Terdy, D., 48Terrell, T., 35, 36Thomas, R. J., Gover, J., Cichon, D. J., Bird, L.

A., & Harns, C. M., 69To tal phys i cal re sponse (TPR), 28–9Tu dor, I., 67

U.S. De part ment of La bor, 59

Van Duzer, C., & Cunningham Florez, M. A., 63Verbcon, 8

82 In dex

Vo ca tional Eng lish as a sec ond lan guage(VESL), 58, 68–69

Weinstein, G., 65Weinstein-Shr, G., & Huizenga, J., 59Weinstein-Shr, G., & Quintero, E., 65Whetzel, D., 59Whitmore, K. F., & Crowell, C. G., 39Whole lan guage ap proach, 38–40, 43, 64

Wichman, A., Fligelstone, S., McEnery, T., &Knowles, G., 56

Wilberg, P., 53Wil lis, D., & Wil lis, J., 26Wil lis, J., 26, 56Wink, J., 63Wolfe, P. M., 63

Zimmerman, F., 48

In dex 83

About the Au thors

DEBORAH L. NORLAND, Ph.D. is a pro fes sor of ed u ca tion at Lu ther Col lege. She su per vises ELL teach ers and teaches TESOL meth ods classes and di rects a sum mer read ing pro gram for ELL chil dren onthe Na vajo res er va tion.

TERRY PRUETT-SAID is a for mer ESL in struc tor of adults and chil dren and is cur rently an ESLad junct pro fes sor at Macomb Com mu nity Col lege.

Documents

A Kaleidoscope of Models and Strategies for Teaching English to Speekers of Other Languages by Deborah LNorland & Terry Pruett Said