A Journal of the All India Institute of Local Self- · PDF fileAll India Institute of Local Self-Government ... Bangalore, Belgaum, Bhopal, Panji, ... AIILSG have the under-privileged

Local Government QuarterlyJuly - September 2014

ISSN 0024-5623

A Journal of theAll India Institute of Local Self-Government

¬Global Water Distribution Issues and Public- Private Partnerships

¬Smart Cities: Leadership and Governance

¬Appropriate Technologies: A Hitherto Neglected Dimension of Empowerment of Women-in-Deprivation

¬Juvenile Delinquency

¬Emerging Remedial Tools to Abridge the Social Divide Innovations and Applied Ideas in Urban Poverty Alleviation: A Case Study of Chandigarh

¬Conservation of Chamba: Issues and Strategies

¬An Appraisal of the Nomadic, Semi-Nomadic and Denotified Communities of Karnataka

¬Local Self Government in the Sixth Schedule Area of Mizoram vis-a-vis Panchayati Raj Institution (P.R.I.)

¬Climate Change Update

All India Institute of Local Self-Government (AIILSG), established in 1926 has been actively working in the field of urban development management and is an active partner in promoting the cause of local government in India and overseas.

The Regional Centre for Urban and Environmental Studies (RCUES) of All India Institute of Local Self-Government (AIILSG), Mumbai is actively involved in building capabilities of municipal officials, staff and elected members from the States of Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and the Union Territories of Diu, Daman, Dadra & Nagar Haveli by upgrading their knowledge and skills required for effective administration and implementation of various urban development programmes. The research and training activities of the RCUES of AIILSG are supported by Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, New Delhi.

The Institute organises several tailor-made training / orientation programmes for various countries in South Asia, viz, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka and other countries, viz, South Africa, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Malaysia, China, etc. The organisation of World Mayor’s Conference at Jaipur, Rajasthan in 1998 was a unique event of remembrance in the field of local self government. The Institute participates in various national and international forums and is the oldest member of the International Union of Local Authorities (IULA), the Netherlands. Director General is one of the members of the Executive Committee of the IULA. The Institute is an active member of International Council of Local Environment Initiative (ICLEI) and the President of the Institute Dr. Jatin V. Modi is Vice President of IULA-ASPAC and Director-General Shri R S. Chavan is Executive Member of CITYNET. The Institute has close work – ties with UNCHS (Habitat), UNDP, UNICEF, WHO, DFID, CITYNET, CLGF, US-AEP, Ford Foundation, etc. and is the anchor institution for Urban Management Programme (UMP – UNCHS – Habitat) for South Asia.

The Institute has also set up a Fire Academy at Vadodara, Gujarat which imparts regular and specialised training in fire services management. Environment Protection and Research Centre (EPRC) of the Institute at Vadodara in collaboration with ICLEI Japan organises experience sharing visits in environmental management for government and municipal officials.

The Institute is working in close collaboration with Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, several State Governments, Development Authorities, Research and Training Institutions, international and national agencies. The Institute has its well developed regional centres in Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Belgaum, Bhopal, Panji, Mumbai, New Delhi, Thiruvanthapuram and Vadodara.

The present President of the Institute is Dr. Jatin V. Modi. The Institute was nursed by the late Mr. C. D. Barfiwala who was also its first Director-General. Mr. R. S. Chavan, who is now at the helm of affairs of the Institute is the present Director-General.

ABOUT THE INSTITUTE

Vol : LXXXIV, No. 3 July - September 2014

Editorial 3

Global Water Distribution Issues and 5Public-Private PartnershipsMukesh KanaskarArpan De Sarkar

Smart Cities: Leadership and Governance 27Nitin R Vaidya

Appropriate Technologies: A Hitherto Neglected 36Dimension of Empowerment of Women-in-DeprivationShweta Gupta

Juvenile Delinquency 58Prajakta Thipse

Emerging Remedial Tools to Abridge the Social Divide; 80Innovations and Applied Ideas in Urban Poverty Alleviation:A Case Study of ChandigarhVivek Trivedi

Conservation of Chamba: Issues and Strategies 100Pooja Guleria

An Appraisal of the Nomadic, Semi-Nomadic and 110Denotified Communities of KarnatakaMalli Gandhi

Local Self Government in the Sixth Schedule Area of Mizoram 120vis-a-vis Panchayati Raj Institution (P.R.I.)Jangkhongam Doungel

Climate Change Update 131Fifth Assessment Report of the IPCC- Reportof the Working Group III – Mitigation of Climate ChangeF. B. Khan

Book Review 135

Our Contributors

Contents

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All India Institute of Local Self-GovernmentM. N. Roy Human Development Campus, Plot No. 6, F Block,

TPS Road No. 12, Bandra (East), Mumbai - 400 051.Telephones : 0091 - 22 - 2657 17 13 / 2657 17 14 / 2657 17 15 Fax : 0091 - 22 - 2657 21 15

E-mail : [email protected] / [email protected] / Website : www.aiilsg.org

Jatin V. Modi Ranjit S. ChavanPresident Director General

Local Government QuarterlyLocal Government QuarterlyLocal Government QuarterlyLocal Government QuarterlyLocal Government QuarterlyEditorial Board

Chief EditorRanjit S. Chavan

Members

Sneha Palnitkar Mukesh Kanaskar

Nachiket Dhruva Ashish Deosthali

Advait Aundhkar Ajay Agrawal

G. V. Tendolkar

The views expressed in the articles are the personal opinions of the contributors and do not necessarily reflect theopinion of the All India Institute of Local Self - Government. Articles, letters to the editor, news, views and reviewsare welcome. They may be addressed to the Editor, or sent by e-mail to [email protected] / [email protected]/ [email protected]

Printed by Mr. R. S. Chavan, The Director-General, All India Institute of Local Self-Government, at NSD Art Pvt. Ltd.,Andheri - 93 and published by him at the All India Institute of Local Self-Government, 11, Horniman Circle, Mumbai - 400 023.

Editorial 3

India nests the fourth highest number of out-of-school children with its 1.4 mnchildren aged 6-11, who are out-of-school as highlighted in UNESCO’s ‘Education forAll Global Monitoring Report 2012’. Achieving the Millennium Development Goal ofproviding universal access to primary education for all the children by 2015 seems adistant dream.

It is a matter of grave concern that in India many more than 12.6 mn childrenunder the age of 14 are reported to be working as child labours making the countryhome to the largest number of child labours in the world. In addition, nearly 85 per centof child labourers are hard-to-reach, invisible and excluded, as they work largely in theunorganised sector, both rural and urban, within the family or in household-based units.

The educational levels of the under-privileged children paint an extremely grimpicture. The under-privileged children usually visit schools having lesser facilities andopportunities to provide quality education, while, there is also considerable mass of theunder-privileged children which are deprived of the access to primary education despitethe efforts through enactments like ‘Right to Education’.

For AIILSG’s equity and inclusion sensitivities what is equally disturbing is thatthese children never experience ‘childhood’ in their life. The hardships of life ofdeprivation coerce them directly into adulthood. The equity and inclusion measures ofAIILSG have the under-privileged children firmly on radar. And AIILSG’s educationinterventions refer to a much wider horizons including restoring their childhood. Thus,goes the slogan ‘Education for Restoring Childhood’.

The institute is working with its network of partners for facilitating Education forchildren from various urban slums, rural and tribal areas. Another extremely crucial setof endeavours is efforts vis-à-vis improving access to education for children fromDenotified and Nomadic Tribes (DNTs). They are amongst the most vulnerable sectionsof the society, socially discriminated and till date branded as criminals. Providing accessto education to the nomadic tribes’ children is of utmost significance which is alsohighlighted in Government of India’s Technical Advisory Group Report 2006 as the 99per cent of population belonging to Denotified and Nomadic Tribes (DNTs) is illiterateand they have had less chances of getting quality education.

AIILSG is proactively working towards addressing the issues at both Sides i.e.,Demand side and Supply side. This includes sensitizing and asserting on the supply side

Editorial

Restoring Childhood through Education for theUnder-Privileged Children

4 Local Government Quarterly July - September 2014

for improving quality of education and proactive efforts to increase outreach tounderprivileged children. A multiplier effect is enabled piggy back on AIILSG’s otherinitiatives such as Capacity building (undertaken for more than 1.5 mn stakeholders tilldate on wide range of themes), and Policy and other interactive deliberations.

An important reference point in India’s context, which also forms AIILSG’s policyadvocacy on the global canvass of developing countries, is ‘Right to Education’.

The embodiment of AIILSG’s sensitivity and commitment towards the genderequity is also reflected in its dedicated focus on education of under-privileged girlchild. Illustratively, the field initiatives have highlighted the plight of the under-privilegedgirls belonging to Denotified and Nomadic Tribes (DNTs) where in the lack ofopportunities for education and livelihoods have been forcing them to flesh trade andmany DNT girls are becoming victims of large scale trafficking. The institute’s endeavorsfor education of under-privileged children also include active involvement andsensitization of parents to ensure enrollment of children and prevent drop outs especiallyof girls.

Prospects of formal education reaching the most deprived children are grim asprovision of fixed timing schools with rigid structure is no generic panacea for themost vulnerable children. Instead, the educational initiatives can be designed flexiblywhereby an under-privileged child can gain education as per the compulsions of her/his situation. It can be envisioned as a ‘12 hour schools’ or ‘24 hour schools’ workingin multiple shifts. For Denotified and Nomadic Tribes’ children Mobile Schools can beset up.

There has to be thrust on developing an educational pedagogy tailored to theneeds of these children-in-deprivation. Providing non-formal education that is pivotedaround holistic child development – both scholastic and co-scholastic/non-cognitivelearning becomes crucial. Various innovative measures such as use of performing artsand other art forms such as drama, dance, singing, painting, etc., can be adopted forstress-relief and holistic development of these children-in-deprivation. The wide realmof activities needs to encompass the aspects of improvement in quality of life such ashealth and hygiene. Activity-based learning, personality development and increasingexposure to outside the world can provide required fillip to bolster the confidence inthe children. Moreover involving parents, communities and youth groups in the processin organised forms will also play a crucial role in sustainability of the process.

The under-privileged children are most vulnerable to disasters. AIILSG’s pioneeringefforts on this front are for improving disaster vulnerability resilience of children.Apart from awareness generation and sensitization, it is also piloting global innovationof developing ‘Slum Disaster Plans’ (with children as key focus).

Every child counts as they are the future of the nation and receiving education isvery child’s right: And for us, education is not just about education per say, it is also avehicle to ‘Restore Childhood’!

Global Water Distribution Issues and Public-Private Partnerships 5

Rapid urbanisation combined withunprecedented economic growth has ledto sprawling cities which has increasedpressure on existing infrastructure. Thereis increasing demand and supply gap inkey urban infrastructure services viz.,water supply & sanitation, solid wastemanagement, roads etc., Cities and Townsbeing hub of economic activities contribute60 per cent of the GDP and lack ofadequate urban infrastructure, affects thegrowth potential of these economiccentres. Although, there have been hugeinvestments in large physical infrastructureprojects like roads, bridges, telecom, power,ports, airports but the state of basic urbanservices has remained poor andinvestments in the relevant infrastructurehave been neglected. There is a hugeresource gap towards basic services likewater supply and sanitation whereinfrastructure requirement andinvestments dedicated towards it run atdifferent pace. The increasing resourceconstraints have an adverse impact ondelivery of crucial basic services viz.,water supply to the urban and rural

Global Water Distribution Issues andPublic-Private Partnerships

Mukesh KanaskarArpan De Sarkar*

populace. Moreover, a key service whichis inherently in sync with water issanitation, and these two keep oninfluencing each other. Hence, to rendera holistic perspective, this paperappropriately synergises the sanitationconsiderations with water distribution.

Existing Status of Access to Water andSanitation Services: World and IndiaScenario

A look at world statistics reveals thatmore than one in six people worldwide -1.1 billion people - don’t have access tosafe drinking water, with almost all of themin developing regions. 37 per cent of theselive in Sub–Saharan Africa.1 Improvedsanitation facilities are used by less thantwo thirds of the world population. 2.6billion People across the world do not useimproved sanitation facilities. Of these 72per cent live in Asia. 1.1 billion peopleacross the world still defecate in the open.

1 World Health Organization (WHO) andUnited Nations Children Fund (UNICEF)Joint Monitoring Programme on WaterSupply and Sanitation (JMP)


Most countries in Sub-Saharan Africa andin Asia are not on track to meet the MDGtarget on sanitation.

Shedding light at the national levelscenario in India there is huge shortfall inaccess to water supply and sanitation.Census 2011 data unfurls that thepercentage of households having accessto television and telephones in rural areassurpassed that of households havingaccess to toilet facilities and tap water. 34per cent (28.8 per cent in urban areas asper Census 2011) of urban households inIndia are not having water source withinpremises, 50 per cent urban householdsdo not have adequate sanitary facilities(12.6 per cent open defecation in urbanIndia, Census 2011), 70 per cent of wastes

not treated before disposal. The 12th Plandocument noted that ‘open defecation byaround 600 million people is our biggestnational shame’. Nearly 42 million peoplelive in slums which are outside of theformal network of services and aredependent on low quality and costlyservices (Department of EconomicAffairs, 2009). Even in urban areas in India,the figures are not at all impressive. 16.36million households (21 per cent) stilldepend on hand pumps/ tubewells, 4.85million households (6 per cent) access towell for drinking water. Around 0.54 millionurban households (1 per cent) still dependupon ‘Spring, River, Canal, Tank, Pond &Lake, etc.’, for drinking water. Per capitaeconomic cost of inadequate sanitation in

Table 1Population without Access to Water Supply and Sanitation

World Figures Value

World’s population living in chronic water shortages by 2025 (approx.) 3.5 billion

(MDG Target for 2015: Reduce by half the proportion of people (50 per cent)

without sustainable to safe drinking water.)

Water scarcity in developing countries

People without access to safe water 1.1 billion

People without basic sanitation 2.6 billion

MDG Target — Reduce by half the proportion of people withoutsustainable to safe drinking water by 2015.If MDG Target 10 for Asia is attained:

Number of diarrhoea cases that will be averted 275 million

Cases averted with total WSS coverage 550 million

Per annum savings in health costs $2.5 billion

Savings with total WSS coverage $5.2 billion


India was estimated as Rs.2,180/- in 2006by the Water and Sanitation Programmeof the World Bank.

There is a growing realization thatsafe and sustainable water supply has apositive impact on sanitation and vice-aversa. Globally, diarrhoea is the leadingcause of illness and death, and 88 per centof diarrhoeal deaths are due to a lack ofaccess to sanitation facilities, together withinadequate availability of water for hygieneand unsafe drinking water. Today,approximately 2.6 billion people, includingalmost one billion children, live without evenbasic sanitation. Every 20 seconds, a childdies as a result of poor sanitation. That’s1.5 million preventable deaths each year.2

The adequate and sustainable access towater and sanitation is of vital importanceto human health and well-being and plays

Impact of each $1invested in sanitation

on productivity,girls education etc., is $7.

Source: Department ofEconomic Affairs, Ministry

of Finance, Government of india,Position Paper on The Water and

Sanitation Sector in India,October 2009

Table 2Access to Water Supply: India

Availability and Access (India Figures) Value

Present per capita availability of water in India1545C.Mt.(census11) 1,750 Cu.Mts.

Present per capita availability of water in India (FAO Gradation) Scarcity

Per cent of Urban Population with Access to Water in India 91 per cent

Per cent of Rural Population with Access to Water in India 96 per cent

Per cent of Urban Population without proper Sanitation in India 63 per cent

Effects

Per cent of diarrhoea-related deaths caused by lack of water 88 per cent

and sanitation

Loss of Water in Transmission and Distribution 40-50 per cent

Targets

Water Aid estimates for water and sanitation targets inIndia by 2015:· 29 million

People needed to be reached each year· US $34

Shortfall of Investment billion


significant role as an engine ofdevelopment.

Although, across the world manycountries are showing steady progress onMillennium Development Commitmentsvis-a‘-vis sustainable access to safedrinking water and hopes to accelerate theprocess further. Because of its impact onmass welfare and advancement towardssustainable development, water andsanitation has been included amongst the11 thematic areas of consultations for Post2015 Development Agenda considered byUN Development Group. The questionnow lies is how to accelerate progresstowards achieving post 2015 developmentagenda targets and most importantly howto leap a step further to ultimately achievethe vision of universal access. PPPs canbe considered a contribution to theachievement of the MillenniumDevelopment Goals (MDGs), giving thefinancial and skill bottlenecks for thefulfilment of the Millennium DevelopmentGoals in the water and sanitation sector indeveloping economies like Asia and Africa.

Water Distribution Issues: Globaland Indian Scenario

The looming water crisis, bothnationally and internationally, is a bigchallenge. There are large infrastructuralgaps and the operations of water supplyand sanitation are plagued with high levelsof inefficiencies. The per capita availabilityof water in most urban centers of the

2 Water Supply and SanitationCollaborative Council (WSSCC)

country (India) is significantly lesser thanwhat is needed. Only 50 per cent (140million) of the urban population is directlyconnected to the distribution networks.3

According to Census 2011, only around70 per cent of urban population in India iscovered by individual tap waterconnections. All other BRICS membersare better placed- China (91per cent),South Africa (86 per cent), and Brazil(80 per cent). The existing infrastructuresuffers from high degree of operationalinefficiencies. For instance, approximately40-50 per cent of the water pumped intothe system is not available for consumptionsince it is lost in transmission, theft etc.On an average, only 24 per cent of allconnections in the country are metered.4

In addition, poor collection practices bythe utilities have resulted in low costrecovery rates at 20-30 per cent ofoperation and maintenance (O & M) cost.The cost of production of these serviceshas been assessed to be very high, againstthe low level of recoveries, resulting inlimited fund availability with the serviceproviders for routine maintenance. Thiseventually causes poor infrastructurecoverage, poor access and low quality ofservices. Additionally, the serviceproviders have been incurring huge losseson their services. As per 12th Five YearPlan document, nearly 60 per cent ofdistricts in India have problems related toeither quantity or quality of thegroundwater available or both.

The sector faces many challenges onwater front viz., universal access to allusers including slum dwellers/ urban poor,


poor service delivery levels viz., low percapita at consumer end, high non-revenuewater due to water losses; poor waterquality; declining water availability fromsource and poor recovery of O & M costs.Urban water supply and sewerage is in adownward spiral.

Due to deteriorating assets, decliningproductivity has led to increasing operatingcosts. This in turn has led to decliningservice levels which encouragescustomers not to pay leading to decliningrevenues, lesser access to financing andthus, lesser investment in the asset. Andthe downward spiral continues. This leadsto a vicious cycle of un-sustainability-unsustainable utilities, depleting naturalresources and increasing demand-supplygap. Also drinking water supply activitiesare not integrated with water conservationand watershed programmes and they havenot been made to involve the private sectorin water and sanitation projects.5

In this situation, Service Providersare in perpetual operational & financialdistress. Service expansion is impossible.The poor receive little service and rely onprivate informal markets for higher cost,lower quality water supply and seweragefacilities.

The Water Supply Utilities need tolargely improve the service deliverymechanism. Most of the ULBs have

3 India Water Supply and Sanitation,Bridging the Gap between Infrastructureand Service, World Bank 2006.

4 ADB, 2007 Benchmarking and Data Bookof Water Utilities in India

5 Reddy, in Sijbesma and Van Dijk (eds,2006)

historically seen poor to moderateoperational standards and or have seenminimal year on year operationalimprovement to the water supply system.The ULBs therefore, need animprovement in current operational levelsincluding reduction of energy costs,reduction of transmission and distributionlosses, improvement in collectionefficiency, etc. Thereby, the ULBs needprivate partners for bringing aboutoperational efficiencies in the overallmanagement and provisioning of watersupply services.

Investments in Water and SanitationSector are low

The delivery of Urban Water Supplyand Sewerage infrastructure requiringhuge investments for establishment andexpansion are usually met by lowbudgetary allocation, reducedintergovernmental transfers to ULBs,reduction in governmental grants, limitedaccess to international borrowings andpoor revenue sources of ULBs. Since,investment of the large scale infrastructureprojects cannot be met from budgetaryresources and giving the present taxationstructure, poor cost recovery mechanismand poor credit worthiness of the urbanlocal bodies, the ULBs are unable to raisethe money required for various projects.This leads to deficit in finances of urbaninfrastructure. In case of most of the ULBsin India, it’s a situation of “additionalresponsibilities with no extra revenues”.The 12th Five Year Plan document notedthat most ULBs and districtadministrations generally depend on


‘untied funds’ to fill infrastructure gaps indrinking water.

The sector continues to rely largelyon state subsidies and capital grantssupplemented by loans to develop newwater sector infrastructure.

1 per cent of GDP is spent bydeveloped countries on safe water andsanitation while other developing countrieslike china are investing 9 per cent of itsGDP in infrastructure development whileIndia has only 3 - 4 per cent.

There is a huge deficit in urbaninfrastructure and government grants; andplan allocation alone is unable to meet thegrowing infrastructure needs. Thus, toreduce dependency on government grantsand to meet the deficit in investment inbasic urban infrastructure services, thereis a need to capture capital market andprivate sector financing. With thedeteriorating status of ULBs financiallyand otherwise the public privatepartnerships emerges as an alternativesource of financing the urban services.

Table 4Privatisation in Water Supply in Countries6

World Figures Value

GDP spent by developed countries on safe water and sanitation 1per cent

World Figures

Only country having privatized 100 per cent of water supply systems UK

Desalination Plants:

Countries where operational 100 (approx)

Number operational 13,080

Share in global water use 0.5 per cent

Share of Middle East in location of desalination plants 50 per cent

Table 3Contribution in Safe Water and Sanitation

World Figures Value

GDP spent by developed countries on safe water and sanitation 1 per cent

Private sector’s global contribution in serving population:

Water services 6 per cent

Sewerage services 4 per cent


Is PPP a solution to Global WaterDistribution?

As per the Planning Commission ofIndia the sector needed an investment of $48.57 billion which formed 9.8 per cent ofthe total investment required in the 11th plan.It is estimated that 97.3 per cent of thisrequirement will come from Public Sectorand only 2.7 per cent from the private sector 6.1.The adjoining Table 4 presents the extent ofprivatisation in WSS sector across thecountries (Department of Economic Affairs,2009). The 20-year investment requirement(till 2031) projected by HPEC estimated thatwater supply would require Rs. 3,20,908 Crand sewerage would require Rs. 2,42,688Cr of investments from all sources.

As per the plan document, the TwelfthPlan Central Sector Tentative GrossBudgetary Support for Rural Drinking WaterSupply and Sanitation is Rs. 98,015 crore.This is expected to draw matching provisionsfrom different States to the amount ofRs.1,32,393 crore.

Large investments are needed todevelop and upgrade water supply, treatmentand distribution networks. Specific needs andavenues exist for technocrats and designconsultants. So also is the need for qualitymaterial and equipment suppliers of waterand sewer mains, pipes, valves, pumps, waterand sewage treatment plants and alsoerection contractors. The investmentpotential across various sub-sectors isexpected to be around Rs 90 billion in 2010and Rs 170 billion in 2015 with CAGR of 14per cent in water infrastructureinvestment6.2. There exists a mega business

opportunity for the private sector acrossthe entire value chain of water projects.

Improvement in the service deliverylevels have implied huge investments foraugmentation, improvements in physicalinfrastructure, and significant scaling upof operational efficiencies in the system.A further problem is the poor reliability ofwater deliveries. In order to meet boththese requirements, various urban utilitieshave explored the option of PPP for boththe development of infrastructure andoperation and maintenance of the same.The Private investment and PPPs not onlymay bridge the financing gap and add tothe viability of the project but also can helpin improving efficiencies in servicedelivery and reduce time and costoverruns.

PPP Fundamental Tenets

Public Private Partnership (PPP)Project means a project based on acontract or concession agreement,between a Government or a statutoryentity on the one side and a Private SectorCompany on the other-side, for investingin construction and maintenance ofinfrastructure asset and / or delivering aninfrastructure service.

6, 6.1, 6.2 Department of Economic Affairs,Ministry of Finance, Government of India,Position Paper on The Water andSanitation Sector in India, October 2009,p. 4


In summary, private sectorparticipation is a means to mobilise privateinvestments and introduce efficiency inservice provision. Creating a reasonablemix of public and private sector service isone way of establishing competition,introducing performance monitoring andensuring accountability in delivery ofservices. Lastly, private sectorparticipation should not be seen with aview to privatise but to introduceinvestments and efficiencies in the overallservice delivery.

Advantages of Public PrivatePartnership

Capital Infusion

The private sector, with a greateraccess to the capital and financialmarket is likely to infuse, the muchneeded capital investments for urbanservices;

Technology Infusion

Adopting new technology brought bythe private sector helps in reducingcost of production and cost inprovision of services,

Cost Reduction

Use of private contractors formunicipal services result in costreductions of 15 to 50 per cent dueto better time and financialmanagement and managerialefficiency;

Increased Efficiency

With cost reductions and increasedrevenues, there is a greater efficiencyin use of capital funds. The operationand maintenance of services alsoimprove with private participation;

Enhanced Service

Where an urban administration isunable to provide 100 per cent

Public Private Partnerships

PPPs can follow a variety of structuresand contractual formats. However, allPPPs incorporate three keycharacteristics

a contractual agreement definingthe roles and responsibilities of theparties,

sensible risk-sharing among thepublic and the private sectorpartners, and

financial rewards to the privateparty commensurate with theachievement of pre-specifiedoutputs.

Advantages of PublicPrivate Partnerships

Capital Infusion

Technology Infusion

Cost Reduction

Increased Efficiency

Enhanced Service

Increased Revenue

User Response

Improvements in efficiency ofperformance

Focuses on performance-linkeddevelopment.


coverage to the population, theprivate sector can be used to fill thegaps (provided that the needs of thepoor are appropriately addressed)and will be able to service muchlarger population than the publicservice due to its flexible workschedule. It is also known toextended services beyond municipallimits;

Increased Revenue

Cost recoveries of municipalgovernments are extremely lowwhile the private operator has greaterincentive to collect user charges tocover costs and make profits, theurban authority may also charge thecontractor a fee/ tipping fee, incomewhich might not be available if theservice was operated using ownstaff;

User Response

Most users of municipal service aredissatisfied with the present level ofservice and the ‘un-caring’ attitudeof municipal officials. Private sectorresponds to consumer complaints andgrievances in a more responsivemanner. The often unforeseenbenefit of using the private sector isthat service levels are set to bettermeet the consumer needs.

Improvements

Improvements in efficiency ofperformance and focuses onperformance-linked development.

In the partnership arrangements, theurban local bodies assume the role offacilitator. Private sector is expected tobring in its capital and managerial strengthsand ensure efficiency, while the urban

government is expected to ensure equityand welfare of larger number of people.

The early PPPs in the Water Sectorwere marked by the private sectorinvesting in setting up basic amenities andinfrastructure. That appears to be changingsince year 2000, where, the private sectoris getting more involved in setting up WaterTreatment Plants and SewerageTreatment Plants and not just investmentin basic water utilities.

These PPP projects mainly fall underfour segments of the water value chainnamely — (a) Bulk Water Generation,(b) Treatment (Desalination, Wastewater),(c) Distribution of Water (d) NetworkRehabilitation.

PPP in water sector is not outrightprivatization: tariff and water prizes areregulated and the assets and waterresources remains in the hand of publicauthorities. Hence, under PPP, water isnot privatized but the service delivery isput in private hands. In the recent past,there has been a significant rise in theinvestments by the private sector in thearea of water related services. Differentproject arrangements have come to forethrough unbundling of services in thesector. Water and sanitation services canbe unbundled into several components,including raw water production andtreatment, bulk water supply, retaildistribution, and sanitation collection,treatment, and disposal.

The entire process represented aboveis referred to as the value chain for watersupply and sanitation services. Theunbundling of water supply services is


being increasingly experimented with suchas:

Separating wastewater responsibilitiesfrom water supply.

Separating bulk water production andtreatment from water distribution.

Separating water transmission fromdistribution.

Separating wastewater treatmentand discharge from collection.

Also, there is paradigm shift fromasset creation to asset management andimproving performance in service delivery.More and more PPP projects are focussingon asset management (distributionimprovements, process improvements)unlike in the earlier years when asset

creation (capacity addition and bulk water)was the focus. Also, the expectations fromprivate sector are on improvement inservice delivery and not only on infusionof capital.

Extent of Privatisation in Water andSanitation Sector

The adjoining table exhibits fewillustrations of PPP/ private sectorparticipation in water and sanitation sector.The new project arrangements includemanagement/ service contracts foroperation and maintenance of WaterTreatment Plants, Sewage TreatmentPlants, billing and collection, leakagedetection, maintenance of pumping stationetc.

Table 5Private Sector Participation in Water and Sanitation

Sector through Unbundling of Services

Sector Description of Services PPP/ PSP Mode

Water Supply O and M of water works

Operation of distribution system ManagementMaintenance of distribution lines, contract -mains of water supply (Operation andOperation & maintenance of water Maintenancetreatment plant contract)Operation & maintenance of pump setsWTP Improvement & Up gradation,Treatment of waterBulk water transmission

Performance based targets to reduce Performancenon-revenue water, identifying illegal based contractsconnections and improvement in servicelevel to customers

Rehabilitation and Distribution of water


The review of case studies in variousurban sectors reinforces the fact thatunbundling of services attracts privatesector participation at different levels indelivery of various services. The extentof private sector participation ranges fromservice provider to operations &maintenance of services up till capitalinvestment.

Pre-requisites for Successful PPPs

Sometimes PPPs led to better utilityperformance but at other times it does not.The challenge is to identify the conditionsunder which they will be successful. Theextent of private sector involvement inservice delivery depends on variousfactors identified as selection ofappropriate PPP model, project cost, risk

Billing and collection ManagementMaintaining computerised records of meter contract (Servicereadings Contracts)

Consumer complaint redressal, customersupport system

Private sector to finance capital expenditureto rehabilitate, repair, maintain and providebackup for refurbishing and replacing water SPV/Builtsupply infrastructure. Operate Transfer/Private sector to finance construction of Built OwnWater Treatment Plant, Treatment and Operate TransferDistribution of waterPrivate developer to purchase bulk waterand supply .

Sewage O & M of Sewage treatment plant ManagementWater O & M of pumping stations contract-Disposal O&M — Transmission (Input & Output to (Operation and

Treatment plant) MaintenanceO&M —Industrial Water Network contract)(where treated waste water is reused inindustries)

Consumer complaint redressal Service Contract

Private sector to invest in tertiary treatment BOT/ BOOTPrivate sector to finance Pay and useToiletsDevelopment of Underground Drainage/Sewage Disposal Network


allocation, cost recovery mechanisms,complexity in the project, projectstructuring and capacity of ULBs toundertake PPP projects. In addition to thatthe sufficient and predictable revenuestreams, user charges that are adequate,equitable and affordable, budget subsidiessecured over long term are keyingredients for successful PPPs. Thevarious options for extent of private sectorparticipation, cost recovery mechanismsand balanced risk framework areidentified and are described below.

a) Private Sector ParticipationOptions

Private sector can be involved infinancing (as well as managing the)construction of the infrastructure projectand private sector can contribute towards

the ULB or state share of finance thiscould be through following options.

PPP Models widely being practicedin urban services through grants (centreor state, JNNURM in case of India) areBOT, BOOT, franchise, lease based ormanagement contract.

Linking construction with a long termO&M performance contract could providethe advantage of operational cost efficiencyas well as accountability (including quality)for creating the original infrastructureasset. All the models of private entityinvolvement envisages ULB/parastatalmonitoring/supervision of outcomes.Hence, the ULB/parastatal continues tobe actively involved in these activitiesthough its role is modified from serviceprovider to service regulator.

b) Cost Recovery Options forPrivate Sector

The efficient and assured costrecovery is essential for attracting privatesector participation. The sectors like solidwaste management and transportation are

experiencing high PSP due to evolvingrevenue models. The payment to theprivate entity to enable them cost recoveryof construction (and also for O&M) couldbe in the form of through levy of usercharges, fixed payment or percentageshare in revenues.

PSP Options Particulars

Option 1 Through a separate legal entity created specifically for thepurpose ( SPV)

Option 2 Through a direct BOT/BOOT arrangement and its variant modelswith or without an SPV arrangement requirement whichever isless.

Option 3 Through a simple management contract or lease based contract


c) Financing Plan for PPPs

Like most of the developing countriesIndia is now going in for innovativemechanisms to finance infrastructureservices like private sector participation,public private partnerships for provisionof infrastructure services, butcommercialisation of infrastructure is notprogressing very fast. For the purpose ofattracting private capital and marketborrowings through private sectorparticipation, various windows/ models forfinancing PPP need to be explored. Thefollowing provides the financing optionsfor cost recovery.

User Fees

Bulk Supply Payments — BOT(e.g., Bulk Water Supply, PowerPurchase Agreements)

VGF Model

Annuity Based Payments

Performance Based Payments

Alternative Sources of revenue

Advertisement Rights

Value Capture — Impact Tax

Dedicated taxes — fuel surcharge

Other project development rightsassociated with the project

Unlocking land values

Soft loan with larger repaymenttenure

Cost Recoveryfor Private Particulars

Party

Option 1 Private party being allowed direct recovery of user chargesfor a specified long term duration(say, for 15-25 years)

Option 2 Private party being paid a fixed annuity (or on a fixed rateper unit quantity for service delivery undertaken) for itsservices over the specified term duration.

Option 3 The Ulb can directly recover user charges or retain theoption of contracting out billing and collectionto a different private entity.


d) Risk Allocation/ Management

Types of threats which may lead to Financial and/ or Preferred Risk Operational Risks Allocation

Political Opposition

Site non — availability

Government instability Public Sector

Level of public support

Change in law/ policies

Project approval & permit by regulatory authorities

Contract Variation

Lack of experiences in PPP arrangement

Lack of commitment from public/ private partner Public/ Private,

Force majeure depending on

Authority distribution between partnerships the circumstances

Late design changes

Construction (Cost and Time Over run)

Tariff Risk and Collection Risk

(Tariff revision — Public Sector);

(Annuity or User Fee — Private sector)

Inflation

Financing Costs

Investment (Cash Flow) Risk

Design Risk, Technical Risk

O and M performance Standard Mainly Private Sector

Demand uncertainty

Private agency staff issues


The WSS sector faces severalchallenges in demand and supply side ofPPP project structuring and addressingthem (Mitigation Measures) wouldfacilitate private investment in the WSSsector. The balanced sharing of risks andresponsibilities is congenial to PPP projectsand hence attract PSP. The adjoiningframework for risks depicts the preferredrisk allocation based on the best capabilitiesof both the parties to manage them.

Giving the base scenario, it isnoteworthy to study how far PPP initiativesare successful and what are the differentPPP models happening in the water sectoracross the world. The last sectionsummarises the constraints faced, lessonslearnt and the way ahead. Based on thereview of successful PPPs in water andsanitation sector the key changes in theemerging structures are:

PPP in water distribution is moreamenable

In case where no significant tariffrevision is possible, the project needsto be supported by grants to becomeviable

Leveraging Central (JNNURM,VGF in case of India) and State grantfunding gaining acceptance

Performance based contracts can bean option where grant funding islimited

Different project structures emergingto suit varied conditions

Draft Model Concession Agreementfor key project structures canstandardize risk sharing framework

Constitution of an independentregulator for the sector

International Experience: ManilaWater Supply, Philippines

The PPP at Metropolitan Waterworksand sewerage System (MWSS) wasexpected to result in the following benefits:

Huge capital investments andoperational efficiencies, expandingservice coverage (water, sanitation,sewerage)

Relieve Government of the financialburden to improve MWSS facilities.

Ensure 24 hour water supply

Reduce Non Revenue Water toaccepted level

Manila Water Supply, Philippines

Since the implementation of PPP atManila Water Supply in 1997, therehave been several significant benefits.

Reduction of NRW from63 per cent to 25 per cent (1997-2007)

Commercial reorientation ofemployees on the value of qualityservice, business focus andaccountability of performance

Increased billed volume from 440MLD to over 700 MLD (+70 percent)

Service area receiving 24 hourwater supply expanded from 15-20 per cent to over 60 per cent

Served customers went up from65 per cent to 88 per cent of thepopulation


Basic Features

PPP Mode: Concession

Franchise area divided into 2 zonesto ensure competitive benchmarking

Thus, 2 twenty five year concessionswere awarded through competitivebidding

Scope: Water treatment, distribution,tariff collection, facility improvementand overall arrangement

MWSS retained its ownership ofwater facilities, including properties

MWSS maintained a regulatoryfunction over water rates

The concessionaires were to payconcession fees amounting to about30 billion pesos ($1.2 billion in 1997)over the concession period.

This amount represents the debtservice payments for existing foreigndebt obligations of MWSS

The concession fee can also beviewed as a rental or lease for theuse of MWSS facilities.

The concession agreement withconcessionaires (Maynilad WaterServices, Inc. and Manila Water Company,Inc.) had the following key provision:

Creation of a regulatory office

Key service obligations (Provision ofwater supply, provision of sewerageand sanitation services, provision ofbetter customer service)

Other obligations of theconcessionaire

Rate setting procedure

Dispute resolution

Key Lessons Learnt

To ensure successful implementation of privatization, the Government musthave clear objectives, firm political will, focused execution of its action plansand programmes and unwavering support from the private sector.

The close link between MWSS and the “regulatory Office” would requireexperienced regulators to manage, considering the regulators do not havecomplete independence.

Concessionaires need a strong balance sheet and cash flows to address andsurvive liquidity problems arising from external factors

MWSS privatization showed success initially, but establishing a credibleregulatory structure requires more time and effort.

To ensure the success and sustainability of the MWSS privatization, bothMWSS and its concessionaires should strengthen existing partnerships to ensurethat the latter remains efficient in the delivery of services to its customers,especially the urban poor.


While developed countries areintroducing private sector participation toimprove efficiency and effectiveness ofwater supply systems, developingcountries such as China, Thailand,Malaysia, Argentina and Philippines arelooking towards private participation inbuilding their water infrastructure/ assetsin addition to improving the efficiencies.There are different drivers for investmentin different regions.

In the Middle East, it is scarcity,population growth and broadeconomic development, necessitatingdesalination and greater reuse oftreated wastewater.

In China, it is an efficientmanagement of water resources tosatisfy a growing population, coupledwith a need to upgrade wastewaterutilities.

In Eastern Europe, new entrants tothe European Union are trying tocomply with water and wastewaterstandards of EU.

The experiences from thesesuccessful PPP initiatives in Water andSanitation sector in India are also relevantfor many other countries, which havedecentralized operational responsibilitiesand resources for the water and sanitationsector to local governments and theirorganizations.9

The following section based on theIndian experience in PPPs in Water andSanitation sector elucidates on theconstraints faced, lessons learnt. The lastsection summarises the conclusion andfindings and puts a way forward.

9 Van Dijk (2006, chapter 8)

Constraints and Challenges in PPPin Water and Sanitation Sector

PPPs in the water sector in India andother developing economies are still verynew. PPP efforts made in the country(India) have met with different degreesof success. Political unwillingness, poorcost recovery, longer gestation gap ofinvestment, lack of regulatory frameworkdoes not incentivize the private sectorparticipation for investment and operationfor water service delivery. The followingtext puts forth the constraints faced andchallenges encountered stepping towardsthe PPPs.

Inadequate or nonexistent feasibilitystudies

Poor legal framework andenforcement

Poor institutional structures, Weakinstitutional capacity and PPPstrategy

Lack of thorough financial andeconomic analysis, Unrealisticrevenue and cost estimations

Inappropriate sharing of risks, Weakincentives

Lack of competitive procurement

Poor cost recovery, Public resistance(willingness to pay not assessed)

Outdated MIS GIS systems- noreliable data

No performance standards forprivate contractor.


Hence, there is an immediate needto look into bottleneck in the currentframework of PPP and options/alternatives for strengthening PPPframework.

The following Table 6 captures theconstraints faced in demand and supplyof PPP project structuring in the WSSsector and illustrates the mitigationmeasures for the same.

Table 6Constraints facing WSS sector and suggested Mitigation Measures

Constraint on Description Mitigation

Supply Side Capacity of ULBs to fund The state funds need to be(Concessioning the asset reconstruction in supplemented with privateAuthority) case of Operator’s sector funding for asset

reluctance to take reconstruction andinvestment risk. maintenance.

Central grant assistance

Long term financing Commercial borrowingwith longer tenure/ takeout financing

Fear of transfer of ownership Awareness, training onSuspicion of private PPP in general anddeveloper making successful case studies‘Super’ profit. in particular.

Capacity to undertake Capacity buildingprojects on a PPP basis

Demand Side Regulatory risk of assessing Regulation by contract(Concessionaire) the developer on stringent defining clear outcomes

norms with performance linkedreturns

Tariff Risk: Tariff low or Tariff rationalizationinsufficient to support costs through a Policyand Lack clarity

Market risk: lack of Entire market risks not befinancially viable ‘bankable’ passed and only to theprojects with acceptance extent the privaterisk profiles developers appetite


Lessons Learnt

The urban infrastructure sector isseen as low profile sector characterizedby low service coverage, low costrecovery, highly subsidized, poormanagement, low capacity for servicedelivery. Because of complexity in urbanservices, private sector involvement is notvery keen to invest in the urban sector.The review of the successful PPP casesrevealed that following factors affects thelevel of private sector participation indelivery of urban services.

a. Unbundling of services leads tosplitting up of one large projectinto smaller components there by

facilitates involvement of privatesector in the delivery of servicesranging from management ofservices to capital investment orO & M of services. The projectcomponents having low project costand less contract period attractsprivate capital investment. Whilelarge scale projects having highcapital cost private sector getsinvolved in operation & maintenanceof services. e.g., distribution ofwater, billing and collection etc.

b. Balanced sharing of risks andresponsibilities — The p rerequisite for any successful PPPproject is balanced sharing of risks

Asset requiring large scale Capital cost may beinvestment supplemented through

VGF or funded entirely byState or Municipal bodies.

Lack of adequate and Establish performancereliable database metrics based on

measurable andtransparent data source.

Availability of debt Funding through SpecialFinancial Institutions

Water supply considered a Information, Education‘free good’ by the citizens and Communication to

Community Side consumers

Low willingness to pay Consumer Education

Not amenable to Metering To be made mandatoryfor any connection

Political User charge for water is a Strong politicalpolitically sensitive issue commitment upfront

through a state supportagreement


and responsibilities creating a win-win situation for all the stake holders.Risk mitigation and flexibility inmanaging macro risks alsoencourages private sectorparticipation. Draft ModelConcession Agreement for keyproject structures can standardizerisk sharing framework.

c. Effective cost recoverymechanisms - The sectors likeSWM and transport have evolvedinnovative cost recoverymechanisms where in commerciallyviable components like bus shelter,parking, operation of buses, wasteprocessing attracts private sectorparticipation in service delivery whereULB act as a regulator and monitor.The cost recovery mechanisms needto be improved for the water supplysector to engage private sector in theservice delivery.

d. Low revenue risk profile forPrivate sector but balanced by theperformance guarantee by privatesector and penalty mechanism if notadhered to performance standards.

e . Sound project structuring makingprojects bankable and financiallyviable there by leveraging privatecapital and market capital.

f. Competency of ULBs inundertaking PPP projects — Mostof the ULBs/ Utilities don’t have atechnical expertise to carry outcomplex PPP projects. Thus, thereis a need for technical, financial andmanagerial assistance in terms of

model concession agreements,standardised bidding procedures,transparent competitive bidding toULBs/ parastatals to facilitatestreamline PPP processes. Alsobuilding local capacity to undertakeextensive feasibility study for PPPprojects.

g. Need to create conduciveenvironment to encourage PrivateSector participation in Water Supplysector. Fostering a culture ofcommercialization, encouraging outsourcing through unbundling ofservices.

h. Selection of private player based oncompetitive and transparentbidding and procurement.

i. Constitution of an independentregulator for the Water sector.

j. Identifying and expediting thenecessary legislative, institutionaland regulatory changes that arenecessary for PSP.

Concluding and Way Forward

The overview of existing PPPscenario globally and nationally revealsthat the extent of private sectorparticipation in water and sanitation sectoris comparatively low in developingeconomies and there is a huge potentialfor involving private sector in delivery ofurban services by addressing the legal,administrative, institutional and regulatorychallenges faced by the Utilities/ UrbanLocal Bodies. Also, high level of politicalcommitment, standardised selection


procedures, well managed bid process,sound project development set up andvarious incentives are needed to enableconducive environment for private sectorparticipation.

Private sector is reluctant for heavycapital investment in urban sector inabsence of government guarantee orgovernment grant because of lesscommercial viability and high riskassociated with projects. But insteadprivate sector is mostly engaged in/ willingto involve in operation & maintenance ofservices for fixed payment by ULBs.While small scale, short term projectshaving low capital investment, costrecovery through fixed payment or throughuser charges attracts private sectorparticipation and are possible under ULBframework.

A suggestion for ULBs is to routelarge scale marginally profitable projectsthrough government leveragedprivatization under Government grants(JNNURM in India) where as small scalePPP projects can be undertaken at ULBlevel with direct private sectorinvolvement. The untapped potential ofrouting large scale moderately profitableprojects through viability gap fundingshould be explored, a pre requisite for thatis to have well structured, bankable andfinancially sustainable projects.Investments aimed to transform municipalinfrastructure can enlarge the scope ofoperations and thus lead to viability interms of scale where PPPs for smalleradjoining ULBs can be combined.

Another crucial emerging initiativethat needs a mention while concluding ispeople’s involvement in the traditional PPPprocess. This will enable reflection of thereal needs of the community, greatertransparency and accountability. Thus, thetheme has a special connotation forimproving the access of the services tothe deprived population such as urban poorand slum dwellers. It is also envisaged thatpeople’s involvement will impact resourceseffectiveness and will improve the overallefficiency. While the experiments on thisfront being in infancy and the learningsare getting generated, this will surely go along way in ensuring effective inclusiveplanning and development vis-a-vis globalwater supply and sanitation.

(* The observations expressed areentirely personal and have noconnection with the viewpoints of theministry and the funding agency(DFID), the author Arpan De Sarkarworks for)

References

1. GoI-ADB PPP Initiative. (2009).Toolkit for PPP in Urban Watersupply for Maharashtra.

2. CRISIL Infrastructure AdvisoryServices. (2010, April). Perspectiveson PPP Design andImplementation in Water Sector inIndia.

3. Department of Economic Affairs,Ministry of Finance, GoI. (2009).Position paper on the Water andSanitation Sector in India.


4. Ministry of Urban Development,GoI. (2008). Toolkit for analysis ofUrban Infrastructure Projects forPublic-Private-Partnerships underJNNURM.

5. Saxena, Ajay. Presentation onFocusing on BusinessOpportunities and Financing atConference on InfrastructureProjects in India.

6. Saxena, Ajay. Presentation on PPP,its types and Toolkit for WaterSupply and Sanitation.

7. Gupta, Shweta. (2009). EmergingOpportunities and Challenges inPublic Private Partnership.

8. Meine Pieter van Dijk, UNESCO-IHE. Public-Private Partnershipsin Basic Service Delivery: Impacton the Poor, Examples from theWater Sector in India.

Abbreviations

BOT : Build-Operate-Transfer

BOOT : Build-Own-Operate-Transfer

EU : European Union

GDP: Gross Domestic Product

JNNURM : Jawaharlal NehruNational Urban RenewalMission

MDGs : Millennium DevelopmentGoals

O&M : Operation andMaintenance

PPP : Public-Private-Partnership

PSP : Private sector participation

SPV : Special Purpose Vehicle

ULB : Urban Local Body

Smart Cities: Leadership and Governance 27

‘City’ is among the main beneficiariesof globalisation that can provide better jobprospects for millions of people around theworld. People from different areas aremigrating to urban areas increasing theurban population. Natural populationgrowth, environmental and economicalchanges, and state and national policieswill also impact the cities. This fasturbanization is creating pressure on thecity resources. Due to this demand forenergy, water, sanitation, education,healthcare as well as public services isincreased.

This urbanization is beneficial to thecity on one side and on the other side itbrings challenges too. The major concernin this regard is how we can achievesustainability along with growth.Estimations indicate that cities willcontribute more than 70 per cent of globalgreenhouse emissions and will beaccountable for 60-80 per cent of globalenergy consumption, contributing toenvironmental degradation locally,regionally and globally (World IntelligentCities Summit, Sept. 2012).

Smart Cities: Leadership and Governance

Nitin R Vaidya

The solution to this issue lies inimplementing Smart City Framework, andthese smart cities need effective leadershipand governance for smooth and effectivefunctioning.

Before we drill down into theleadership and governance aspect ofsmart cities, we will simplify the smart cityconcept.

What is Smart City framework andwhy Smart City ?......

Smart City framework is a systematicprocess for enabling Smart ConnectedCommunities. Various governments,consulting organizations like IBM, andother research agencies are consideringconcepts of Smart Cities developmentroadmap. According to Giffinger et al(2007:11) a smart city is: “A Cityperforming in a forward-looking waytowards economy, people, governance,mobility, environment, and living, and builton the smart combination of activities ofself-decisive independent and awarecitizens”.


This definition of smart city is basedon the local and neoclassical theories ofurban growth and development. Morespecifically it is based on the theories ofregional competitiveness, transport andICT economics, natural resources, humanand social capital, quality of life, andparticipation of societies in cities.Following to Giffinger’s definition of smartcity, Caragliu et al. (2009) has put acrossa similar definition of smart city which isas follows – “We believe a city to be smartwhen investments in human and socialcapital and traditional (transport) andmodern (ICT) communicationinfrastructure fuel sustainable economicgrowth and a high quality of life, with awise management of natural resources,through participatory governance”. So, a

smart city is considered as a city withintellectual ability which can handlevarious issues related to innovative socio-technical and socio-economic aspects ofgrowth (Zygiaris, 2012).

According to (Hollands,2008) a smartcity can be characterized by three elementswhich include:

1. Use of network infrastructures toimprove economic and politicalefficiency and enable socio-culturaland urban development;

2. Business-led urban development and

3. Social and environmentalsustainability.

A conceptual framework of a smartcity can be viewed like this:

Figure 1(Adapted from Role of Technology in SMART governance,

August 2013 - Point of View Publication)


So we can summarize the differentelements of the definitions of the SmartCity concepts below:

Considering the above literature, theobvious question is - if these smart citiesare going to be so complex how we are

going to deal or manage with it? Answerlies in Leadership and Governance aspectof these cities.

The main aim of this research articleis to explore how leadership andgovernance could contribute to smart citiessuccess.

A crucial link of leadership togovernance of Smart Cities......

It has been seen that in governanceleaders have always played a key role.Leaders engaged themselves into givingdirection for carrying out effectivegovernance through developing a shared

Figure 2[Adapted from: Elements of Smart City Definition , 22nd European

Conference on Information Systems, 2014]

Nature- As

Forward-looking City with focus on the areas of economy,people, governance, mobility, environment

Form of urban practices innovation; and

A city with an intellectual Profile

Essence-Means

Access to Information, bridging digital gaps.

Building economic sustainablity with focus on urbandevelopment & Smart management of natural resources;

Introducing innovative pratices for socio-technical and socio-economic growth of a city

Approach-Involves

By doing investments in people and social capital ,transport& ICT communication infrastructure

Promote participatory governance and engage citizens

Innovative practices for building best techno-functional andorganizational policies policies


and clear understanding, defining clearroles between local and nationalstakeholders, promoting collaboration andmutual task facilitation and fosteringdedication and commitment at all levels.

It is evident from past researches thateffective leadership can well contributeto effective governance by encouragingcooperation between differentstakeholders. An effective leadership isrequired to manage the complex task ofbringing all stakeholders together. Itsuggests that the effective leaders haveoverall responsibility for the governanceat all levels.

For developing a shared andappealing vision of the smart city there isa need for significant leadership, and forthe execution and delivery of that vision itis required that leadership should besustained for long period and it has to beembedded within the framework of aneffective governance processes.

So, there is a need that smart citiesshould find out the effective and efficientways so as to empower and enableleadership on a city-wide basis across allstakeholders.

The development of a crucialleadership team will depend on the contextand type of the city. However, globalexpertise on leadership suggests thefactors which are vital to address issuesconcerned to leadership contexts and itshould adopt the appropriate factor for thespecific city.

It is important to have a focus on theaccountabilities of the city authorities. Itis also important to define clear functionalresponsibilities at political and

administrative levels within the cityauthorities. Here the individuals shouldhave enough authorization that they canallocate resources and make and decidetask priorities.

It gives birth to build a leadershipteam on a continuum across the city limits.The smart city initiative should build andmanaged in such a way that it shouldnurture and grow support for theimplementation of the initiatives includingall stakeholders. However, at the sametime it is important that the smart cityinitiative should not solely depend on thetop-down approach of leadership insteadof that, leadership should be more sharingor collaborative as it involves complexitiesin leadership because this time leadershipis not of one individual’s concern but theleadership of local and national levelstakeholders has to be consideredaltogether.

A Leadership Model for Smart CityLeaders....

To handle this issue of leadershipinvolving cross functionality in smart cityinitiatives ,we can consider the complexleadership theory (CLT) model which willhelp smart city leaders to function moreproactively by taking all stakeholders alongwith them.

Within complex systems consideringexample of building smart city initiatives,it is difficult to attribute change to individualleader: leadership comes into picture atall levels from local to national. CLT canbe used to develop leadership modelswhich can work more accurately and


effectively in the complex task of buildingsmart cities. According to Uhl-Bien et al.(2007) three leadership functions:administrative, adaptive, and enablingleadership can be useful for buildingeffective leadership. Multiple leaders fromall levels can exhibit any or all three ofthese leadership functions depending onthe city context.

Administrative leadership: Inbureaucratic environment the processeshas been controlled by administrativeleadership and it is well rooted intotraditional bureaucratic processes (Uhl-Bien et al., 2007: 299). This type ofleadership is generally referred as anindividual’s actions in more formal way,which gives more formal power and issupported by a hierarchical system.Administrative leaders most of the timeengaged into executing followingfunctions: defining tasks, preparing plans,building vision, acquiring and allocatingresources to achieve set objectives, crisesmanagement, and working out strategy atorganizational level (Uhl-Bien et al., 2007:306). Public leadership research hasmostly introduced this concept ofadministrative leadership. These leadersinteract in more formal fashion, they cometogether in formalized meetings (e.g., thepolicy design etc.) and act within legalboundaries.

Adaptive leadership: Adaptiveleadership fosters ground to develop newideas and innovations, and create changeenvironment. It originates due to the chaosbetween various stakeholders overconflicting needs, ideas, or preferences andresults in change alliances, or mutual

efforts (Uhl-Bien et al., 2007: 306). Thesetype of leadership dynamics occur moreinformally into an environment where itbypasses formal organizationalframework, and become visible only whenthey require resources to take those ideasto the next level. They may look forknowledge and values of importantstakeholders on local as well as nationallevel with vested interests into thegovernance process. If administrativeleaders get convinced by adaptive leadersthen they may get support from them toimplement their ideas where they will notdamage the interest of administrativeleaders. To have that chance, adaptiveleaders need a scope to act, which will beprovided by enabling leaders.

Enabling leadership: Enablingleadership is special in terms of itscharacteristics which creates theenvironment in which adaptive leadershipcan flourish, and it allows innovations togrow. Enabling leaders have the ability tocreate right mix of organizationalconditions which can facilitate innovationsin those conditions. On the other hand, theycan facilitate knowledge flow from alliednetworks to formal networks. Enablingleadership is very much important incomplex environment where it managesthe chaos between administrative andadaptive leadership (Uhl-Bien and Marion2009). Since complex innovations requiresto cross the boundaries of existingconditions of organization, a single enablingleader is not enough for this. Therefore,enabling leadership is rooted in informalnetworks system, and in the shadow offormal networks. These informal


networks originate from self organization,having no formal structure, and are bound

together by interpersonal relationshipsacross organizational stakeholders.

So, the above discussed threeleadership functions can help to build smartcity leaders to work effectively in agovernance arrangement.

Apart from building leadership modelfor smart city leaders to adopt, it is alsoimportant to build certain capacities bywhich they can govern these cities. Sobuilding leaders capacity to govern meansthe process by which individuals, groups,organizations, institutions can develop theirabilities, mutually to perform functions,solve issues, and achieve set objectives,and develop an ability to understand anddeal with developmental needs in a widercontext (UNDP 2008).

Capacity development or capacitybuilding is all about developing people’scapabilities in such a way that they canachieve their goals independently. It isabout providing a platform to the peoplewhere they can improve their skills so asto perform their roles in more effectiveway and also become more independent.

Capacity building is much more thanjust formal training, and the capacity togovern requires specialized knowledge,skills and expertise from leaders. Theremay be many other capacities we canidentify as important aspect for leadersstakeholders.

Figure 3[Adapted from: Key concepts of complexity leadership -

Climate governance: a leadership perspective: 2013]


Important Leadership Capacities for effective governance

Table 1[Adapted from: Australian Indigenous Leadership Centre,

www.ailc.org.au , 2012]

The capacity to work Identifying with whom they have to work with.collaboratively They might include stakeholders from local and

regional organizations, government etc.

The capacity to build a Communicating with stakeholders about theirvision and consensus concerns and priorities. Collecting and analyzingamong stakeholders data to plan effectively so as to understand where it

needs more. Building consensus around those plans.

The capacity to create and Developing policies which fits into local and culturalimplement rules and traditions.strategies Understand the socio-political and economical

environment.

The capacity to manage

Understanding & managing cultural, economic,

effectivelynatural and human resources and should beresponsible for them.

Plan and manage basic civic services.

The capacity to assess Understanding strategic planning, risks andand implement plans opportunities for nation or community, so that plans

and strategies can be changed as on need basis toachieve greater success.

The capacity to provide It gives confidence to other people so as to developand support strong local and deliver expected results.leadership

As a leader, developing capacities togovern are more than just personaldevelopment. It requires building sharedvalues, attitudes and behaviors, andacquiring the special skills that are neededto do the job of governing the systems.

If future leaders have to be engagedinto governance process of the nations aswell as cities in that case they must have

access to the resources for acquiring skills,experience and knowledge to carry outtheir responsibilities in more effective andefficient way.

A link to governance of smart cities...

Studies have proved that governancesupports leadership through arrangements


and frameworks. These includepartnership agreements, result basedaccountability frameworks (Utting et al.,2008). Such frameworks support effectiveleadership by providing strategic directionto leaders: A good governancearrangements are crucial in drivingmanagement, changes in culture, andprocess. Governance frameworkspromote shared objectives and vision,including clarifying roles and responsibility(NCSL, 2008a; Brookes, 2006; Thompsonand Uyeda, 2004). Governanceframeworks also help leaders to establishaccountability. Accountability is the keyfactor to the purpose and function ofgovernance. It is also important foreffective leadership. Accountability alsoensures that decision-making istransparent across the collaboratingagencies. In change management,effective leaders work openly with thoseresponsible for the governance of services.

That is why it is important to bringcity leaders together in an effectivegovernance arrangement. Cross-sectariangovernance systems need to be establishedat two levels:

1. The strategic governance level wherethe focus is on outcomes of the smartcity initiatives and effective benefits.

2. The delivery governance level wherethe focus is on implementation of thesmart city roadmap.

It is crucial to develop and manageprojects which will deliver the smart cityvision so that you can have transformationacross the city. As this can be managedby different stakeholders, these

stakeholders should work collaborativelyfor the strategic initiative of smart citywith below factors in focus:

1. An overall smart city case, supportedby measurement of clear successfactors;

2. Prioritizing the activities andchanges, based on performance andfeedback criteria linked to the city’sdevelopmental policies.

3. A framework for reducing the impactof risks and managing issues andconstraints.

For smart city development initiativean effective leadership is required.Effective leader should have a dynamicteam with all the skills required. Theseskills include: Development skills forbuilding strategies, skills for stakeholdersengagement, marketing and commercialskills followed by technology managementskills.

An open and transparent governancesystem is required for better managementwhere transparency is important in orderto build trust, delivery of the smart cityinitiative by having full accountability forthe same, and to have collaborativeenvironment among all stakeholders. Thismeans that the leadership of a smart cityshould be able to publish all vision andstrategy documents related to smart cityand also make names and contact detailsof smart city project leaders publicallyavailable, and publish regularly from timeto time the performance and deliveryreports against the smart cities roadmap.

In doing so the ICT-enabled tools canplay an important role which are available


to the cities, which will extend the help tosupport the delivery of all of the abovefactors we had discussed.

So finally we can say that the conceptof leadership and governance for buildingsmart cities in India will envision thestrategic direction, plans and policies,regulation, motivation, and partnershipalliances which will integrate allstakeholders to achieve the expectedresults.

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10. Meredith, Edwards. (2008, March).Participatory Governance,University of Canberra.

11. Naik, Muradia Ratna. (2005,December). Participatory RuralGovernance in India: A myth orreality, TISS, ADB.

12. Nooteboom, Siboat G. (2013).Strategies Of ComplexityLeadership. In GovernanceSystems. International Review ofPublic Administration.

13. Smart city framework – Guide toestablishing strategies for smart citiesand communities, BIS Publication ,2014.

14. Brennan, Nonie. (2008). SustainingNon-profit Collaboration: theRelationship between Governanceand Leadership.


The discussion and debate ofempowerment of women-in-deprivationmainly remains limited to the qualitativeaspects which are certainly very crucialto consider. But the domain of AppropriateTechnologies for Women-in-Deprivationhas hitherto remained a neglecteddimension. Most of the women-in-deprivation- be they from nomadic tribesor living in tribal, rural or urban slumssettings, have to undertake arduousphysical activities which lead to highphysical stress which further exacerbatesdue to lack of access to technology. Thesphere of appropriate technologyinterventions for women’s empowerment,especially for the women-in-deprivation islargely not navigated. This article bringsto the center of radar a crucial aspecthitherto less explored concerningtechnology gap vis-à-vis women-in-deprivation, who are amongst the mostpoor and vulnerable.

The use of appropriate technologiesfor women’s empowerment can be apowerful tool and vehicle for gender equity.Keeping this at center the ‘All India

Appropriate Technologies:A Hitherto Neglected Dimension ofEmpowerment of Women-in-Deprivation

Shweta Gupta

Institute of Local Self-Government’(AIILSG) recently launched ‘InternationalCenter for Women-in-Deprivation’ (ICW-I-D) under the aegis of its InternationalCenter of EQUI-T to cater to these issues.Development and promotion of appropriatetechnologies for Women-in-Deprivationfrom all domains of marginalization is aglobal innovation of AIILSG.

Who are Women-in-Deprivation?

Women constitute 70 per cent of theworld’s 1.5 billion people living in absolutepoverty. Women’s poverty is more severethan men’s, also referred as ‘Feminisationof Poverty’1. According to the UnitedNations, women do two-third of theworld’s work yet earn only 5 per cent ofthe world’s income and own less than 1per cent of the world’s real property2.

1 BRIDGE Briefing Paper on the feminisationof poverty. Downloaded September26, 2002.

2 http://www.unpac.ca/economy whatcauses.html

Appropriate Technologies: A Hitherto ....... Empowerment of Women-in-Deprivation 37

Women are a vital part of anyeconomy. In developing countries, womenconstitute a large proportion of the nationallabour force and a major contributor tothe survival of the family. The poorer thefamily the greater its dependence onwomen’s income3. But at the same timewomen are also disproportionatelyresponsible for productive-unpaid work asthey play multiple roles- productive,reproductive and communitymanagement. However, much of women’swork remain unpaid as women continueto bear responsibility of care-giving workand they are mainly restricted to labourintensive work and low paid occupations.One of the factor attributed to it is thatmany of these women are unskilled.These women-in-deprivation form theinvisible workforce as they continue towork on the fringes of the formal economyand are nowhere on radar of mainstreamdevelopment.

These women live in extremedeprivation with hardly any access toefficient cooking fuel (LPG), efficientcooking stoves, electricity (house lighting),clean filtered drinking water, sanitation andits safe disposal, livelihoods opportunitiesetc. These women tend to be resourcepoor, illiterate, unskilled and are alsodisproportionately responsible for unpaidlabour — household chores, care givers

and are engaged in manual labour working

5 The National Task Force on TechnologicalEmpowerment (www.nic.in) NEW DELHI2004

on the fringes of the formal economy.

They lack access to livelihoods

opportunities, economic resources and

have low to no access to technology and

other assets.

Gender Gap in India vis-à-visHealth Status of Women

Gender inequality and gender

divisions in India are very stark. This is

also highlighted in ‘The Global Gender Gap

Report 2013’ by World Economic Forum

which pegs India’s rank at 101 on ‘Gender

Gap Index’ of total 136 countries analysed.

This Gender Gap also gets reflected in the

poor health indicators for women as India

ranks 135 on women’s ‘Health and

Survival’ holding second last place in the

world. It stands much lower on women’s

overall development and well being, even

unmatched by many low income countries

in sub-Saharan Africa.

India fares very poorly vis-à-vis

health status of women but these ranks

on key development indicators reflect the

situation at country level which is an


average out rank including privileged, non-

poor population while the situation is

expected to be extremely precarious for

women-in-deprivation. The reasons

attributed for low ‘health and survival’

rates of women in India are drudgery

associated with work, arduous physical

activities and long working hours due to

lack of access to appropriate technologies

tailored to their needs. The lack of

appropriate technologies perpetuates

extremely poor health status of women-

in-deprivation coupled with impoverished

quality of life. This coupled with

inadequate nutrition, lack of access to

basic services i.e., safe water and

sanitation and control over economic

resources to take care of their health

aggravates their poor health. This is

further signified by the high proportion of

anemia among women in India. As per

National Family Health Survey 2005-06,

58.8 per cent of urban poor women

(age 15-49) in India are anemic.

Gender Divide in Technology

The gender divisions in use of

technology (tools, equipments etc.) are

severe as many activities involving manual

labour and drudgery prone work are

assigned to women. Given the social

strictures, ingrained cultural attitudes and

male biasness, women do not have access

to technology and have low to no control

over economic resources thus the gender

gap in access to technology is highly

evident for ‘Women in Deprivation’. This

perpetuates their poor health.

Women form the backbone of theagriculture comprising the majority ofagricultural labourers in India. In ruralareas, nearly 84 per cent women workersare engaged in agriculture, either ascultivators or labourers as compared to67 per cent male workers4. The genderdivisions in agriculture are very stark withmany activities involving manual labourand drudgery prone work are assigned towomen while operations involvingmachinery are generally performed bymen. Agricultural innovations have beendesigned specifically for men’s use whereas women are made to use traditionallabour intensive methods with little or nouse of technology by women.

Given the male bias of tool/equipment use and perceived notion ofwomen’s disinterest in using technologyand its ownership, the existing traditionaltechnologies have assumed genderneutrality. But technology designedergonomically that suits women’s needsis crucial.

The gender divide in technology istwo-fold: (1) in access to traditionaltechnologies and (2) in access to moderntechnologies (e.g. Information,Communication and Technology).

No access of technology or the lackof access to technology to women hinderstheir development and limits their potentialgrowth as depicted in the following chart.

4 NSSO Employment-UnemploymentSurveys, Government of India


The following text elucidates thedifferent facets of women’s life that getnegatively impacted due to lack of accessto appropriate technologies to them.

Gender Inequality in Rural Areas

Agriculture in the country isextensively labour intensive because oflimited use of technology in many places(more so for women). The workforceparticipation ratio of women in rural areasis 30.79 per cent much higher than theirurban counterpart (11.8 per cent)5, yet they

form the large proportion of invisibleworkforce as they are engaged inproductive but unpaid work. More than 90per cent of rural women in India areunskilled6 and don’t have access totechnology and control over economicresources (land and other productionassets), market information etc. Womenfarmers typically have little direct accessto land and highly unequal access to inputs

5 Census of India 2001

6 National Task Force on TechnologicalEmpowerment of Women in Agriculture,National Commission for Women, http://ncw.nic.in/pdfreports/National Task forceon Technological Empowerment.pdf

Chart 1

Impact on Women due to Lack of Access to Technology

Lack of Access to Technology to Women

Drudgery associated with Labour Intensive Work

Adverse Impact on Women’s Health

Consumes more Time & Energy but yields Less Productivity.

Loss of Income- as loss of opportunity for women to engagein productive/ income generating activities.

Loss of opportunity for women to learn, upgrade theirskills & knowledge.


and other services7. These inputs includeaccess to technology (machines,equipments etc.), market and BusinessDevelopment Support (BDS) services andother ancillary services. This restricts themto labour intensive and low paidoccupations8. The inequality also getsreflected in agricultural wages for womenthat are on an average 30-50 per cent lessthan those for men. Increasingly, as moremen than women move out of agricultureand migrate to urban areas to take non-farm employment opportunities, there is ashift toward the ‘feminisation ofagriculture’. Many women also serve asde-facto household heads. With noendowment of resources and skills, thesewomen face acute vulnerability.

Women engaged in Labour Intensiveand Drudgery Prone Work inAgriculture Operations

Gender divisions in agriculture arestark with many activities involving manuallabour and drudgery prone work are

7 12th Five Year Plan, Volume 1, PlanningCommission, Government of India. http://planningcommission.gov.in/plans/p l a n r e l / 1 2 t h p l a n / p d f / v o l _ 1 . p d fFinal Report by 12th Plan Working Groupon Disadvantaged Farmers, IncludingWomen, 2011, Chair: Bina Agarwal, http://planningcommission.gov.in/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp12/agri/wg_Final_R eport_sent.pdf

8 National Task Force on TechnologicalEmpowerment of Women in Agriculture,National Commission for Women, http://ncw.nic.in/pdfreports/National Task forceon Technological Empowerment.pdfhttp://ncw.nic.in/pdfreports/National Taskforce on Technological Empowerment.pdf

assigned to women while operationsinvolving machinery are generallyperformed by men. The technology inputs/interventions by and large have assumedgender neutrality and thus failing torecognise that the needs of men andwomen can differ. Given the male-biasof tool-use, the existing farmmachines don’t cater to cultivator/farm women’s needs. The majorsufferers of this are women as theyshoulder majority of labour intensivework. The adjacent Table 1 provides aninsight into drudgery prone activitiesperformed by farm-women and long hoursinvolved in the respective activities. Thedrudgery of women’s work in agriculturehas its negative impact on their education,food security, health, reproductive healthand productivity.

This is also highlighted in the reportof “National Task Force on TechnologicalEmpowerment”; some key facts stated areas follows:

Independent participation of womenwas found very marginal in majorcrop production (1 per cent), postharvest (2 per cent), livestockmanagement (6per cent) andentrepreneurial activities (0 per cent).This indicates the involvement of menin skilled agricultural work andlimiting the role of women indrudgery prone, unskilled activitieslike weeding, transplanting,harvesting, cleaning, grading etc.

Women involved in the fieldoperations of agriculture often facethe activities which are full ofdrudgery, repetitive task involvingharmful posture, squatting.


posture for long hours and wetconditions etc. There is immensedrudgery in sowing, transplantation,irrigation, fertilizer application,weeding, plant protection andharvesting. Even in post harvestwork, women carry out theoperations manually in an arduousmanner even when technologies arenow available for threshing,

winnowing, and milling as also forshelling of maize and groundnuts asthese technologies have remained outof reach for the women-in-deprivation.

These constraints are furthercompounded for rural and tribal womenmarginal landholder farmers, landlesslabourers engaged in agriculture andwomen working in Non-Farm primarysector (cattle rearing etc).

Table 1Ergonomics of Farm Women’s Drudgery

Farm ActivitiesPercentage of Performance Time SpentPerformers Frequency (Hour/Year)

Score

Weeding 54 1.55 234

Cutting/Uprooting 55 1.02 218

Transplanting 57 1.01 186

Cleaning 51 1.27 52

Sowing 49 1.03 49

Bundling 46 0.96 66

Removing stalks 39 0.97 72

Picking 33 1.02 83

Winnowing 34 0.97 40

Collecting and bringing fodder 39 4.45 481

Cleaning shed 43 4.81 137

Milking 44 4.47 335

Collecting dung 39 4.78 144

Feeding animals 43 4.82 166

Processing milk 45 4.43 168

Source: Annual Report, 2000-2001, Department of Agricultural Research and Education, Ministry of

Agriculture, Government of India


Ergonomics of Farm Women’sDrudgery and its Impact on Women’sHealth and Education

Despite the fact that most low-income women in developing countries areprimarily employed in agriculture, a largeliterature shows that men have been theprimary adopters and shapers ofagricultural technologies in developingcountries, and agricultural innovationshave been designed specifically for men’suse. Animal-drawn ploughs, for instance,were developed to pursue men’s work in

clearing farmland, and are too heavy forwomen to push or have handles thatwomen can’t reach. As a result, womencontinue to use traditional, more labor-intensive methods, undermining theiragricultural productivity. By way ofappropriate interventions towards womenfriendly technology, can drastically reducethe drudgery and time and energyconsumed in the laborious processes. Theadjoining Table 2 depicts the healthailments faced by the women engaged infarm and non-farm based activities.

Box 1Farm Women’s Drudgery

The seemingly simple act of removing the husks from maize cobs by hand istougher than it sounds. A female worker uses her fingertips on average 522 times,her fingernails 144 times and her palms 55 times for every single kilogram of grainshe produces, according to a survey carried out last year by India’s Ministry ofAgriculture.

Women whether young or old, healthy or sick can be found across the developingworld working long hours without rest. They pick tea, process tobacco, shell cottonpods, spread fertilisers on fields and transplant rice. In the developed world, thiswork is usually done by machines. But in poor countries, much of the labour is doneby hand and a woman’s hand at that.

Source: Excerpts from Article by M. Sreelata and Naomi Antony on 12/04/12, http://

www.scidev.net

Table 2Types of Health Hazards faced by Farm Women

Activities Health Hazards reported (Percentage)

Farm Activities

Transplanting 50%

Harvesting 26.5%


Lack of Access to AgriculturalTechnologies for Women

Access to existing and newtechnology is crucial in maintaining andimproving agricultural productivity.Though, women play an important role infood production their limited access toresources, technology, markets and BDSservices undermines women’s health andsustainable livelihoods. Gender gaps existfor a wide range of agriculturaltechnologies, including machines and tools,improved plant varieties and animal breeds,fertilizers, pest control measures andmanagement techniques. The share offarmers using mechanical equipment andtools is quite low in all families indeprivation, but it is significantly lower forfarmers in female headed households,sometimes by very wide margins. Alongwith other constraints, these gaps lead togender inequalities in access to newtechnologies, adoption, and the use ofpurchased inputs across regions. Lack ofcommunication, education, and access totechnology among women, particularly inthe rural areas, has often preventedwomen from receiving the same benefitsand opportunities as men in the agriculturalsector.

9 Food and Agricultural Organisation ofthe United Nations, Men and Women inAgriculture: Closing the Gap, http://www.fao.org/sofa/gender/key-facts/en/

Lack of Access and Control overEconomic Resources by Women

The majority of rural Indian womenare economically active but their work goeslargely unrecognized and poorlyremunerated. At the household level, thesedisparities translate into a lack of autonomyand control over household resources —be it ownership of technology - material,tools, equipment and access to knowledgeor markets9. Thus, women are much lesslikely to work to their full work potentialthereby undermining their productivity andincome and thus are less likely to purchaseand/or to make use of technology -mechanical tools and equipment.

Lack of Access to Safe Water andSanitation: Adverse Impact onHealth and Security of Women

There is a very strong genderdimension to safe water and sanitation.Women bear the maximum brunt in theirabsence. As per Census of India 2011,34.8 slums HHs do not have access to

Post Harvest ActivitiesThreshing 50%Drying 33%Parbolining 67%Livestock ManagementShed cleaningFodder collectionMilching

Source: Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), DRWA


drinking water from treated source and15.1 per cent slum HHs use public toiletswhile 18.9 per cent HHs defecate in open.Women have been the worst sufferers ofthe same as it has adverse healthconsequences on their health andespecially reproductive health along withraising safety and security concernsarising due to defecating in open in darkor in wee hours. Higher morbidity rates(water borne diseases, skin diseases etc.)within the families because of lack ofsanitation services increases theirexpenditure on health, forces them tospend time on caring for the sick withinthe family and thereby increasing theirburden. This also leads to poor healthstatus of women and lower incomes intheir hands. Moreover, women are forcedto spend time and energy collecting waterfor the household use and by that areforced to give up on income generatingopportunities and leisure time, for girls thishas even resulted into school dropouts. It

has been estimated in several studies thataccess to water increases the productiveworking hours of the urban poor in generaland the poor women in particular by 1.5to 2 hours. There are severe healthconsequences on women in case theycarry water pitchers on their head for longdistances. Water sources in villages andin slums in urban areas can significantlyreduce the time spent by women and girlsfetching water and water projects that meetmultiple livelihood objectives and takegender issues properly into account aremore likely to be sustainable. Anotherimportant aspect in case of non-pipedwater supply directly from wells, ponds,rivers, tanks without purification is qualityof water and its purification beforeconsumption, which is highly neglectedaspect in resource poor communities(because of lack of awareness aboutwater purification and no access topurification means and devices such aslow cost water filters).

Box 2Lack of Access to Safe Water and Sanitation in India

In 2010, still over 780 million people were without access to improved sourcesof drinking water and an estimated 2.5 billion lacked improved sanitation. Morethan half of these 2.5 billion people without improved sanitation live in India orChina. 15 per cent of the population across world still practice open defecation, thisrepresents 1.1 billion people. South Asia (10.3 per cent) followed by Sub-SaharanAfrica (7.9 per cent) and South East Asia (6.8 per cent) have largest proportion ofthe population resorting to open defecation. Open defecation is practiced by nearlya quarter of the population in least developed countries. Nearly 60 per cent ofthose practicing open defecation live in India.

Source: World Health Organisation, UNICEF, Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation,2012 Update


Lack of school sanitation affectshealth of the girls, their attendance andcontinuation with education. The studyconducted by the authors for the Ministryof Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation,Government of India and DFID supportedproject ‘Support to National policies forUrban Poverty reduction’ in the Nagpurcity brings to forth the plight of the girlson account of not having access to toiletsin municipal schools. The findings fromthe study revealed that on an average, anadolescent girl lost 27 days of school everyyear owing to lack of proper toilet facilitiesand its adverse impact on health. Similarfinding has emerged from the discussionswith the women street vendors as the lackof toilets near to their place of vendingand in the vicinity of market areas has anadverse effect on women’s health andmany suffer from urinary tract infectionsand kidney ailments.

Lack of Access to Energy Sources:Smokeless Cooking Fuel andEfficient Cooking Stove leads toRespiratory Health Problems to Women

As highlighted in Census of India2011, 33.4 per cent of slum HHs still usebiomass as a fuel for cooking of which asubstantial proportion i.e., 25.8 per centslum HHs use firewood as a fuel forcooking purpose. The inefficient cookingfuels and technologies like traditional‘chulhas’ generate high levels of smokethat cause respiratory problems for theinhabitants. The worst sufferers of thissituation are women and girls as they tendto spend more number of hours in theirclosed houses that are dimly lit and hardlyhave adequate natural ventilation.Moreover, women and girls spend hoursin a day to collect biomass (fire wood etc.)for fuel that has a cost on their time andoverall productivity.

Box 3Inefficient Cooking Fuels Produce High Levels of Household Air Pollution

As per World Health Organisation around 3 billion people still cook and heattheir homes using solid fuels (i.e., wood, crop wastes, charcoal, coal and dung) inopen fires and leaky stoves. Most are poor, and live in low-income and middle-incomecountries. Such inefficient cooking fuels and technologies produce high levels ofhousehold air pollution with a range of health-damaging pollutants, including smallsoot particles that penetrate deep into the lungs. In poorly ventilated dwellings, indoorsmoke can be 100 times higher than acceptable levels for small particles. Exposure isparticularly high among women and young children, who spend the most time nearthe domestic hearth. About 4.3 mn people die every year prematurely from illnessattributable to the household air pollution caused by the inefficient use of solid fuels(e.g., inhalation of smoke from cooking stove.)

Source: World Health Organisation, 2012, accessed from www.who.int/mediacentre/

factsheets/fs292/en/


Primary Study and Gender Analysisin Medha, a rural area inMaharashtra

For illustration- the primary study andgender analysis in “Medha”, a rural areain Maharashtra state of India, based on“24 Hour Clock” Gender Analysisconducted by the International Center ofWomen-in-Deprivation of AIILSG hasrevealed the fact that there is hardly anymodernisation in agri-horti operations.Whatever, limited modernisation hashappened, it is restricted to the activitieshandled by men. Even very basic activitiessuch as weeding and cutting use verycrude traditional tools such as sickles. Themen daily spend 7 hours in productive paidwork and less than one hour on productiveunpaid work. Furthermore, use of

technology in work makes men’s work lessdrudgery prone. Whereas, women dailyspend 6 hours on productive unpaid workof which 1 to 1.5 hours are filled withdrudgery prone work while they spend 7hours in productive paid work. But,because of wage inequality in men andwomen it translates into low incomegeneration for women. The resultantdrudgery related to work and pooreconomic condition leads to extremelypoor health of women. This has lead tomany health issues for women such as-Physical bruising to hands and fingers,Backache leading in long term to seriousailments of spinal chord, Prolongedsquatting postures coupled with highanaemia among women and earlymarriage and pregnancies many timesresult into prolapsed of uterus.


The findings from the GenderAnalysis and Study in Medha taluka (nearSatara, Maharashtra) reinforced the factthat the drudgery prone work for longhours by women, along with anemia, earlymarriage and early child bearing, hascreated an adverse impact on women’shealth, especially reproductive health. Thekey health ailments observed are prolapseduterus, urinary tract infections, severeanemia, nutritional deficiency, fatigue,migraine, headache, back pain amongstwomen.

The women-in-deprivation in thisarea are living a degraded quality of life

with hardly any access to basic serviceslike — clean filtered drinking water, safesanitation, efficient cooking stoves andcooking fuel, electricity (house lighting),houses with pucca roof and walls leadingto conditions of poor natural lighting andventilation, etc. Many of the women usetraditional cooking devices based onbiofuel such as wood, cow dung cake, etc.This leads to many respiratory infections.There is lack of menstrual hygiene resultinginto reproductive tract infections. Theinputs necessary such as sanitary pads areeither not available, or if available, are notaffordable.

Chart 2‘24 Hour Clock’ for Women Engaged in Agricultural Activities,

Medha, Maharashtra


The lack of appropriate technology isreflected in-

use of bio-fuels subjecting leading torespiratory infections for women

poor menstrual hygiene due to lackof access to and affordability of low-cost sanitary napkins

agricultural tools designed ormodified for women with ergonomicconsiderations: women are involvedin agri-horti activities with squattingposters and high drudgery. This canbe easily simplified by simpletechnological interventions

low illumination within houses due tolack of quality and assured electricity(many of the poor households in tribaland remote rural areas such as thoseproposed under this project are highlydeprived of quality electricity)

Addressing Gender Gap in Technologyfor Women-in-Deprivation

The gender gap in access oftechnology to women is twofold — firstly,in access to traditional technology andsecondly, in access to moderntechnologies. The gender gap is evidentin both traditional and modern technologies(ICT). The following text narrates thepossible areas of interventions vis-à-visappropriate technologies for women-in-deprivation.

Bridging the Gender Gap inTraditional Technologies

Technology plays an important rolein our daily lives and has become aninherent part of modern day work and lives.

Yet a large proportion of the population inIndia is deprived of the basic technology;e.g., access of electricity (house lighting),efficient cooking fuel (LPG), clean filteredwater, sanitation and its safe disposal,cooking stoves etc., in rural areas anddeprived population like slum dwellers inurban areas. In a scenario wheretechnology connected with the largenetwork or grid if can’t reach to thedeprived, promotion of women-friendlyappropriate technology and its applicationcan play an important in improving qualityof life of the population in deprivationespecially for women.

Addressing Gender Gap inTechnology for drudgery reductionand to reduce health hazards inagricultural operations

The nature of women’s manual labourhas changed little in many developingcountries for centuries, either becausetechnologies and innovations haven’tcatered to their particular needs, orbecause they are inaccessible orunaffordable. Urgent attention is neededtowards the efforts to develop appropriatetechnologies suited to women’s needs aswell as to reduce their drudgery will begiven a special focus too. The appropriatewomen friendly technology can play apotential role in reducing its negativeeffects on women. Since, labour intensivemethods of production are common inagricultural operations and in rural areasand women are mainly engaged in thelabour intensive activities, it is importantto develop technologies that can improvetheir labour efficiency and reducedrudgery.


The technology intervention not onlyenvisages ending the invisibility ofwomen’s contribution to agriculture, butof eliminating the drudgery that blights thelives of millions of working women in thedeveloping countries. Women-friendly,fatigue and drudgery reducing implementsneeds to be designed, tested andtransferred to the field for its adoption bywomen. Appropriate farm tools, improvedcrops, integrated pest managementtechniques, conservation agriculture,biological nitrogen fixation and othercontext-specific technologies should alsobe targeted for development and forenhanced access by women. Moreover,drudgery reduction technology should bedesigned for the agricultural farm work,non-farm work, cattle and livestockmanagement, household chores etc. Forillustration- Treadle water pumps enabledwomen farmers to irrigate small plots fromunderground or surface water sourcesand, in turn, to increase their harvests andincomes.

Addressing Gender Gap in Accessto Energy Sources

Resource poor women in rural, tribaland urban areas are deprived of the basicbenefits of technology, such as efficienthousehold energy for cooking, heating, andlighting, as well as for home-basedagricultural, craft and industrial activities.The vast majority of rural, tribal and urbanwomen-in-deprivation largely have accessto non-commercial traditional fuels (firewood, animal dung, crop waste) that areinefficient in converting to energy. Thesmoke generated through this fuel has led

to many respiratory problems amongstwomen. The deprived womendisproportionately lack access to clean,efficient, reliable, safe, and affordableenergy service options.

According to WHO, every year500,000 women and children dieprematurely in India due to variousailments arising from long term exposureto smoke in rural kitchens. The reason isthe traditional cooking stove, rather thanthe fuel (mostly waste woody biomass).Use of improved fuel-efficient cook stovescan reduce the time rural women spendon household cooking tasks. Fuel-efficientstoves can reduce firewood requirementsby 40—60 per cent, in addition to reducingindoor pollution and the time required forcooking. Cost of improved stoves is alwaysthe main barrier for effecting this shift thuslocally manufactured stoves can provideincome-earning opportunities for ruralartisans and also reducing the cost of thesmokeless chulhas. Biomass briquettesfor cooking fuel can further reduce thetime spent in collecting firewood for fuel.

Brining adequate Light andVentilation in the House: to improveHealth of Women

Most of the kutcha houses andsemi-pucca houses are devoid of adequatenatural lighting and ventilation thus,prevails dark living conditions inside thehouse. This has lead to weak eyesight formany. Using simple fiber glass roof tilesor a used plastic bottle carrying water withbleaching powder the living conditionsinside the house can be drasticallyimproved through better illumination.


Reducing Gender Gap in FoodInsecurity and Addressing Issuesrelated to Women’s ReproductiveHealth and Low Nutrition Status

Women’s poor reproductive health inmany developing countries like India isaffected by a variety of socio-cultural,economical and biological factors. Though,women play major role in food productionand its processing they are often depriveof adequate nutrition and usually have lowfood intake. The low access and controlover economic resources severelyconstrain the ability of women andadolescent girls to acquire good health andwoman-centered health services and foodintake. The findings from the genderanalysis in rural Medha, Maharashtra thecases of anemia, severe nutritional andcalcium deficiency have come to fore moreso for pregnant women and lactatingmothers. This can be attributed/ accountedto their lack of awareness about theimportance of nutrition and adequate dietfor their robust health and well being andlow affordability of food items andsupplements from outside. DesigningNutritional Guides for women and childrenbased on easily available and locallyproduce food items can have a positiveimpact on overall health of the women.

Thus, important is improving accessto Safe and Affordable Health care andencouraging institutional deliveries forwomen. But no less importance isimprovements in the quality and breadthof services catering to reproductive healthneeds. One such innovation is being donein ‘Medha’ by one of the local NGOs is

manufacturing and selling eco-friendly lowcost sanitary napkins by the local villagewomen. The women are imparted trainingin manufacturing them and presentlycatering to many surrounding villages. Ithad a positive impact on women’s healthand reduction in urinary tract infectionamong women. The intangible impact onattendance rates of girls in school andreduction in the drop-out rate of adolescentgirls is yet to be measured but is certainlynoted. Also, efforts to improve women’seducation on issues of health andreproductive health had a positive impacton their overall status of health.

Lowering Gender Gap in Technologyfor Income Generation Activities

In addition to the food production theother activities in agriculture include valueaddition of traditional agriculture productsthrough food processing, preservation andpacking, floriculture and vermin culture-based women entrepreneurship. Presently,there are not many technology optionsavailable for women in this regard toincrease their efficiency and productivity.Targeting technology intervention in thissector can reap huge benefits for womenentrepreneurs. Some of the innovations inthis regard are listed below.

Illustration 1: MultifunctionalPlatforms: Diesel engine plus toolattachments, like battery charger, grindingmill, etc.

Illustration 2: Alternativehousehold power (aka multifunctionalplatforms), which uses diesel engines topower food processing and carpentry


tools, increased the productivity ofwomen’s domestic and income-generatingactivity.

Illustration 3: Solar dryers toprocess fruits and vegetables, such asthose used by rural women’s groups inUganda, increased the efficiency ofprocessing dried fruits for export.

Addressing Gender Gap in ModernTechnology Divide in Information,Communication and Technology (ICT)

The modern technology has beenunderused in unlocking women’seconomic opportunities. Women lackaccess to critical information e.g., throughuse of mobile phones, radios/ TV,computers, access to internet. Informationand communications technology is an

important resource that can potentiallybenefit women by saving time and labour,facilitating access to information andcreating income-generating opportunities.The importance of the modern technologyis amply highlighted in the United NationsE-Government Survey 2012, spread over190 countries that has analysed the trendand progress in willingness of countries in

providing better services building upon thetransformative nature of Information,Communication and Technology (ICT).Lack of access to both ICT and educationinfrastructure in the developing countriesis a major constraint on development. Thecurrent situation is characterized by digitalgap, a substantial differential between e-government supply and demand, andgenerally low levels of e-service take-up.The adjacent Table 3 depicts the

Table 3E-Government Index for South Asian Countries, 2012

2012Country (of 190 countries)

Rank Score

Afghanistan 184 0.1701

Bangladesh 150 0.2991

Bhutan 152 0.2942

India 125 0.3829

Maldives 95 0.4994

Nepal 164 0.2664

Pakistan 156 0.2823

Sri Lanka 115 0.4357

Regional Average *** 0.3464

World Average *** 0.4882

Source: United Nations, E-Government Survey 2012


performance of South Asian countries vis-à-vis E-Government Index.

However, the modern technologydivide is just as significant but is poorlydocumented vis-à-vis women. TheInformation, Communications Technologies(ICT) is an important resource that canpotentially benefit women by saving timeand labour, facilitating access toinformation and creating income-generating opportunities. Most of the timeswomen lack access to critical informatione.g., through use of mobile phones, radios/TV, computers, access to internet etc.

Important Role of Information,Education and Communication

Effective outreach to the communityand creating awareness about theavailable technology options is very crucialfor taking/ transferring availabletechnology from Lab to Field. Information,Education and Communication (IEC) playsa crucial role in educating communityabout different technologies and itsassociated benefits on the health andoverall well being of women. Mass IECis also significant for wider disseminationand marketing of the existing technologiesand tailor made newer technologies tomultiple stakeholders — communities,CBOs, NGOs, State Institutions, NationalBodies etc.

Box 4Lack of Awareness: Need for Strong IEC

An improved CIAE-designed sickle that reduces drudgery by 16 per cent isstill in prototype form. So, too are other designs for paddy-seeders, weeders, andsuspended cleaners that allow workers to remove dirt and stones from grain withouthaving to bend over for hours. Even, when a new piece of machinery or equipmentdoes make the journey from laboratory to market, women may not reap the benefitsas they are not aware of it and don’t have skill to use it.

A part of the challenge of tackling the agricultural drudgery endured by womenis in changing ingrained cultural attitudes. For example: women are often deniedaccess to equipment, such as blacksmith and carpentry tools, which would maketheir work easier and less physically taxing. The rate of technological change in thetasks that men perform has been much faster.

Thus effective outreach to the target community though extensive IEC playsan important role in dissemination and creating awareness about the availabletechnology and taking them from Lab to Field.


Significance of AppropriateTechnologies for Women-in-Deprivation

Gender responsive technologyinterventions can free up women’s timeand energy at home and in work, willimprove their work efficiency andproductivity. This will have significantpositive impact on improving women’shealth, reproductive health and overall wellbeing because of drudgery reduction inlabour intensive work, better work andliving conditions (e.g., better light andventilation etc). This, in turn, will improvequality of life and enhance women’s abilityto care for themselves- as they can usetechnology and leverage its advantages ineveryday lives. Presently, women areengaged in arduous physical activities thathave an opportunity cost on their timewhich can be more effectively utilised forother productive activities. Use ofappropriate technologies tailored aroundtheir needs can facilitate women’seconomic participation in incomegenerating activities, skills developmentactivities, encouraging educationattainment thereby increasing girls’ schoolenrollment, and enhance women’ abilityfor decision making. It will create moreopportunities for women’s participation inother social and community level activities.It provides fillip to their confidence,accelerates gender mainstreaming andgender equity in a given socio-culturalcontext. Use of appropriate technologiescan be a powerful tool for empoweringwomen-in-deprivation and gender equity.It can bolster women’s confidence through

access and more control over resourceswhich previously was lacking.

The appropriate technologyinterventions for women-in-deprivationneeds to be seen holistically concerningall spheres of women’s l i f e — a thousehold level, in the work arena and atcommunity level as discussed in the earliersections of the article. The followingnarration elucidates the various examplesof appropriate technology interventions.

It can also include developing farmmachines that take account of the differentneeds and capacities of women’s bodies,catering to their typically lower mass andmuscle strength, postural differences, load-bearing and lung-breathing capacity, andoxygen consumption rates. Though, therehave been some efforts for developingtechnologies for drudgery reduction but byfar these have been scattered across thecountry and have not percolated to thedesired extent to the grassroots on a largescale. Illustration of women friendlytechnologies developed by Indian Councilof Agricultural Research (ICAR),Directorate of Research on Women inAgriculture (DRWA) for reducingdrudgery of women in agriculturaloperations through use of improvedequipment are as follows:

Illustration 1: Equipment called‘Head Load manager’ is developedto relieve women of drudgery arisingfrom lifting loads in farm yards,market yards and similar sites. TheHead Load Manager is found tobring in the desired change due totransfer of load impact on head to a


11 The National Task Force on TechnologicalEmpowerment (www.nic.in), NEW DELHI2004

broad base of shoulders and itsevaluation.

Illustration 2: Other devices likecotton picking bag, pesticide sprayingtool and flower plucking device arespecially designed to increaseproductivity by reducing fatigue. Theimproved cotton bag with speciallydesigned pockets increases workefficiency of women by 20 per centand reduced muscle pressure by 40to 50 per cent, using head loadmanager 20 to 30 kg load per trip canbe carried at a time.

Illustration 3: Design refinement insitting type groundnut decorticatorfor women workers for betterergonomic performance. Theserefinements included increase inhandle length from 32 to 37cm,increase in sitting stool height from20 to 30 cm and change in woodenbase design for easy packing andtransport. The output of improvedprototype was 30 kg/hr. The womenworkers liked the equipment as thework could be done in sitting postureand the force required for itsoperation was less than the standingtype.

Illustration 4: During paddyparboiling using improved technology(paddy par boiling unit) the heart beatrate and energy expenditure weresignificantly reduced and the outputalso increased from 35 kg per batchto 75kg per batch. The time durationof carrying out this activity alsoreduced from 2 days to 6 hours11.

There is a strong need to developappropriate technologies to contribute toempowerment of women. For example,the focus of technology interventionsshould be for improving women’s health(low cost water purifiers), reproductivehealth (low cost sanitary napkins),drudgery reduction (treadle water pumps,groundnut stripper), livelihoodsopportunities (low cost food processers-solar dryers to process fruits, vegetables),improving access to Information,Communication and Technology (mobilephone services, internet kiosks improvingaccess of women entrepreneurs toinformation, market, clients) etc. Apartfrom developing new technologies thrustshould be on tailoring/ modifying existingtechnologies/ tools to cater the needs ofwomen e.g. Women residing in slums incities still use traditional chulhas with woodas cooking fuel, which with appropriateinterventions can be replaced bysmokeless chulhas with alternative cost-effective energy source; Equipment called‘Head Load Manager’ is developed torelieve women of drudgery arising fromlifting heavy loads on their heads.

Illustration 1: Smokeless CookingStoves in Nandal Village inMaharashtra- Village Nandal inSatara District, Maharashtra State,India, with more than 500 households,has become a smoke free village.Every family in this village is now aproud owner of a Smokeless Cooking


Stove, which is reducing their fuelconsumption by 30 per cent andsmoke emissions by 80 per cent ascompared to their older traditionalstoves. The women also report 30per cent reduction in cooking time,which is a bonus on top of the healthbenefits of reduced indoor airpollution. Each family has contributedabout INR 100 (approx USD 2.5)worth of materials for stoveinstallation. The total cost forinstalling each Stove was not morethan INR 700 (approx USD 15).

Other Illustrations of AppropriateTechnologies for Women-in-Deprivationcan include - Energy-saving devices likelow-cost solar cookers and dryers,efficient and smoke-less cooking stoves,biomass briquettes for cooking fuel, lowcost water filters, mitticool (clayrefrigerators), low-cost micro irrigationsystems for farmers, cold storage withoutelectricity, solar bulbs for made of plasticbottles, arborloo eco-toilets, peepoo toiletbags, decentralized low cost wastewatertreatment plants, low cost eco-friendlysanitary napkins, hand operated grindingstones with ball bearing, ball bearing in thewell, solar powered carts, solar waterpumps, solar powered lights, fibre glassroof tiles for adequate lighting, womenfriendly farm equipments — cotton stalkpuller, improved sickle, fruit harvester,groundnut stripper, two row and four rowrice planter etc.

The access to the modern technologyviz., internet and mobile phones can havea significant impact on women in rural

12 Bridging the gender divide: HowTechnology Can Advance WomenEconomically, International Center forResearch on Women

areas in India and many other developingcountries, for example by increasingeconomic opportunities through access tonew markets and to information on thecurrent market prices of agricultural inputsand crops. The few illustrations of thesame are as follows:

Illustration 1: Village mobile phonesfacilitated women’s roles asentrepreneurs who operatebusinesses that requirecommunications services or whoeven own the pay phone centerserving a community12.

Illustration 2: ICT telecenters andkiosks provided relatively affordablemeans of accessing vital businessskills and market information relevantto women’s income-generatingactivity, so that women could startsmall businesses12.

To bridge the gender divide in use oftechnology and reduce the overallstructural gender inequality the followinginterventions can be seen as a step in thedirection.

Develop, disseminate, transfer theexisting appropriate technologyoptions available for women.

Designing tailor made and adaptivetechnology for women with scope fortechnology enhancement.


Capacity Building and IEC foradoption of women friendlytechnologies specific to context,sector and requirement.

Technology needs to be socially andculturally embedded and understoodin order to be used effectively tocreate value.

Establishing Resource Centres forAppropriate Technologies forWomen-in-Deprivation for theirlearning, skills upgradation, therebybridging the gender technology divide,can be reduced.

Appropriate Technologies for UrbanWomen-in-Deprivation: A NeglectedAspect

There are at least some efforts inexistence vis-à-vis technologies for ruralwomen in deprivation. However, the themefor urban women in deprivation is highlyunexplored and under-researched. Withno endowment of resources and skills,these urban women face acutevulnerability. Some of the larger statesindicate higher incidence of urban povertythan rural poverty and precarious healthindices. These category of women fromsmall and medium towns (and also manyof those from non-notified slums in largercities too) still use bio-mass basedtraditional cooking fuel and inefficientcooking stoves. The smoke generated inthe process has severe adverse impact onhealth of these women. The proposedactions include pioneering effort ofresearch and actions pertaining totechnological interventions vis-à-vis urban

women in deprivation, a hitherto highlyneglected theme. With the rapidurbanisation faced by the developingcountries coupled with proliferation ofpoor housing and degrading quality of life,this pioneering effort will hold a vitalsignificance.

Conclusion

The urgent need is to bridge thetechnology divide between men andwomen by reaching out to women-in-deprivation in rural, tribal and urban areaswith technology development andappropriate technology interventions. Alsoof significance is to overcome the male-bias of tool-use and perceived notion ofwomen’s disinterest in using technologyand its ownership. Since, one size doesnot fit all, hence, technology designedergonomically that suits women’s needsis crucial. Presently, there is a void in thisregard and thus there is a growing needto tailor technologies to meet the needs ofwomen and to make them affordableenough for resource poor women toaccess. Moreover, proactivedissemination and on-field facilitation isneeded to ensure that the current set ofappropriate technologies for women reachgrassroots and are adopted.

Bibliography

1. Government of India, Ministry ofAgriculture.(2001). 2000-2001Annual Report of Department ofAgricultural Research andEducation.

2. International Center for Research onWomen. (2010). Bridging the


gender divide: How TechnologyCan Advance Women Economically.

3. BRIDGE, Briefing Paper on theFeminisation of Poverty.

4. Census of India 2001 and 2011.

5. Government of India. PlanningCommission. (2011). Final Reportby 12th Plan Working Group onDisadvantaged Farmers,Including Women. Retrieved from.http://planning commission.gov.in/aboutus committee/ wrkgrp12/agri/wg_Final_ Report_ sent.pdf

6. Food and Agricultural Organisationof the United Nations. Men andWomen in Agriculture: Closing theGap.Retrieved from.http://www.fao.org/sofa/gender/key-facts/en

7. Indian Council of AgriculturalResearch (ICAR), DRWA.

8. NSSO Employment-UnemploymentSurveys, Government of India

9. Statistical year book for Asia and thePacific 2009 — UN ESCAP.

10. Directorate of Research on Womenin Agriculture, Bhubaneswar, Odisha,India. Technologies for Women inAgriculture, All India CoordinatedResearch Project on HomeScience.

11. National Commission for Women,(2004) NEW DELHI, Retrievedfrom. http://ncw.nic.in/pdfreports/National% 20Task %2 0f o r c e %2 0on%20 Technological%20Empowerment. pdf, www.nic. in/.The

National Task Force onTechnological Empowerment ofWomen in Agriculture,

12. Twelfth Five Year Plan, Volume 1,Planning Commission, Government ofIndia.Retrieved from. http:/planningcommission. gov.in/plans/planrel/12thplan/pdf/vol_1.pdf

13. United Nations. (2009). WorldSurvey on the Role of Women inDevelopment. Women’s Controlover Economic Resources andAccess to Financial Resources,including Microfinance. Departmentof Economic and Social Affairs;Division for the Advancement ofWomen.

14. United Nations DevelopmentProgramme. Human DevelopmentReport 2013.

15. United Nations. E-GovernmentSurvey 2012: E-Government for thePeople. Department of Economicand Social Affairs

16. United Nations. (2010). MillenniumDevelopment Goals.Retrievedfrom. http://mdgs.un. org/unsd/mdg/Handlers/Export Handler.ashx?Type=Csv

17. World Economic Forum. The GlobalGender Gap Report. 2012.

18. World Health Organisation,UNICEF. Progress on DrinkingWater and Sanitation, 2012Update.


Definitions of Some Important Terms

Juvenile can be defined as someonewho is not fully grown or developedor mature.

Juvenile delinquent can be definedas a person who is under age(usually below 18 years), who isfound to have committed a crime instates which have declared by lawthat a minor lacks responsibility andthus may not be sentenced as anadult. However, the legislatures ofseveral countries have reduced theage of criminal responsibility forserious crimes or for repeatoffenders to as low as 14 years.

Juvenile detention andrehabilitation centres are basicallyorganizations that perform the act ofrehabilitating juvenile delinquents intothe society after completion of theirpunishment.

Juvenile Delinquency

Prajakta Thipse

Crime can be correctly stated as illstate of mind. In our society the crimerate is increasing at an alarming rate.In case of minors, i.e., juveniledelinquents the ill state of mind is thecause of immediate environmentwhich comprises of private space,interaction space with family,neighbours, society etc. The mindsof the youths are easily mouldable inboth good and bad manner. As aproactive approach it is veryimportant to treat this ill state of mindat the young stage so that they canrehabilitate back into the society andnot continue the same delinquencywhen they are released. This can beenabled through exploring newhorizons to combat rigid attitudes andprejudices, and to improve thestandards of existing and futurefacilities. One of the facets of thiscould be focus on interpreting policies

“………for young children freedom to walk around defines the limits of theirworld.”- Mayer Hillman

“Play is universal language of childhood”- Anonymous“Experts say that if children can’t read by the end of fifth grade, they lose self-

confidence and self- esteem, making them more likely to enter the juvenile justicesystem.” -Dirk Kempthorne

Juvenile Delinquency 59

through an architecture design thatwould enhance the quality ofenvironment in juvenile correction.

History

Worldwide history, acceptance ofjuvenile as different from adults

In the history of the administrationof criminal justice, among the earlyattempts to give differential treatment topersons of tender years, mention may bemade of the 10th century monarch. KingAthelstan of England, who enacted a lawthat “man (person) shall not slay noneyounger than a fifteen winters’ man(person).” On the whole, however, ajuvenile who had committed an offensewas dealt with as an ordinary criminal, andit is not surprising that in the 18th and 19thcenturies, when the prevailingcriminological theories favored theimprisonment of offenders, juveniles aswell as adults were imprisoned.Among historical precedents which led tothe birth of the concept of juveniledelinquency, two deserve brief mention.Of significance in the first place are theearly attempts made to separate juvenilesas a different category from adults inconnection with imprisonment. Thus, asearly as 1704, Pope Clement XI foundedin Rome a center for the correction of“profligate youth” so that they might betaught to become useful citizens. In 1756,the Marine Society of England establisheda special institution for the reformation ofjuvenile offenders, and other institutions,some of which were known as “raggedschools,” soon followed. By 1825 New

York City had established a “house ofrefuge” for juveniles, which was thepredecessor of the American reformatoryschool.

The full force of this movement,however, was not felt until 1854 when theReformatory Schools Act was passed inEngland, this legislative recognition givingthe necessary impetus for the spread ofthe idea of separate institutional treatmentfor juveniles. By the end of the 19thcentury, a substantial number ofreformatory schools had been establishedin a number of countries; under Britishadministration, for example, Burma, India,and what is now Pakistan had aReformatory Schools Act in 1870 andestablished special juvenile institutions.The development of this movement wascoincident with the humanitarian outlookof the Western world at that time, and itemphasized that juveniles should bereformed instead of punished.

Concurrent with this development,attention was drawn to the need forseparate procedures in the adjudication ofjuvenile cases by the courts. It had been along-standing practice in Anglo-Saxon lawto accept the proposition that childrenunder a certain age, usually seven years,were incapable of distinguishing whethertheir actions were right or wrong.Associated with this concept was therebuttable presumption that personsbetween the ages of 7 and 14 years coulddiscern the import of their actions. Thecourts decided this issue, and it wasunderstandably difficult for them to definewith precision what constituted


discernment. With the growingacceptance of the idea of reformingjuvenile offenders, there was a stage whenthe courts resorted to reformatorytreatment for those juveniles who appearedto be capable of reform because they didnot seem to be unduly vicious, on thepresumption that they had acted withoutdiscernment. Those appearing to bedepraved and incapable of reform, on theother hand, were sentenced to ordinaryprisons on grounds that they had acted withdiscernment. Thus, the offense committedby a juvenile was beginning to play a lessimportant role than the judgment ofwhether he was suitable for reformativetreatment. As a result of this, the need forspecialized court procedures came to beincreasingly felt.

People started seeing children asindividuals who need protection anddifferent treatment than adults. By seeingyouth as children whose brains were notfully developed yet technique involvedintervention and rehabilitation instead ofincarceration. These ideas and viewshelped in creation of ‘juvenile delinquencymovement’.

The History of Juvenile Justice inIndia

The history of juvenile justice in Indiacan be traced back to the early 18thcentury, where references to children andthe laws and rules governing them can befound in the texts of the ancient Hinduscripts.

Prior to 1773 Family was responsible for children’s criminal andnon- criminal behavior.

The concept of juvenile justice was not developed,and was governed by Hindu and Muslim laws.

Hindu law, Manusmriti pointed out difference betweenpunishments given to adults and children.

1773–1850 England ruled India during this period; hence thereform movement emerging in England alsoinfluenced India.

Migration from indigenous rural to urban slums led tonumber of destitute and delinquent children.

Concerned plight of children, Indians approached LordCornwallis and thus ‘Ragged School’ (name ofcharitable school for orphanage) was formed in 1843.

1850- 1919 Need for new legislation was felt as number ofdelinquent depressed and needy children increaseddue to rapid social change, industrialization andincreased in population.


Background

1 Institutions for Juvenile DelinquentsIndia seeks to tackle the problem ofJuvenile delinquency on the basis ofthree fundamental assumptions: Young offenders should not be

tried, they should be rathercorrected;

They should not be punished butbe reformed;

Exclusion of delinquents from thedomain of the court and stress andtheir non-penal treatment throughcommunity based social controlagencies such a Juvenile JusticeBoard and Child WelfareCommittee.

2 Types of Juvenile DelinquencyDetention Centers Remand Homes, Observation Homes, Certified Schools, Brostals, Special Homes , Shelter Homes, Aftercare Centers.In India the following institutes are

setup for the rehabilitation of juveniledelinquents:

Observation Homes- The juvenileswho need only a short-term custody duringinquiry or under trials or the one awaitingtrials (CICL i.e., Children in Conflict withthe Law) are kept in an observation home.

Important laws were passed during this period:Apprentice Act (1850): it dealt with young offenders.Indian Penal Code (1860): special status for children.

The Code of Criminal Procedure (1861): allowed forseparate trials for children less than 15 years andstressed on reformatory.

This also led to formation of Reformatory School Act1876.

1919- 1950 Special courts for children were created. This law created 3 categories for children: Child

younger than 14 years, Young person – 14 years to18 years; Youthful Offenders- anyone who is youngthan 18 years and has committed crime.

Post 1950: It witnessed both official and non-governmentalinitiatives that contributed to the development of amore pronounced juvenile justice system in India.

Also the Indian government passed a CentralChildren’s Act (CCA in 1960.)


Remand Homes- It is a centrewhere a child’s character and behaviorcan be minutely observed and its needsfully provided for by proper and carefulconsideration.

Certified Schools- CertifiedSchools are a modified form of thenineteenth century Reformatories orIndustrial Schools for homeless, destituteand delinquent children, which are nowadministered by the State for catering tothe needs of delinquent children ofdifferent age, sex and religion, and alsoprovide them training.

Special Homes- Special Homes areestablished and maintained by StateGovernment or Voluntary organizations forcustody of delinquent juveniles to providethem with basic amenities

Shelter Homes- The shelter homesfunction as drop in centers for children inneed of urgent support. They areestablished and maintained by voluntaryorganization recognized by StateGovernment.

Borstals- The Borstals is a Britishname for the Reformatory Schools, whereadolescent offenders receive training inlieu of imprisonment so that they can bereformed under conditions which aredifferent from those of prisons. Thetraining is exclusively meant foradolescents between the age group offifteen and twenty-one.

After Care Organization- Thesecenters help the juvenile delinquents for

readjustment, resettlement andrehabilitation as self-reliant, socially usefulcitizens.

Need for Study on Juvenile Delinquency

Scenario of our society has changeddrastically over a period of time.Nuclear family is the trend in today’stime. Therefore, children become theneglected part of society. This leadsto diversion of children from family’sshelter. They search affection andsatisfaction in other material world,and falls prey to delinquency acts.

One of the major reasons in increasein juvenile delinquency over years isease of availability of resources thatinspire in practicing delinquency.Access to porn, drugs, wronginterpretation of entertainmentchannel, aspiration of easy money,etc.

Today’s youths fall prey to aspirationof immediate pleasure andsatisfaction. This may also happenas a result of broken family, (whichwas not the case in earlier times).

Also in case of children physicalenvironment plays a very importantrole in developing their manifesto inboth positive and negative direction.

The existing infrastructure isinadequate because jails were simplyconverted into observation homes/remand homes. At the same time as


the number is increasing, thesedelinquents are kept in jail with adultsdue to lack of space andinfrastructure. These conditionscollapse the idea of rehabilitatingjuvenile delinquent.

The number of juveniles is rising everyyear, but more rigorous steps needsto be taken to look after the

Graph 1Rate of Crime by Juvenile Delinquents

Source: Crime In India publication 2011, NCRB , Ministry of Home Affairs

infrastructure of the rehabilitationcenter.

In Maharashtra there are 60institutes out of which 12 aregovernment institution and 46 areNGO’s that support 6028 delinquentsin the year 2011.

Therefore it is essential to focus newattention for a new outlook.


Reference: http://mospi.nic.in/Mospi_New/upload/Children_in_India_2012.pdf

Graph 3Juvenile Crime under Special and Local Law (SLL)


Graph 2Juvenile Crime under Indian Penal Code (IPC)

Situation Analysis vis-à-vis JuvenileDelinquency in India

1. State-wise Distribution ofJuvenile Delinquency (IPC;

Indian Penal Code and SLL;Special and Local Law)


Graph 4Juvenile Crime under Gambling Act


Graph 5Rape Committed by Juvenile



Graph 6Juvenile Crime under Probation Act

http://mospi.nic.in/Mospi_New/upload/Children_in_India_2012.pdf

Graph 7Murder Committed by Juveniles

http://mospi.nic.in/Mospi_New/upload/Children_in_India_2012.pdf


Sr. Year Incidences of Percentage Estimated Rate ofNo. of Juvenile Mid- Year Crime by

Juvenile Total Crimes to Population JuvenilesCrime Cognizable total (in Lakh)

Crimes Crimes1. 2001** 16509 1769308 0.9 10270 1.62. 2002 18560 1780330 1 10506 1.83. 2003 17819 1716120 1 10682 1.74. 2004 19229 1832015 1 10856 1.85. 2005 18939 1822602 1 11028 1.76. 2006 21088 1878293 1.1 11198 1.97. 2007 22865 1989673 1.1 11366 28. 2008 24535 2093379 1.2 11531 2.19. 2009 23926 2121345 1.1 11694 210. 2010 22740 2224831 1 11858 1.911. 2011## 25125 2325575 1.1 12102 2.1

Source: Crime in India 2011, NCRB, Ministry Of Home AffairsNote:

** Actual population as per 2001 Census # The boys age group of 16-18 years has also beenconsidered as Juveniles since 2001 onwards as per revised definition of Juvenile Justice Act

## Actual Census-2011 Population (Provisional)

2 Incidences and Rate of JuvenileDelinquents under Indian PenalCode (2001- 2011)The increasing trend in incidence ofJuvenile Crimes (under IPC) is amatter of grave concern, though the

percentage of juvenile crimes to totalcrimes is around 1 per cent during2001 to 2011. Juvenile crime rate was0.9 during 2000, whereas it hasshown an overall increasing trendduring 2000-2011, with year to yearvariations.


3 Share of Juvenile Crime underIndian Penal Code (IPC) andSpecial and Local Law (SLL)The juvenile IPC crimes in 2011 haveincreased by 10.5 per cent over 2010as 22,740 IPC crimes by juvenileswere registered during 2010 whichincreased to 25,125 cases in 2011.Major Juvenile crimes were under‘Theft’ (21.17 per cent), Hurt (16.3per cent) and Burglary (10.38 percent) in2011. The highest decreasein Juvenile delinquency wasobserved under the crime head‘Preparation & Assembly forDacoity’ (35.3 per cent),’Death dueto negligence’ (25.6 per cent) and‘Criminal breach of trust’ (14.0 percent) in 2011 over 2010. The highestincrease in the incidence of juvenilecrimes was observed under theheads ‘Counterfeiting’ (81.8 percent),’Dowry deaths’ (63.2 per

cent), ‘Arson’ (57.6 per cent) and‘Kidnapping & abduction of women& girls’ (53.5 per cent). Juveniledelinquency under SLL crimes hasincreased by 10.9 per cent in 2011as compared to 2010 as 2,558 casesof juvenile delinquency under SLLwere reported in 2010 whichincreased to 2,837 in 2011, whilethere was substantial decrease of40.8 per cent in 2010 as comparedto 2009. A large number of Juvenilecrimes (SLL) were reported underGambling Act (14.77 per cent)followed by Prohibition Act (10.7 percent). Cases under ‘Indian PassportAct’ and ‘Forest Act’ have registereda sharp decline of 66.7 per cent each,while cases under ‘Prohibition ofChild Marriage Act’ and ‘ImmoralTraffic (P) Act’ registered sharpincrease of 200 per cent and 50 percent respectively.

Graph 8Juvenile Delinquency in India 2011 (IPC+ SLL) Indian Penal Code

and Special and Local Law



4 Juveniles ApprehendedA total of 33,887 juveniles wereapprehended during 2011 out ofwhich 31,909 were boys and 1,978were girls. The percentage of girlsto total juveniles is 5.84 per cent in2011 whereas the percentage sharerelating to 2010 was 5.1 per cent. Outof total 33,887 Juveniles arrested,30,766 (90.7 per cent) were arrestedunder IPC crimes while 3,121 (9.3per cent) were arrested forcommitting SLL crimes.Out of the total 33887 juvenilesapprehended, 1,211 juveniles are inthe age-group of 7- 12 years, 11,019juveniles are in the age-group of12-16 years during 2011 whereas bulk

of juveniles (21,657) were arrestedunder the age-group 16-18 years.The percentage shares of Juvenilesapprehended under these age groupsare 3.3 per cent, 32.5 per cent and63.9 per cent respectively. Anincrease has been observed innumber of juveniles apprehended inall these age groups and it is shockingto note that in 2011 over 2010,highest percentage increase was for7-12 age group (30.6 per cent)whereas the rise in crimes in 12-16years and 16- 18 years were 8.9 percent and 12.5 per cent respectively.The overall increase in juvenilesapprehended at the national level is11.8 per cent in 2011 as compared to2010.

Graph 9Juveniles apprehended under IPC (Indian Penal Code) and SLL

(Special and Local Law) crimes by AGE group over the years



Classification of JuvenileDelinquents: Based on Habitation,Economic Status and Education

It is highly disturbing to observe that,out of the total juveniles involved in variouscrimes, 81.4 per cent are children livingwith parents, whereas the share ofhomeless children involved in variouscrimes are 5.7 per cent and the remainingare children living with guardians.

Out of the total juveniles involved invarious crimes 6,122 (18.1per cent) areilliterate and 12,803 (37.8 per cent) had

education up to primary level. 31 per centjuveniles belonged to the education levelof above primary but below secondarycategory and 13.11per cent are withsecondary / higher secondary and aboveeducation.

A large chunk of juveniles (57 percent) belonged to the poor families whoseannual income was up to Rs. 25,000/-. Theshare of juveniles from families withincome between 25,000/- and 50,000/- was27 per cent. The share of juveniles hailingfrom middle income group (50,000 -2,00,000) was 11 per cent.

Graph 10Habitation of Juvenile Delinquents.



Graph 11Classification of Juvenile Delinquents based on Economic Status


Graph 12Classification of Juvenile Delinquents based on Education.

Reference : http://mospi.nic.in/Mospi_New/upload/Children_in_India_2012.pdf


Psychological Data

Condition and Attitude during Detention

Performing Crime

In Detention Lost Self Respect and Faith in one's Ability

Released

-No Job

-No Skill

- No Education

- No Confidence

Misunderstanding Prolonged period without Contact

Limited Visitor hour inCrowded RoomLack of Privacy

Lack of InmateCommunication

Harsh InhospitableEnvironment Resentment

Negative Attitude from


Theories regarding Causesof Delinquency

The causes of juvenile delinquencyare a little harder to explain. There aremany different theories that havecontributed towards the understanding ofjuvenile delinquency. These theories fallunder three categories: biological,psychological, and sociological theories.1. Biological theories

It revolves around the idea thatindividuals are predisposed to commitcrime. Cesare Lombroso isconsidered to have contributed themajor theory called positivism(Champion, 2004). His idea statedthat individuals who commit crimeshad inherited certain biochemical andgenetic factors. Another criminalist,Sheldon, stated that different bodytypes made individuals behavedifferently. For example, he believedthat mesomorphs were more likelyto commit crimes because they wereathletic, as opposed to the physic ofan endomorph, a fat person(Champion, 2004).

2. The sociological theoriesThis theory of juvenile delinquencyincludes the strain theory, labelingtheory, and social control theory.While there are other forms ofsociological theory, these haveproven to be the most convincing.The strain theory states that whenan individual has goals but is unableto achieve the goals set before themin a legitimate way, the individual will

find illegitimate ways of achievinghis/her goals (TTU, 2005). There arefive modes of adaptation that peoplemay show, when dealing with thestrain theory:1. Conformity - person accepts the

goals and means to achieve thegoals set by society.

2. Innovation - individual acceptsthe goal but uses illegitimatemeans to achieve goal.

3. Ritualism - individual that rejectsgoals but will work towards lowerstandard goals that have beenapproved.

4. Retreatism - person who rejectsboth the goals and the means.

5. Rebellion - person who, in asense, creates his/her own society(Merton, 2005).

The labeling theory focuses ondefining an individual as a criminal ornon-criminal. When a person is labeleda criminal by the justice system, that personbegins to believe that she / he really is acriminal and identifies her/himself with thatidentity. Another driving factor of thelabeling theory is that individuals will lookfor the types of reactions that theirbehavior receives from others. Once anindividual has been labeled, she / hebecomes a social outcast and begins torebel, in order to live up to his/heridentifying label (Labeling, 2005).

The social bond theory, also knownas social control theory, was devisedby Travis Hirschi in the 1960s. There areseveral different bonds that an individual


must make that will determine whether ornot she / he will commit criminal offenses.The first one is an attachment, meaningthat the socialization of an individualdepends on an individual’s interest inanother human being (Hirschi, 2005). Thesecond one is a commitment, meaning thata lack of commitment towards mores andsocial laws can lead to delinquent behavior.The third bond that must be made isinvolvement. Hirschi believed that anindividual who participated in positiveactivities would not have the time tocommit criminal acts (Hirschi, 2005). Thefourth and final bond that must be made isbelief. When a person does not live in anarea that holds the same values or whens/he believes the law is unfair, one tendsto rebel and commit criminal acts (Hirschi,2005).3. Psychological theories

This theory focus on the individualsconditioning processes. There aretwo major types of psychologicaltheories: psychoanalytic theory andthe social learning theory.The psychoanalytic theory is basedon Freud’s components: id, ego, and

superego (Champion, 2004). The idis the drive for immediategratification and can explaindelinquency acts such as shopliftingor burglary. Also, thepsychoanalytical approach statesthat traumatic experiences duringearly childhood can prevent the egoand superego from developingproperly (Champion, 2004).The social learning theory is basedupon how an individual conforms andaccepts the rules, laws, and moresof society. When there are positiverole models within the home andcommunity, the individual is able tolearn positive ways of achievinggoals. When there is violence in thehome, the individual learns thatviolence is the only available way ofcoping with frustrations. This meansthat the more positive theenvironment a child is placed in, themore likely she / he is able to conformto society and become a nondelinquent (Champion, 2004).

EGO is overtaken by ID because of

Executive memory :

-Action

-Behavior

-Language

Movement Emotional memory:

Different feelings that occur in a person at different times of day.


4. Causes of Juvenile Delinquency

Biological Cause• Hereditary,• Hormonal Imbalance.

Social Cause• Peer Pressure,• Vicious Vicinity,• Severe Competition (Rat Race),• Broken Family.

Others• Individual choice,• Situational,• Easy access to resources like

pornography, drug etc.

5. “Fixing” Juvenile Delinquency

Juvenile delinquency is not a problemthat can ‘fixed’ with one stiffpunishment. It is formed by a series ofinterpretations that juveniles make of theirenvironment, their surroundings.

6. Juvenile Justice Act

The Juvenile Justice Act refers to twocategories of children — children whohave committed offences, or ‘children inconflict with the law’, and runaways,orphans and beggars who are classifiedas ‘children in need of care andprotection’.

In Maharashtra there are 46observation homes that cater to over 9,000-10,000 children from both categories.These homes are run independently by theState Department for Women and Child

Welfare, or in collaboration with voluntaryorganisations.

The Juvenile Justice Act hasestablished two bodies - the Child WelfareCommittee (CWC) to specifically addressthe needs of ‘children in need of care andprotection’ and the Juvenile Justice Boardto look into matters concerning ‘childrenin conflict with the law’.

In the case of ‘children in conflictwith the law’, the Act mandates that afterbeing apprehended the child must bebrought before the Juvenile Justice Board(JJB) within 24 hours, or a metropolitancourt that may be holding charge of theJJB.

Children who are detained inobservation homes are from typically poorfamilies; they have had few opportunitiesto attend regular school. They havealready experienced a great deal ofmarginalisation in their lives. Many havefaced abuse and exploitation; some havebeen severely neglected by their parentscausing them to leave their families andresort to crime.

Therefore, when these children arebrought to the observation home they arein immediate need of care and guidance.

Creating a Facilitative PhysicalAmbience

The current structures where thesechildren stay are highly insufficient.As there is lack of reform plans, thedelinquents tend to return to crimelife after the completion of theirpunishment. The existing reform


houses don’t help sufficiently toimprove the mind state of criminals,at times they end up degrading itfurther.Also, there is high shortage of staffsfor caretaking, medical needs, etc.The current reform buildings areunmaintained and the livingconditions there are dingy. Manybuildings are just old prisonsconverted to reform houses withoutany dedicated structures to specialneeds of juveniles. Many of themare risky and insufficientlymaintained. The living conditions areeven worst. Over-crowding andcramped settings have generatednon-salubrious conditions leading toillness.The existing judging systems are alsoinadequate. Courts dates arecontinually pushed forward and casesare stretched for months. In spite offunds available there is no presentoutlook of people to give priority tofast proceedings of children.To overcome these shortcomings anew model could be proposed asbelow, to create new attitude towardsincarceration of delinquents.

Strategies for RedefiningIncarceration

The structure should be designedsuch that it has maximum of spacefor children movement and less ofspaces that keep confined themunwillingly.

Segregation of juveniles should bedone on the basis of crime performedand not according to age. This wouldimply separating more vulnerablechildren from the less vulnerable. Theresult would be a better model, inwhich the spaces designed andgrouping pattern would be accordingto psychological conditions indifferent stages.

According to development oneshould be kept in more freeenvironment. This demands differentspaces that offer different quality,that gets better with behavioraldevelopment of an individual.

Ideally each stage to be located suchthat it can have a glimpse of nextbetter stage, and give motivation fordelinquents to improve.

There should be more of openinteractive spaces as more ofinteraction at same stage wouldreduce the superiority and minorityfeeling or bullying attitude ofdelinquents.

At this age a personal space is a needof psychological development of anindividual which must be catered to.

Also the volume of space should notbe more in height as the scale of user( children in age of 10-18) should betaken into consideration.

Spaces that allow learning in thedeveloped technological field shouldalso be incorporated. this wouldinclude schools, workshops,computer training centers.


Spaces that heal, used for prayers,yoga etc., should also be included.

As presenting juvenile before judicialauthority is an issue, a room withvideo conferencing to court could bedone should be incorporated. this willreduce time, duty of special officers,money spent in travelling andabsenteeism of juvenile delinquentsin court.

Enough numbers of toilets should beproposed and maintained for sanitaryand health purposes.

Therefore, functions required for thereformation model are listed below1. Administrative office (space for

Admission) Control Room Meeting Room Workstation Trustee’s Cabin Superintendent’s office Tech- space ( for video

conferencing to court) Waiting Room Toilet

2. Residential spaceStage 1 Cells Multipurpose Hall ToiletsStage 2 Dormitory1 Dormitory2 Multipurpose Hall

Toilets Common SpaceStage 3 Living Rooms Multi Purpose HallStage 4 Living rooms Multipurpose Hall Passage

3. Educational and Recreational space Hobby rooms Classrooms Library Technical Library (computer Assembly Area Toilets Playgrounds Workshops- Hardware Repairs,

Beauty Parlor, Tailor Workshop,Candle & Jewelry making.

Prayer Hall Exhibition space Staff office:

-Meeting room-Principle’s cabin-Teacher’s room

4. Visitor space Parent’s Meeting Space Parent’s Room Toilet

5. Medical and psychiatric complex Waiting area


Storage area Dispensary Operation Theater Psychologist’s clinic Nurse’s Room Toilet

6. Kitchen and Dining kitchen dining space (T.V. space) storage space

7. Storage Space Class rooms and workshop items Day to day needs (extra bed

sheets, pillows, tooth paste,sanitary products etc.)

Required medical supplies

Segregation Pattern Of JuvenileDelinquents

The juvenile delinquents can beclassified in two parts i.e., victimisers andnormals. Victimisers are aggressive andhostile. Therefore they possess threat toothers as well as self. Normal’s are theones who do not trouble other inmates.Hence there is a need for segregatingthem.

Stage 1: Alleviate

This is the first stage for victimiser.As they are hostile, there is need toprovide protection against self and eachother. In order to overcome this attitude,the activities proposed are breathingexercise and vegetable gardening. These

are energy consuming activities thatsuppresses hostile attitude.

Stage 2: Proactive and Interactive

This is first stage for normals andsecond stage for victimiser. It is a transitionstage in which the focus it to overcomeloneliness and fear by staying in largegroup. Activities proposed are flowergardening and breathing exercise.

Stage 3: Reform

Once delinquents accept the thoughtof being inside, it is necessary to mouldtheir life as that of normal girl. Activityproposed are schooling, workshop, kitchenactivity and prayer hall.


Stage 4: Reintegrate

After delinquents lead a life ofnormal girl inside the institution, it isimportant that she gets familiarize withthe world outside. In this stage the girlsare sent to affiliated education and traininginstitutions outside the campus. This givesthem confidence to face people out insociety.

Bibliography

Children in India. (Report). Retrievedfrom http://mospi.nic.in/ ospi_New/upload/Children_in_India_2012.pdf

Redefining Incarceration-anAmerican Sociological review.

Vadiraj, Sriranjini (2008, August 06).Juvenile justie in India a far cry.

Retrieved from Infochange http://southasia.oneworld.net/today sheadlines/juvenile-justie -in-india-a-far-cry/

http://duplicate.hubpages.com/hub/history-of-juvenile-delinquency

http://futureofchildren.org/publications/journals/articles/index.xml?journalid=5 5 & articleid= 311&sectionid=2064

http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/811.html

http://www.psych.uic.edu/index.php? option= com_content& view=article&id =333&ltemid=402

http://pgblazer.com/2010/09/juvenile-delinquency.html

http://www.casmumbai.org/ date:04/07/2012

http://articles.timesofindia. indiatimes.com/2009-02-06/delhi/28051635_juvenile-criminals-juvenile-crime-total-crime 08/07/2013


Poverty is one of the keypredicaments in the least developing anddeveloping countries since the liberationfrom their colonial masters. It is not onlyrampant for 4-5 decades only but studieshave shown that it is a social problem inall the widespread foremost humancivilizations on this blue planet. Historicalevidences and literature reveals a fact thatthe most prosperous countries includingtoday’s developed nations have beenwitnessing poverty so far in manifold form.In the British literature too, poets havegiven clear picturesque of urban povertyin the Britain with the inception of industrialrevolution.

Poverty continues to be a majormenace in urban areas, and alleviation ofurban poverty has been one of the mostcrucial challenges in urban policy planningcircles. ‘Poverty remains a global problemof huge proportions. Of the world’s6 billion people, 2.8 billion live on less thantwo dollars a day, and 1.2 billion on lessthan one dollar a day. Six infants of every100 do not see their first birthday, and 8do not survive to their fifth. Of those, who

Emerging Remedial Tools to Abridge the SocialDivide; Innovations and Applied Ideas in UrbanPoverty Alleviation: A Case Study of Chandigarh

Vivek Trivedi

do reach school age, 9 boys in 100, and 14girls, do not go to primary school’ (WorldDevelopment Report 2000-01: AttackingPoverty). ‘According to an estimate of theWorld Bank (2001), more than two thirdsof the world’s poor are in Asia (South Asia43.5 per cent, Sub Saharan Africa 24.3per cent, East Asia and Pacific 23.2 percent and others 9.0 per cent).

‘The scale of urban poverty in Indiais staggering. Current estimates suggestthat in the order of 80 million people livein urban settlements, constituting around30 per cent of the total population. Thesenumbers are expected to rise. If thepredictions are correct and the total urbanpopulation of India over the next 25 yearsincreases from 27 per cent of the totalpopulation to between 36 per cent and50 per cent, the number of urban poorcould end up in excess of 200 million. Thismeans that significant reductions inpoverty in India will only be achieved ifthe urban dimension is included in all policy,planning and development (DFID 2007).

Emerging Remedial Tools to Abridge the Social Divide 81

Poverty

‘Poverty, in a broad sense does notrefer only to deprivation with referenceto a minimum basket of goods andservices that are essential for existence,it a lso includes socially perceiveddeprivation with respect to individual basicneeds like shortfalls in health andeducation, inadequacy of shelter anddeprivation associated with rigidities insocial stratification’ (Economic Survey2000-01). The World Development Report2000/2001 has highlighted that ‘Povertyis not only defined as low income andconsumption but also low achievement ineducation, health, nutrition, and othersareas of human development. Poverty asa whole can be powerlessness andvoicelessness, and vulnerability and fear.The different dimensions of povertyinteract in different ways. WorldDevelopment Report, 2000-2001 showsthat ‘Special action is needed in poor areas,where a combination of assetdeprivations-including at the community orregional level-can diminish the materialprospects for poor people. Tackling thisrequires public support and a range ofinstitutional and participatory approaches.It requires providing social and economicinfrastructure in poor areas. It alsorequires broad based provision of basicurban services in slums, within an overallurban strategy’ (World Bank 2001).1. Defining Poverty

Defining poverty is not an easy chore;even if by an eminent researcher,policy maker and bureaucrat. Aperson who has better lived poverty

and pass through poverty trap canbetter describe it; which will reflectsocial, cultural aspect too in additionto economic factors. Who are Poorin the city? – cannot be adjudgedby assumption on the daily incomeamounting to few hundreds. Thereis no consensus on definition of urbanpoverty in India.

2. Kinds of PovertyPoverty may be largely pigeonholedinto- Absolute Relative

3. Nature of PovertyBased on the type of economy of thecountry and the society; Poverty canalso be undertaken into rural andurban poverty. Both rural and urbanpoverty are distinct and significant.It is not possible to consider theseinto same category even if lying infew similar areas as well. There areseparate methodology, strategy andprinciple in addressing the nature ofrural and urban poverty.

4. Classification of PovertyAs per UNDP, Poverty may also beclassified into the following threecategories: Poverty of Money Poverty of Basic Services Poverty of Power

5. Understanding on Urban Poverty‘Poverty has many dimensions, withmaterial deprivation (commonly


measured in terms of income orconsumption) one important element.But urban pover ty often has abroader meaning of cumulativedeprivation, characterized by squalidliving conditions; risks to life andhealth from poor sanitation, airpollution, crime and violence, trafficaccidents, and natural disasters; andthe breakdown of traditional familyand community safety nets.Moreover, income inequality isworsening in many urban areas,implying further exclusion of low-income groups from employmentopportunities, basic services, politicalrepresentation, legal and socialprotections, and amenities. Urbanpover ty entails a sense ofpowerlessness, and an individual andcommunity vulnerability, thatundermines human potential andsocial capital’ (World Bank 2000).Poverty manifests itself more harshly

in cities as urban poor are compelled tolive in squatter areas or slums in isolation.Though, it has been a matter of contentionthe urban poor generally earn higherincomes as compared to the rural poor butthey suffer greater degrees of poverty interms of overcrowding and poor accessto infrastructure and environment.Understanding the nature of poverty andits causes is one of the most complexaspects of discourse on PovertyAlleviation. Basically poverty is definedas a person’s lack of command overminimum basic requirements of like - food,clothing, housing, education, health etc.

Poverty is normally the result of poorincome inadequate supply of goods andservices to meet the basic needs of livingand inequality distribution income andwealth. Poverty is a familiar concept andhas existed in every society at all times.Poverty is multidimensional phenomenon.It is the result of high rates ofunemployment and underemployment andtherefore of lower income assets statusof the poor.

Gauzing Urban Poverty

A common method to measure thepoverty at any level is based on income orconsumption levels. A person is consideredpoor, if his/her income level falls belowsome minimum level necessary to meetthe basic needs. This minimum level isbasically called the ‘poverty line’. ThePlanning Commission and academicianshave defined urban poverty on the basisof different parameters. Urban poverty isdefined in terms of minimum calorieintake, at 2100 calories per capita per day.This is a convenient measure foridentifying urban poor for the purpose ofimplementing Urban Poverty AlleviationInitiatives (UPAIs).

Planning Commission on UrbanPoverty

The Planning Commission’s revisedmethodology of 1997 indicates an averagepoverty line for India at Rs. 353 per capitaper month. This equals to approximatelyRs. 21, 180 per household per annum’(www.indiatogether.org). The NationalSample Survey Organization (NSSO)


estimated that 22.15 per cent of thepopulation was below the poverty line in2004–2005, which came down from 51.3per cent in 1977–1978, and 26 per cent in2000. The criterion used was monthlyincome below Rs. 454.11 for urban areas.

Genesis of Urban PovertyAlleviation Programme

The union government of India hasstarted various schemes and programmesfor poor people since Independence andestablishment of Planning Commission.Several forms of loan subsidies wereannounced and provided to poor forincome generation activities, training linkedbank subsidies, housing/shelter schemes,ration food etc.

Implementation of Urban Povertyschemes in Chandigarh

In Chandigarh, the schemes for thewelfare of poor people were implementedby Chandigarh Administration undercentrally sponsored schemes of variousministries through social welfaredepartment. With the advent of MunicipalCorporation at Chandigarh, severalfunctions were delegated to corporationincluding implementation of schemes forpoor named Swarna Jayanti ShahariRozgar Yojana (SJSRY) in 1997.1. Urban Poverty Eradication

ProgrammeSJSRY was launched by theGovernment of India on 1.12.1997after subsuming the earlier threeschemes for Urban PovertyAlleviation, viz., Nehru Rozgar

Yojana (NRY), Urban Basic Servicesfor the Poor (UBSP), and PrimeMinister’s Integrated Urban PovertyEradication Programme (PMIUPEP)and is being implemented as perGovernment of India guidelines. Thekey objective of the scheme was toprovide gainful employment to theurban unemployed or underemployedthrough the sett ing up of self-employment ventures or provision ofwage employment. Further, theprogramme shall rely on creation ofcommunity structures for providingsocial sector inputs. The fundsposition of SJSRY i.e., unspentbalance of Rs. 77.70 lacs from NRY& UBSP has been transferred toSJSRY.

2. Urban Poverty AlleviationProgrammeInclusion of Poverty Reduction inEight global Millennium DevelopmentGoals (MDGs) has made interventionin having independent ministries,department, mechanism and channelsfor Urban Poverty AlleviationProgramme in the UN memberstates. It has possibly made forexpansion of urban povertyalleviation programme in structuredand scientific manner.

2.1 Establishment of UrbanPoverty Alleviation &Livelihood Cell- An UNDPand Government of IndiaExperience under NationalStrategy for Urban Poor(NSUP)- a Pilot Project


Under UNDP and MOHUPA jointpilot project on National Strategy forUrban Poor (NSUP); 13 JNNURM citieswere chosen on population criteria i.e.,1 million plus for establishing a networkof Urban Poverty Alleviation & LivelihoodCell at municipalities after having done anUrban Poverty Reduction Strategy(UPRS) of 13 selected cities. MunicipalCorporation Chandigarh on therecommendation of ChandigarhAdministration was chosen by Ministry ofHousing & Urban Poverty Alleviation forthe establishment of UPA&L Cell afterUPRS done by PRIA, a NGO.

Experts and specialists on SocialDevelopment, Livelihood, M & E, Finance,and Project Management were selectedby the National Project team for MunicipalCorporation Chandigarh in November2007. The team was trained on UrbanPoverty Alleviation issues, models andmethodologies by experts fromKudumbshree, MEPMA, NIUA onMicro-credit, Livelihood, Placement linkedskill building, community development,SHGs etc., at YASHADA Pune in March2008.

The cell in its pilot project phase maderemarkable and exceptional role instrengthening the scheme on urbanpoverty alleviation including selfemployment, livelihood linked skill training,community development network. Theentire manoeuvre of pro-poor schemeimplementation was up graded with theintroduction of professional competencein planning, resource mapping, surveying,supervising, convergence, network

building, developing implementationframework, monitoring and evaluation,documentation, capacity building of projectpartners, NGOs, line departments andULB officials by the UPA&L Cell.

The cell dwell up-on network buildingwith Lead Bank, Department SocialWelfare, Government Skill TrainingInstitutions, NGOs, educational institutionsfor bring concerted efforts on making theprogramme in reaching the targetedcommunity. Efforts were taken instandardizing the selection procedure fordevelopment partners in the programme,norms for subsidy linked ventures, moreeffective mode and mechanism in subsidyrelease, joint physical verification andrecovery drives using women communitynetwork, standard curriculum, resource-tool kit, travelling allowance-cum-stipend,reading material, certification andaccredited course, capacity building usingtraining in health, education, financialinclusion etc., during the two years pilotproject.

The pilot project has made clear thatprofessional approach is essential to allintents and purposes at ULB level inimplementing pro-poor programme.

2.2 Integration of UNDP-GOIPilot Project on UPA intoState Urban PovertyAlleviation Cell atChandigarhIn May, 2010, the UrbanPoverty Alleviation &Livelihood Cell was integratedinto State Urban PovertyAlleviation Cell SJSRY as per


revised guidelines by Secretary,Local Government, ChandigarhAdministrat ion on therecommendation of NationalProject Coordinator UNDP andJoint Secretary MOHUPA.

This was one of the exceptionalsteps taken in the strengtheningof poverty alleviationprogramme in the northernregion.

Chart 1Genesis of Urban Poverty Alleviation Programme

Chart 2Picture showing process implementation of Urban Poverty Alleviation Programme


Picture 3Picture showing programmatic areas by Urban Poverty Alleviation Cell

2.3 Organogram of State UPA Cell

Secretary Local Government (SLG) IAS

Municipal Commissioner (IAS)

Project Director (PCS)

Programme Cell Account Branch

Social Development Officer (SDO) Chief Account Officer (CAO)

1. Livelihood Officer 1 Project Officer (PO)2. Community Organizers 2. Assistant Project Officer (APO)3. Assistant Community Organizers

Chart 4Administrative Structure of Urban Poverty Alleviation Programme


2.4 Overview & Prevalence ofUrban Poverty in ChandigarhAlthough, Chandigarh city hasthe highest per capita incomein the country, yet, a section ofpopulation largely those living inslum areas are relatively verypoor. According to the PlanningCommission estimates, 5.75 percent of the people in Chandigarhwere below poverty line in 1999-2000. However, according tothe latest figures, the populationbelow the poverty line in the cityin 2004-05 was 67000 persons(7.1 per cent) based on UniformRecall Period and 36000persons (3.8 per cent of theurban population) based onMixed Recall Period.

There is confusion on the data onurban poverty in Chandigarh. Varioussources indicate different levels of ratioof poverty. The NSSO data shows that6.2 per cent of the population ofChandigarh in 2004-05 was below povertyline. A survey conducted in 2008 showsthat there were 8717 BPL families inChandigarh and majority of these BPLfamilies were staying in unauthorizedcolonies (63 per cent), rehabilitatedcolonies (29 per cent) and rural areas (8per cent). The City Development PlanChandigarh shows 12.9 per centpopulation (94484 persons) below povertyline in the year 2000. On the basis of thesediverse versions it can easily be concludedthat city despite having strong economicbase has considerable number of people

below poverty line. The poverty seemsto be concentrated in slums areas identifiedby the Administration for BiometricSurvey of slum dwellers for providinghousing benefits under BSUP ofJNNURM.

2.5 Addressing UPA Scheme andProgramme Implementationin ChandigarhState Urban Poverty Alleviationat Municipal CorporationChandigarh has a mandate andentrusted by Ministry ofHousing & Urban PovertyAlleviation to implementSwarna Jayanti Shahari RozgarYojana (SJSRY), a livelihoodgeneration programme forurban poor at Chandigarh.Urban Poverty Alleviation hasbeen addressed by promotingmicro-enterprise development,employment and livelihoodlinked skilled, women based selfhelp group, communitydevelopment society,community and womenempowerment, capacitybuilding of community network.


2.5.1 Urban Self EmploymentProgramme (USEP)This component of thescheme will focus onproviding assistance toindividual urban poorbeneficiaries for settingup gainful selfemployment ventures.The programme shalltarget the urban poor,defined as those livingbelow the urban povertyline. The programme willdevote special attentionto women, personsbelonging to SCs/STs,disabled persons andother such categories.The details of thecomponent are asfollowing:

There are wide range of activities forwhich beneficiaries have taken credit frombanks with subsidy under SJSRY viz.,Karyana Shop, Maniari work, motor/cyclerepair, electric and electronic repair,retailing of garments, glass work, furniture,LPG auto, Loading Auto, Tailoring shop,Vegetable vending, Band Party, Drycleaning, Welding, Grinder Buffingmachine, Tea stall, Fruit & Juice work,Folding Gates & Grills, Steel utensils,Painter work, Plastic work, Footwearshop, Crockery work, DJ work, Stove &Gas Repair, Shuttering, Printing work,Cosmetic work, Book Binding, T.V. Repair,Beauty Parlour, Bardana work, PowerTool Repair, Duplicate key machine,Carpenter, Sales in Building material,Plastic Moulding, Expansion of Pan Shopetc., LPG Auto & Loading Autos to BPLbeneficiaries were also sponsored underUSEP.

Maximum unit project cost Rs. 2,00,000/-

Maximum allowable subsidy 25 per cent of the Project Cost subject

to a maximum of Rs. 50,000/-

Beneficiary’s contribution 5 per cent of the Project Cost as

Margin money

Collateral guarantee No collateral guarantee required


2.5.2 Urban Women SelfHelp Programme(UWSP)This scheme isdist inguished by thespecial incentiveextended to urban poorwomen who decide to setup self employmentventures in a group asopposed to individualeffort. Groups of urbanpoor women shall take upan economic activitysuited to their skill,training, aptitude and localconditions. Besidesgeneration of income, thisgroup strategy shall striveto empower the urbanpoor women by makingthem independent as alsoproviding a facilitatingatmosphere for selfemployment.

To be eligible for subsidy under thisscheme, the UWSP group shall consist ofat least 5 urban poor women. Beforestarting income generating activity thegroup members must get to know eachother well, understand the group strategy,and also recognize the strength and thepotential of each member of the group.The group will also select its own activity.

For setting up group enterprises, theUWSP group shall be entitled to a subsidyof Rs. 3,00,000/- or 35 per cent of thecost of Project or Rs. 60,000/- per memberof the group, whichever is less. The

balance amount will be made available tothe group inform of Bank Loan.

2.5.3 Skill TrainingE m p l o y m e n tPromotion amongstUrban Poor (STEP-UP)This component willfocus on skill formation ofthe urban poor toenhance their capacityfor being self employedas well as better salariedemployment. Skilltraining to be linked toCertification andpreferably be on PublicPrivate Partnership(PPP) mode with theinvolvement of reputedInstitutions.

The average unit cost allowed fortraining will be Rs. 10,000/- per trainee,including material cost, trainer’s fees, toolkit cost, other miscellaneous expenses tobe incurred by the training institution andmonthly stipend to be paid to the trainee.The size of the training class may not bemore than 40. The total training periodfor Skill up gradation can be up to 6months. Wherever feasible, tool kits mayalso be provided to trainees who completethe training satisfactorily. The cost of toolkit has been included in the averagetraining cost of Rs. 10,000/- per capita.

Focus will be on skills of high valuefor which there is market demand. Skillsmay be differentiated in categories on thebasis of entry level qualifications.


Matriculate pass candidates can beprovided technical vocational training ofhigh standard whereas 8th pass can beprovided specially designed trainingrequiring less technical knowledge.Persons below 8th pass can be providedspecially designed training which does notgenerally require technical skills.

2.5.4 Urban CommunityDevelopment Network(UCDN)SJSRY shall rest on afoundation of communityempowerment. Ratherthan relying on thetraditional method of topdown implementation, thisprogramme shall rely onestablishing andpromoting communityorganizations andstructures to providesupporting and facilitatingmechanism for localdevelopment. Thecommunity basedorganization includesNeighbourhood Groups(NHGs), NeighbourhoodCommittees (NHCs) andCommunity DevelopmentSociety (CDS). TheCDSs shall be the focalpoint for purposes ofidentification ofbeneficiaries; preparationof applications,monitoring of recovery,and generally providing

whatever other support isnecessary to theprogramme. The CDDSswill also identify viableprojects suitable for thatparticular area.

Funds will be earmarked separatelyunder UCDN component, for thestrengthening of the Communitystructures, which will be utilized formeeting the expenditures on holding ofconferences/ workshops/ trainingprogrammes and other stakeholders,meetings of the CDS, expenditure onmiscellaneous daily activities of the CDSand any other activity/ innovative projectsleading to community empowerment aswell as benefit to the local urban poorcommunity.

2.6 Funding PatternGovernment of India provides75 per cent financial assistancefor implementation of thisscheme and 25 per cent stateshare is contributed byChandigarh Administration,Union Territory, Chandigarh.

Central Share75%

State Share25%

0%0%

Funding Pattern


2.7 Coverage of Urban PovertyAlleviation in ChandigarhUrban Poor living in Slums,rehabilitated sites, sectors andvillages under MunicipalCorporation in Chandigarh.

2.8 Annual Framework

To make urban povertyalleviation programme fullyfunctional; an annual keyframework has been introducedin order to ensure effectiveimplementation there byachieving satisfactoryperformance, which further willcontribute in accomplishingcommutative target achievement.

2.9 Limitations, barriers andchallenges in implementingUPA

The following barriers, limitations andchallenges have been encountered duringimplementation of the urban povertyalleviation programme :

Heterogeneous nature of population .

Lacking faith and social bondingamong community.

Conflict between existing byelawsand city plan w.r.t., ULBs and policiesof central government eg., Streetvending, home based livelihoodventures etc.,

Lacking support from banks, poor’sare mostly considered as un-bankable.

Lacking political will and non-understanding on urban povertyissues among political class/officials .

Lacking expert and specialistsofficials and their capacity buildingin ULBs.

2.10 Impediments/ prerequisitein implementing UPA.To make poverty alleviationprogramme successful in thespir it; it was intended,structured efforts are requiredas well by state and local leveladministrative machinery tomake its visibility. The followingare pre-requisite to implementurban poverty alleviationprogramme. Clear vision Dedicated approach and

cadre Understanding of the

issue Authentic surveys

3 Launch of National Urban Livelihood Mission

The review of SJSRY and pastinadequacy has made government tore-think and to launch the povertyalleviation programme with high levelof commitment in mission modeapproach at par with other national


missions after revised 2009 SJSRYguidelines in September 2013. Themission is encompassing followingsub components: Social Mobilization &

Institutional Development(SM&ID)

Employment linked SkillTraining & Promotion (EST&P)

Self Employment Programme(SEP)

Shelter for Urban Homeless(SUH)

Street Vendor Policy

Innovations in Urban PovertyAlleviation Programme

Urban Pover ty Alleviation iscommitted to innovations and new ideasin the implementation of programme in thesub components ranging from field levelto institutional level; which accounts forstrengthening mechanism. Innovationswere carried out in skill training, SHGs,empowerment and communitydevelopment.1. G-G led initiatives

The cell has linked employment skilltraining programme to governmentskill training institutions viz. ,Government Institute of TechnicalTraining for Women (GITIW),National Institute of Electronic andInformation Technology (NIELIT),Society for Promotion of InformationTechnology in Chandigarh (SPIC),Commonwealth Youth Programme(CYP), Government Medical Collegeand Hospital (GMMCH), North IndiaTechnical Consultancy Organization(NITCON) etc. The idea is to linkand converge with government skilltraining institutions to Urban PovertyAlleviation programme and utilizegovernment available resources andits certification credibility.

2. PPP innovations

Public Private Partnership (PPP)model has also been piloted withcredible corporate and industrialhouses in employment skill trainingprogramme for making learners fitand competent in the current markettrends. VLCC Wellness in beautyand health, NIIT Yuva Jyoti, D&N


Mass Media Institute, Famina etc.,has started placement and ensureemployment in the market in the tri-city. The training under this PPPapproach has set a standard in theskill training and placement; it hasalso made other skill training partnersto reflect on these lines includinggovernment institutions as well.

3. MainstreamingUrban Pover ty Alleviation hasswitched over entire slum andrehabilitated colonies basedvocational training programmes toinstitutional based employment linkedhigh end skill training programme.The idea behind such initiative is tomainstream them with other learnersso that they can have the chance tointeract and observe communicationpattern, clothing sense, etiquettes,gesture, receptive skills. It has initiallyshowed tepid response but successrate has increased to more than 85per cent over the period with theintroduction of stipend-cum-travelassistance. It has not only broadenedtheir horizon, thinking but has madethem committed to compete withmainstreamed society to reach at athreshold level in setting up aprogressive career in addition to life skills.

4. Women led CommunityDevelopment InitiativesWomen as Change Agent in BuildingLeadership and bringing change intheir Community are the sole axiomof this participative communitydevelopment model. This initiative

hovers around poor women who werea part of socio-economicdiscrimination by their family andcommunity. It has given anopportunity to poor women to expresstheir inner self, out look towardscommunity development processes.The axis of socio-economicdevelopment is around women;therefore, women are kept as focalpoint of urban communitydevelopment initiative. Many poorwomen are out of race in accessingbasic services and benefits out ofgovernment welfare schemes due tolack of awareness, information andknowledge. Illiteracy, genderdiscrimination and domestic violenceare the main reason behind theirbackwardness.CDS proved to be beneficial initiative

as it has given poor women a voice, a roleand a platform to share her growth anddevelopment path. It has not only assistedindividually but also in group and a stepahead in community organization. A fullarrangement has been engraved so thatthese can work efficiently in thecommunity and become Catalyst ofChange.

4.1 Abridging Social DivideWomen led communitydevelopment initiatives amongpoor community in variousslums and rehabilitated colonieshave made a remarkabledevelopment in abridging thesocial divide. It has given theman opportunity to have human


interaction in the mainstreamedsociety in securing skills,livelihood and partnering in theprocess of communitydevelopment. A two waydialogue has been initiated withthe community on participatoryplanning, decision making,problem- solution identification,bottom up communication etc.This initiative under UrbanCommunity DevelopmentNetwork has almost reducedand abridged the social divide.

4.2 Paving Women LeadershipBuildingThe initiative has paved a pathfor the urban poor women inbuilding leadership in thecommunity there by taking upthe local issues and carrying outthe community survey, recoverydrive with banks, campaigningon social issues, spreadingawareness and creatingsensitization. The womengroups have continuously beenproviding support to implementthe centrally sponsored schememeant for urban poor. It has not

only showcased a challenge toNon Government Organizationworking in their community buthas also proved to be ainnovative communitydevelopment model ofVolunteering among urban poorwomen.

4.3 Financial Inclusion &AADHAR-UIDAI LinkageThe cell has planned to introducefinancial inclusion andAADHAR enrolment to CDSfunctionaries so as to link bio-metrics identification in placeand for future financialtransaction if takes place.UIDAI Chandigarh has assistedCDS by providing them trainingin a joint orientation programmefor CDS functionariesorganized by Department SocialWelfare and State UPA Cell. Ithas also been decided to transacthonorarium in their AADHARlinked bank accounts to maintainmore transparency. The drivefor opening no frill account hasbeen taken up with CanaraBank Micro Finance Branch.All the CDS functionaries andmembers have been operatingtheir account with fullconfidence.

Urban Poverty Alleviation; aGovernment Social Responsibility(GSR) at par with CSR

The Urban Poverty Alleviation Cellis unswerving to Social Responsibility at


par with Corporate Social Responsibility(CSR); even if our cell don’t comply CSRbut the cell has shown a path leading tovolunteerism in urban poor community aswell there by being a Governmentdepartment and introduced a newterminology i.e., Government SocialResponsibility (GSR).

Out-come and Impact of UPAImplementation

The presence of dedicatedmachinery on urban poverty alleviation hasmade possible the major outcome andimpact in the community; which are asfollows Improvement in delivery time of

servicesThis initiative has reduced the timetaken and improved in the deliveryof services envisaged under SJSRYin the poor community living in slumsand rehabs. The leadershipdevelopment of these povertystricken women has not only built theconfidence of women living in slumsbut it has also given them anopportunity to be on the leadershippath to overcome her backwardnessalong with the other communitywomen. These women are involvedin local decision making, monitoringand evaluation of field project runningin their vicinity and social auditingtoo.

Better beneficiaries’ feedbackAll the beneficiaries of this initiativehas provided a positive feedback bynot only being a part of the initiative

since its inception when there wasno formal monetary incentive buttoday these women are not onlybuilding their capacity but have alsoshown a path to other strugglingwomen.

Improvement in measurable indicatorsGradually, the outcomes in terms ofmeasurable indicators have shown aprogress. The work assigned to theminitially, has been increased inexponential pattern, in identificationof real beneficiaries, physicalverification of beneficiaries, recoveryof loan cases, mobilization ofcampaigns, activism etc., in theirfield.Implementation of Urban Community

Development Network component ofSJSRY has given a wide horizon to theurban poor women in developing aleadership model which accounts fordealing with Poverty of Power; which isother than Poverty of Money and BasicServices. One can easily observe afterhaving interaction with CDS thatTransformation, Social Change andCommunity Empowerment has takenplace in the pockets where economicallybackward lives. Approx. 160 urban poorwomen are directly part of the CommunityDevelopment Societies; who are takingthe whole benefits of the scheme to thebottom line. It is proved to be a bottom upapproach, local planning and decisionmaking model. The traits which these poorwomen have acquired over the years aresocial & community leadership,volunteerism and advocacy. Hundreds andthousands of needy poor persons were


identified by this network of CDS in thecity. Benefits were given to those too whodo not have BPL cards but are living underpathetic conditions and vulnerableconditions. Recently, in a workshop underNational Rural Health Mission, MissionDirector after realizing the importance ofthis network said that Department Healthcan extend poor free treatment benefitsto those recommended by this network. Simplified procedures

Gradually, the initiative started withmeagre resources has arisen not onlyvertically but with a horizontalexpansion too. With this initiative,several simplified procedures havebeen introduced by developing amechanism to penetrate the poorcommunity with the prevailingshortage in the human resources.Various monitoring and evaluation,documentation, feedback mechanismhas been devised.

Improvement in life style in thefamilyA notable improvement has beenobserved among poor personassociated with poverty alleviationprogramme under skill building,livelihood venture and employment,community development.

Livelihood generationUrban Poverty AlleviationProgramme has opened gate way andprovided manifold opportunity byway of subsidy linked micro-credit,wage employment linked skill buildingfor the first time in the history of

poverty alleviation programme. Anaverage salary of Rs. 6400.00 andhighest salary of Rs. 12000.00 PMhas been recorded with an averageplacement of 35-40 per cent onrecord. The placement are given incorporate and industrial houses viz.,Pantaloon, Nakshatra, Dominos,PIZZAHUT, TBCS, Competent inthe tri-city.

Holistic development

The components of the urbanpoverty alleviation programme onself help group (SHG), skilldevelopment, community networkbuilding and micro entrepreneurshipdevelopment has made holisticdevelopment to the beneficiariesassociated. It has given them achance to start a livelihood generationactivity from street vending to shopbased venture, salary basedemployment in industry andcorporate houses, given selfconfidence and developedpersonality of the poor personassociated with the programmedirectly or indirectly.

Highlights, dimensions and positivefeatures of UPA

While implementing schemes onurban poverty over the years, severaloutcomes has become positive highlightsand features of the urban povertyalleviation cell, as follows -


Transparency and stakeholderparticipation

Innovativeness of the initiative andits replicability

Increased efficiency of outputs /processes and effectiveness ofoutcomes

Display of leadership/ team work

Sustainability

Lessons learned from UrbanPoverty Alleviation Cell

There are certainly few lessons andlearning from the practices underimplementation of urban povertyalleviation; which may be useful for furtherreplication and scaling at large level are : Evolution of structured community

based women network Evolved leadership and managerial

skills among community networks Organizational strengthening at

community level Support mechanism to implement

SJSRY and other schemes Bottom of the pyramid in community

based leadership Mainstreaming of People Living with

HIV in women based self help groups Employment and placement linked

skill development training

Scope of Replication in strengtheningand developing mechanism forsuccessfully implementing UPA

The lesson learned from theinnovative practices and approaches underUrban Poverty Alleviation Cell isorganizational establishment, itsstrengthening, mechanism building,strengthening community network,bringing convergence and setting up backward and forward linkages; overallinstitutional development in urban povertyalleviation. The cell was established whenstates were not having any specializedmachinery on implementing urban povertyalleviation programme except few southIndian states viz. Kerala, Andhra Pradeshetc.; which have showed the path tocentral government as well in framingnational policy on poverty alleviation. Ithas become a best practice model in itselfbeyond its evolved other several bestpractices in SHGs, subsidy linked micro-loaning, community network andcommunity leadership etc.

It may be an imperative reproductionand sculpt for other north Indian statesviz., Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana,Jammu & Kashmir, Rajasthan,Uttarakhand etc where such practices arestill to come-up in developing a mechanismfor addressing poverty alleviationprogramme up to the desired expectations.

Recognition/Awards/Honours

Urban Poverty Alleviation Cell sawFY 2012-14 as golden year since itsinception year 2007; as the cell has beenwidely appreciated by several institutionsand have received awards and honours.The practices of the cell are recognizedas best practices and has been taught to


Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh,Orissa, Karnataka officials andinternational delegates from KennedySchool of Governance (Harvard), LatinAmerican Countries including Cuba, Brazil,Argentina, Mexico, USA, UK, Canada,Afghanistan, South Korea, Thailand etc.

The following awards and recognitionwere conferred to the State UPA Cell

State Award (Commendation) - 2014to Programme Head, SocialDevelopment Officer on the 65thRepublic Day on 26th Jan, 2014 formeritorious services undertaken inurban poverty alleviation by theChandigarh Administration.

43rd HUDCO Best Practice Awardto Improve the Living Environment2012-13 for three best practices bythe Secretary, Ministry of Housing& Urban Poverty Alleviation,Government of India.

Mrs. Samida Begum, President,Community Development Society,Maulijagran awarded forcommendable community work on15th Aug 2012 by Mayor Chandigarh.

Mrs. Maimuna Yasmeen,Community Organizer awarded forexecuting UCDN component in spiriton 15th Aug 2012 by MayorChandigarh.

Mrs. Gulshan, President CDs Sec-25 awarded for commendablecommunity work on 15th Aug 2013by Mayor Chandigarh.

Mrs. Meena, President, CDSColony-4 awarded for commendablecommunity work on 15th Aug 2013by Mayor Chandigarh.

Scope of further Strengthening inbringing convergence to all theschemes, programmes targeted tourban poor

Urban Poverty Alleviation Cell hasemerged when such machinery werenon-existent in the entire northern region;there was nothing to follow and replicate.The cell has evolved in its present statureusing principles, models, approaches andprofessional ethics of Social WorkProfession, Social Welfare Administration,Social & Public Policy, CommunityOrganization, Group & Case Work.Several experiments using structuredplanning, research methodology tools &techniques were used in expanding theparaphernalia of urban poverty alleviationprogramme. Principle of POSDCORB inPublic Administration was applied inestablishing and strengthening of UrbanPoverty Alleviation Cell. Professional skillswere quiet useful in positioning andcreating a space among other linedepartments of Chandigarh Administrationand other departments of ULB.

Even if the cell has made localachievements and contributed inaccomplishment of national target andhave become a partner in bringing socialchange and up-gradation in the life styleof poor people.

There is vast scope of fur therenhancement and expansion of UrbanPoverty Alleviation Cell by bringing insynchronized and rhythmic convergence.


The various services viz., housing, health,education, basic services to daily wagers,construction workers, shelter less, orphansencompassing urban poor pertaining topoor in the city must come under one focalpoint of State Urban Poverty AlleviationCell with more openness in implementationby primary department with more self-sufficiency along with a regulation inplanning and meeting out the target of thestate in the delivery of services tocommonly targeted urban poor. It willreduce level of intolerance, dissatisfactionand bigotry among poor community asservice delivery will be by only onespecialized body at a common window.

Conclusion

In the epoch of inclusive growth leddevelopment, State Urban PovertyAlleviation Cell at Municipal CorporationChandigarh has shown a leading way inthe area of urban poverty alleviationprogramme and proved its mettle & statureamong the contemporaries but still a longway to go as poor continue to congregatethe city in search of livelihood andemployment. Supplementary resourcesand sturdy institutional mechanism isrequired to scale up the urban povertyalleviation programme in Chandigarh andnew dimension has to be evolved tounderstand the core of the poverty.

ReferencesReports

Economic Survey (2000-01), PovertyAlleviation, Government of Punjab,Chandigarh.

World Bank. (2000). Cities inTransition: World Bank Urban

and Local Government Strategy.Washington DC : World Bank.

World Bank. (2001). WorldDevelopment Report 2000/2001:Attacking Poverty. New York:Oxford University Press.

World Development Report (2000-01), Attacking Poverty : WorldBank: Washington DC

State Urban Poverty Alleviation Cell,Chandigarh. (2011-12). Empoweringand Building Capacity ofEconomically WeakerCommunities: Chandigarh.

State Urban Poverty Alleviation Cell,Chandigarh (2012-13). Empoweringand Building Capacity ofEconomically WeakerCommunities: Chandigarh.

HUDCO Chair, CRRID (2013).Planning for the Urban Poor inthe North Western India: EmergingPolicies, Practices and Issues : ACase Study of Chandigarh:Chandigarh

Websites

India Urban Portal, Best PracticesRetrieved from. (http://www. indiaurbanportal.in/Best Practices Result.aspx?Type=4)

Guidelines

Swarna Jayanti Shahari RozgarYojana (SJSRY) Retrievedfrom.http:/ /mhupa .gov. in/pdf/guidelines-scheme/urbanemp-pova llev/Swar na%20Jayant i /ReGuidelinesSJSRY.pdf


Historical towns are well known forits historical characteristics it may be dueto its origin, socio-cultural values,architectural features etc. And the richheritage of these historical towns alsoreflects their values of the past. Historicaltowns are also found in the hilly areaswhich are known as hill towns which havea unique identity due to its geographicalconditions.Himachal Pradesh is wellknown for its historical values in whichsome hill towns like Shimla, Kullu, Kinnaur,Kangra, and Chamba etc., have ahistorical character. But, with the passageof time the historical towns and theirvalues loses their glory and identity due tonumber of reasons. Dilapidated urbanfabric, unplanned growth, insensitive newdevelopment, encroachments and a webof electric wires are constant maladies thatplague the historic core of majority ofIndian cities. That’s why conservationplans plays an important role to preserveand conserve those historical values. Thispaper focuses on the various issues relatedto change in land use, congested built upareas, encroachment, congested streets inthe town and demolition of old buildings in

Conservation of Chamba: Issues and Strategies

Pooja Guleria

the Chamba town and also provide somestrategies to those issues.

CHAMBA : A Historic Hill Town

Chamba, seat of erstwhile state ofChamba, is an important districtheadquarter, administrative and servicecenter, on liking of king sahil Verman’sdaughter Champavati, the present site oftown on the terrace overlooking RaviRiver was selected as capital of Chambastate. Subsequently, the town was foundedaround 930 A.D. From that time 67 kingshave ruled over Chamba until it finallymerged with the Indian union in April 1948,although Chamba was under Britishsuzerainty from 1846. The town namedas Chamba due to the daughter name ofking sahil Verman. Another legend is thatit might have derived its name from theChamba trees which are found in andaround the town. Chamba town, the capitalof a culturally rich ancient hill state hasbeen endowed with a number ofmonuments of varying antiquity. Theselandmarks, consisting of temples thosehave architectural and religious

Conservation of Chamba: Issues and Strategies 101

significances, palaces, stylish buildings ofBritishers with high aesthetical value andbeautiful green spaces known Chowganhave emerged through a long history witha thoughtful attempt of far sighted rulersof the erstwhile Chamba state. Growth ofthe old town took place on ancient lineswith a wide spread bazaar and narrowstreets or lanes. The town divided in tovarious areas named after their historicalvalues like Kashmiri Mohalla wasestablished purely for muslin populationwho used to do craftsmanship as theiroccupation at that time. Chamba, the townof culturally rich ancient hill state has beenendowed with a number of monumentslike Gandhi Gate, Rang Mahal of varyingantiquity which are losing their importancein the recent years due to present crisis ofconsumerism and urbanization forces. Onthis vital heritage is a matter of seriousconcern and to look forward to pave wayfor its restoration and preservation forcoming generations and posterity.

Need for the Study

1. Change in land use at someplaces in the Chamba town

The old town has ancient characterand in the recent years the changein land use has taken place fromresidential to commercial at someplaces like Chowgan, Sapri bazaar,Jansali bazaar, which put extrapressure in the core area of the town.

2. Historical monuments andtemples are losing their importance

The town has various importantmonuments and temples which are

now a day’s not as important as theywere previously like Gandhi Gate,Laxmi Narain Temple, Sita Ramtemple, Chamunda temple, Sui matatemple, Champavati temple are someof the examples which are losingtheir glory in the recent years.

3. Demolition of old buildings in theChamba town

The people in order to fulfill theirneeds are demolishing the olderbuildings and constructing them withthe modern style architectureespecially buildings of British timeperiod, Zenana palace, ChandiMahal etc., which shows that thereis a lack of implementation ofbuilding by laws and regulations.

4. Congested streets in the town

The present modes of traffic and lifestyle pose a great problem for thesurvival of old town historic urbanfabric. Like Halwai gali, Hathnalagali, Chowgan Street, which is only1.00 meter to 2.50 meter, widenedwhich becomes the cause ofcongestion in the core areas.

5. Derelict of conservationperspective in development planof Chamba

Development plan Chamba: 2021,has not given much more importanceto the conservation of heritage ofChamba and no important measureshave been provided to preserve theheritage. Also, no separatedevelopmental controls have beengiven for the town.


Land Use Distribution

The land use of Chamba can be sub-divided into two parts as per thephysiographic features of the area. Theriver Ravi has divided the town into twomajor parts. The eastern part has furtherbeen divided into two parts by river Sal.The old Chamba Town which is locatedat the confluence of Ravi and Sal Riverhas a natural growth trend towards east.Height increases as one move from Westto East. The upper part is enclosed bymountain and forests infected by variousriver lets/nallah. The Chamba area hasseries of terraces and moderate slopesrunning parallel to river Ravi. The towngrew around nucleus of LakshamiNarayan temple complex. Initially, thetown was spread towards the east ofChaugan on the upper terrace. The townspread amidst green slopes and Chauganparallel to it in the west, along with riverRavi down below which provided itfascinating cradle for planning anddevelopment of balanced land use pattern.In between Chaugan and residential areas,public and semi-public uses including,education, health and administrationflourished. The bus stand came intoexistence just at the entrance point of thetown on the southern side. Similarly, thebazaars grew and flourished in betweenChaugan and Mohallas. Presently, thetown is however, expanding along themajor transportation lines, particularly thePathankot-Chamba- Bharmaur StateHighway. In 2001, the total area of theChamba is 455 hectare in which 109.27hectare land come under urban use andrest of the land come under forest and

rivers or water bodies. The maximum landcomes under residential area 55.28 hectarewhich covers the 50 per cent of the totalurban area. Public and semi public covers19.25 hectare land whereas 26.21 hectareland come under traffic and transportationin which includes the major roads, localroads as well as lanes interlinking variousareas of the town. There is a continuousflow of Ravi and Sal River along the townand maximum settlement of Chambacome along these two rivers. Theorganized parks and open spaces are inform of five Chowgan in the main townand police ground/Stadium which occupiesan area of 3.92 hectares which is 4 percent of the urban area. In 2011, the totalarea of the Chamba is 455 hectare inwhich 141.56 hectare land come underurban use and rest of the land come underforest and rivers or water bodies. Themaximum land of the town comes underresidential use which is 78.55 hectarewhich covers the 56 per cent of the totalurban area. Public and semi public covers28.95 hectare land. Whereas 23.29hectare land come under traffic andtransportation in which includes the majorroads, local roads as well as lanesinterlinking various areas of the town. Theorganized parks and open spaces are inform of five Chowgan in the main townand police ground/Stadium which occupiesan area of 4.17 hectares which is 4 percent of the urban area. There is a 38.90hectare of urban area increased from lastdecade which shows the haphazardgrowth of the town.

In the recent years there is a changein land use has taken place from


residential to commercial. In the year of2001 the total commercial area of the townis 1.52 hectare and now in 2012 it is 2.98hectare and maximum expand towards theresidential area. A lot of new constructionhas been taken place along Ravi and SalRiver in recent years which is the resultof uncontrolled development. TheContinuous expand of the urban settlementaffects the heritage area and its characterin a broad way.

Ward Wise Information

The ward wise information collectedthrough the municipality of Chamba andalso through rekey survey. The informationwas collected regarding different areas.For identifying their relationship with thehistory, total population in the differentareas, population density in each area,number of buildings which have somehistorical, architectural or religioussignificance and street pattern. Thebuildings of architectural importance wereidentified on the basis of differentarchitectural features. There are 11 wardsin the town which have the total populationis 33411(Municipal corporation, 2011) andthe growth rate is 33.26 per cent. Thegrowth rate and the density are maximumin the central places of the town. This maybecome the cause of congestion andunplanned development which affects thehistorical character of the town. All wardsdepict the historic characters which havea number of religious and architecturalbuildings which are needed to beconserved. Street pattern of these wardsshows the historical character of the area.Street width varies from 3-7 feet. Some

of them also below 3 feet which connectthe core areas of the town. Maximumhistorical buildings are come under wardno. 4 which located in the centre of thetown.Some monuments which are alsoprotected by the archaeological survey ofIndia come under these wards. TheChamba town is comprises of no. ofmonuments which have architectural orreligious importance. These monumentshave architectural features like arch’s, jail,ala, wood carving, painting and pillars etc.,and among them 38 monuments areidentified which have religious importanceand 18 monuments are identified whichhave some architectural importance.These monuments are from medieval orBritish time period and have a relation withthe history of Chamba. There are 3monuments in the town which areprotected by the archeological survey ofIndia. These are Laxmi Narain temple,Hari rai temple and Chamunda temple.

Identification of heritage zones inCHAMBA

Heritage zones are decided on thebasis of such parameters:

a) Buildings of historical & architecturalsignificance.

b) Buildings with internal courtyards.

c) Historic streets, bazaars of specialcharacter.

d) Religious building of muchimportance.

e) Gardens.

The total 3 heritage zones areidentified in Chamba and these zones have


narrow and zigzag streets, shows thecharacter of the streets of medievalperiod, bazaars of special character andalso the religious building of muchimportance. These zones have beenidentified as per the above parameters.The area which has most of the featuresof heritage zones i.e. Buildings of historical& architectural significance. Theirfeatures and historical streets areconsidered as the heritage zone. Thesezones comprise of different areas of thetown.Zone-1 comprises of sultanpur andChaugan and the total area of this zone is37.4 hectare.Zone-2 comprises ofKasakra, Chaugan, Hathnala area andincludes some portions of Sapri, Surara,Chauntra areas and the total area of thiszone is 43.1 hectare.Zone-3 comprises ofSapri, Dharog, Julakri, and Hardaspurawith the maximum area of 48.6 hectareamong all other zones. Among of theseentire heritage zones one zone is selectedfor the detailed study on the basis of someparameters.

Selection of A Heritage Zone forDetailed Study

A detailed heritage zone selected onthe basis of these parameters:

a) Size of heritage zone.

b) Population of zone.

c) Population density in the zone.

d) No. of religious, architectural andhistorically important features andcharacter in the zone.

e) Historic streets and gardens in thezone.

Studies in the selected heritage zone

The study in the selected heritagezone was done through detailed surveys.The surveys were done regarding thebuilding condition survey, utilities, facilitiesand services surveys, socio-economicsurvey, public opinion survey and touristsurvey. The heritage zone comprises ofHathnala, Chaugan, Chauntra, Surara andJansali areas. This heritage zone has themost number of architectural and religiousbuildings compare then other heritagezones of Chamba. Heritage zone includesthree monuments which are protected bythe archaeological survey of India. Thiszone has the mixture of old and moderntype of buildings and also has the 3monuments which are protected by thearchaeological survey of India. Thenarrow street pattern of this zone showsthe character of medieval period most ofthe streets in this zone are 5-7 feet width,3-5 feet width and some of are below 3feet wide.The present modes of traffic andlife style pose a great problem for thesurvival of old town historic urban fabric.Like Halwai gali, Hathnala gali, ChowganStreet, which are only 1.00 meter to 2.50meter widened in which traffic becomesthe cause of congestion in the core areas.There are also a number of dead ends inthe core area of this zone which depictthe historic character of the town.

Issues in the Selected Heritage Zone

Various issues have been found outas per the surveys conducted in selectedheritage zone:


The change in the exterior and interiorof the houses to fulfil the presentneeds and desires has done muchloss to the architecture of the historicarea.

Some of the historical buildings areused for the administrative work bythe government which affects thecondition of that building.

The over heading wires and electricpoles have added to the visualpollution of the area.

The open drains give a dirty look andfoul smell to the pedestrians.

Coming up of new shops have givenrise to destruction of older buildingsin order to adjust for shops in thebuildings.

The construction of houses in modernstyle will affect the traditional styleand also it invites more problems likeplacing of air coolers in the streetsand balconies.

The owners of the heritage buildingsare not given adequate incentives sothat they can improve the conditionsof their buildings.

On street parking of 2 wheelersalong the streets of 2-7 ft. width haveled to the congestion along the streetsin the zone.

After studying the heritage zone indetail, various findings of the old townhave been given as follows:

In the recent years there is a changein land use has taken place fromresidential to commercial. In the yearof 2001 the total commercial area of

the town is 1.52 hectare and now in2012 it is 2.98 hectare and maximumexpand towards the residential areawhich may put extra pressure in thecore areas of the town LikeChowgan, Sapri and Jansali bazaar.

The growth rate and the density aremaximum in the central areas of thetown. Like growth rate in Hathnala(40.56 per cent), Sapri (34.90 percent), Kasakra (34.28 per cent) anddensity in Surara (146 pph), Kasakra(130 pph), Sapri (102 pph). This maybecome the cause of congestion andunplanned development whichaffects the historical character of thetown.

Construction of new buildings around themonuments affects a lot.

Change in the exterior of the building hasdestroyed the traditional architecture of thearea.


Development plan: 2021 of theChamba has given mere statementsabout the conservation of the townand no action has been taken by theauthorities towards the conservation.And in the chapter 17 of thedevelopment plan of Chambamentioned the legislation regardingconservation covers onlyconservation buildings andmonuments and does not includeconservation areas.

There are a lot of monuments in thetown those are extremely old andlosing their charm day by day in thesemonuments 61 per cent monumentsare come under moderate conditionand 21 per cent monuments are comeunder bad condition. Thesemonuments like Hari rai temple,Akhand chandi palace, Laxmi naraintemple have some religious andarchitectural significances andgovernment. Or local authority is nottaking care for these monuments.

The coming up of new high risebuildings with modern architecture

Open drains creating bad visuals as well asgive foul smell.

Overhead wires over the monuments affectthe visual pollution.a

Painting on the façade of the old buildings

affects the historical character of the town

Disposal of garbage in the streets gives bad

visual effects in the historical town


and construction mainly in theHathnala, Chaugan, Sapri or also intheir surrounding areas has led to thedeterioration of the historic characterof the town.

The present modes of traffic and lifestyle pose a great problem for thesurvival of old town historic urbanfabric. Like Halwai gali, Hathnalagali, Chowgan Street, this is only 1.00meter to 2.50 meter widened. Thisbecomes the cause of congestion inthe core areas.

The overhead wires, hoardings, etc.In the town mainly around theheritage buildings like Laxmi naraintemple, Hari rai temple, Gandhi gateetc., have led to the visual pollutionin the town.

The open dumping or garbagedisposal and open drains along thestreets of Hathnala, Chaugan, andSapri areas creates the foul smell andbad visual effects in a broad way.

Non declaration of Chamba town asa special heritage area which mayaffect the urgently needed steps tobe taken up like financial help andtax incentives to the owner of theheritage buildings.

Through the help of public opinionsurvey it’s found that public’sinvolvement is not there in theconservation process for the town.Sometimes, as the public is totallyunaware of the need for theconservation.

Strategies

Various strategies have been givenas per the above findings of the old townChamba:

Development plans for the townshould take into consideration of allidentified religious buildings andmonuments which have someheritage values should be declaredas protected and should beconserved. As the conservationlegislation in the state does not includeconservation areas so the necessaryamendments should be made in thelegislation framework of HimachalPradesh which would cover theconservation areas along with theconservation buildings andmonuments.

Relieve the population pressure andbuilding pressure from Hathnala,Sapri, Chaugan, Surara, and Kasakraareas of the town by restrictivemeasures as well as by offeringalternative development sites.

The original facade shall bemaintained. The façade shall havethe mixture of wood, stone, glass,slate and tiles as in the originalbuildings. If natural materials are notavailable, the alternative once shallbe given the same touch mainly inthe residential buildings of Hathnala,Chaugan, Sapri, Surara areas.

Only two storied building constructionshall be permissible on the vacantsites subject to F.A.R. and that theheight of the building does not exceed


the height of heritage surroundingbuildings and no new constructionshould be allowed above Chamba -Saho road and the green areas of thetown.

The road should be pedestrianisedfrom Akhand Chandi palace to PinkPalace and from Chaugan to GandhiGate because it is always busy in thewhole day.

Most car parking has beenaccommodated in the form of onstreet car parking or on vacantsurface lots especially in thecommercial areas like Chauganbazaar, Halwai gali etc. Communityparking spaces should be providedfor each ward in the town to avoidtraffic congestion and ultimatelyavoiding the street widening.

Overhead electric wirings should beundergrounded to remove the visualpollution around the heritage buildingslike Rang Mahal, Hari rai temple,Akhand Chandi palace and alsoaround the other architecturalbuildings.

Open drains which are creating badvisuals and causing foul smells shouldbe covered with the help of jaalis orconcretes along all the roads in theChamba town.

There should be declare Chamba asa special heritage area and adequateincentives should be given to theowners of the heritage buildingsdepending upon the financial condition

of the owner especially in the case

of structures which are in danger of

collapse or are a danger either to the

general public or other nearby

structures. Incentives, like “no tax

payment” should be given to the

owner of the heritage buildings who

keeps the external facade of his

building intact.

There should be promote heritage

walk by developing processional

route of the town from Chamunda

temple to Sui Mata temple through

Akhand Chandi palace and Jansali

temple which will help citizens and

tourists to relate to the historic parts

of the town in a more personal and

intimate manner.

There is a strong need to aware and

involve the public in conservation

perspective.

Conserve and preserve their own

heritage by organised seminars,

heritage fairs and festivals.

Conclusion

From all above study it’s concluding

that there is a lot of issue and problems

related to the heritage of Chamba like

consumerism and urbanization forces have

caused an irreparable harm to it during

the last few decades and is a matter of

grave concern to preserve same for the

posterity. But these problems can be solved

by using above strategies which will help

to restore the heritage identity of the town.


References

Fieldon Bernard. (1968). Guidelinesfor conservation- A Technical Manual,New Delhi, India : Ram Press.

Government of Himachal Pradesh,Development Plan Chamba (2021), Townand Country Planning Department, Shimla.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamba

ICOMOS (International Council formonuments and sites), WashingtonCharter for the Conservation of HistoricTowns and Urban Areas, 1987.

National Commission onUrbanization Report Vol. viii, conservation,1988

Guleria, Pooja. (2013).Conservation of core area of Shimlacity. (Unpublished thesis). GRD School ofPlanning, Amritsar.

Pramanik, Prabal, Chamba heritagesite, Retrieved from. http://www.chambaheritage.net

Sharma Rasik. (2012). Conservationstrategies for Chamba. (Unpublishedthesis). GRD school of planning,Amritstar.


Nomadic, Semi-Nomadic andDenotified Communities (NT/SNT/DNTs) of India cover a populationapproximately about 60 million as per thelatest available estimates. Some of themare included in the list of ScheduledCastes, some others in the ScheduledTribes, and a few in Other BackwardClasses. However, there are many othercommunities, who do not find place in theabove list. What is common to all thesecommunities is the fate of beingbranded as ‘born criminals’. They havebeen the victims of historical dislocations,unconventional occupations, coloniallegacy and social stigma. The emergenceof modern, secular institutions includingdemocracy and judiciary has not beenbeneficial to them. The modern processof development has also failed to includethem in its orbit. As a result they continueto remain poor and marginalized. Theirclosed, inward looking cultures have alsofound to be an obstacle to change anddevelopment. Their livelihood sources aredrawn from occupations such as pastoralsand hunter-gatherers, goods and servicenomads, entertainers and religious

An Appraisal of the Nomadic, Semi-Nomadic andDenotified Communities of Karnataka

Malli Gandhi

performers. But today, their livelihoods areprimarily affected due to restricted accessto grazing lands and forests. Besides, theoverall degradation of natural resourcesin terms of both quality and quantity hasaffected their livelihoods. As for those NT/SNT/DNTs whose livelihood is dependenton income generated from transportinggoods and providing services, have beenaffected due to the processes ofmechanization and industrializationcharacterized by improved methods ofproduction and introduction of newermaterials. The introduction of the newmaterials like cement, stainless steel,aluminum, plastic, synthetic fibers andvarious petro-chemical products havemade redundant the traditional materialslike stone, bamboo, copper, brass, lime, juteand wood. Infrastructural development,particularly the construction of roads, andsubsequent growth of automobile traffichave affected the transportation andcommunication related occupations ofmany of these communities. The nomadentertainers like the snake charmers andbear exhibitors are being forced out of

An Appraisal of the Nomadic, Semi-Nomadic Semi-Nomadic and Denotified Communities 111

business due to the ideas of wildlifeconservation and subsequent restrictionscaused by the legislation. The religiousperformers and mendicants are meetingthe same fate. Today, their vocations havebeen reduced almost to beggary. Theyface constant stigmatization whichjeopardizes their participation in economic,social and political activities. The aims andobjectives of the paper is to discuss aboutthe conditions of NT/DNTs of Karnatakastate.

The Scenario of NT/SNT/DNTCommunities in India

The Criminal Tribes Acts of 1871,1911, 1924, 1948 and 1956 identified thefollowing categories of communities asbelonging to ‘criminal’ tribes in India:(i) petty traders who used to carry theirmerchandise on the back of animals andsupplied villages with varied items like salt,forest produce, etc.; (ii) communities thatentertained the public through performingarts. Among these were musicians,dancers, singers, story tellers, acrobats,gymnasts, puppeteers and tightropewalkers; (iii) communities that entertainedthe public with the help of performinganimals such as bears, monkeys, snakes,owls, bird, etc.; (iv) pastoral groups, andthe hunting, gathering, shifting cultivatorcommunities within forests that traded notjust in forest produce, but in animals aswell1. They were also herdsmen, andtraded in meat or milk products withoutlying villages; (v) artisan communitiesthat worked with bamboo, iron, clay, etc.,who made and repaired a variety of useful

articles, implements and artifacts. Theytraded or sold them to settled villagers;(vi) nomadic individuals who subsisted oncharity, or were paid in kind for ‘spiritual’services rendered to traditional Indiansociety. Such sadhus, fakirs, religiousmendicants, fortune tellers, genealogistsand traditional faith healers had a low butlegitimate place in the social hierarchy ofsettled people. Some carried medicinalherbs and provided healing services aswell. Classified into these variouscategories are close to 200 DenotifiedTribes and 313 Nomadic Tribes spread outover at least 14 states in the country:Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, MadhyaPradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar,Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal,Maharshtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,Karnataka and Tamil Nadu 2. It is possiblethat these tribes have spread out into otherstates as well but there is a gap in preciseinformation regarding these communitiesin India because there has been no censusof communities that fall in this category.When states were asked to respond withpopulation figures of NT/DNT/SNTcommunities, 15 states sent informationof Denotified Tribes, 10 states sentinformation about Nomadic Tribes and nota single state submitted information onSemi-Nomadic Tribes. It is estimated thatthere are 801 Denotified, Nomadic andSemi-Nomadic Communities in thecountry of which the break up figure invarious categories may be roughly asfollows: 22 in SC category, 27 in STcategory, 421 in OBC category, 227 whoare not listed at all. Of the communitiesclassified as OBC, a large number are


Semi-Nomadic Tribes 3. In terms ofpopulation, while some estimates provideda figure of 6 crores (60 million), moreprecise estimates show that the populationof the 227 communities that are not listedis in the region of 56 lakhs. The populationof communities listed as OBC is in theregion of 2.2 crores. A realistic estimateof the population of Denotified Tribes isaround 10 crores and the approximate totalof all three categories is around 13.5 crores 4.

The Working Group on Denotifiedand Nomadic Tribes of the NationalAdvisory Council observed in its 2011Draft Report that these communities arefound in almost in all the states and belongto OBC category in some large states andto SC and ST categories in other states.However, there are also communities thathave not been covered under any of thesethree categories. The NationalCommission for Denotified Tribes,Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes in itsreport submitted in July 2008 made 76recommendations to the Ministry of SocialJustice and Empowerment that pertainbroadly to five broad categories that havebeen reiterated by the National AdvisoryCouncil Working Group: legislative action,policy input, institutional arrangements,programmatic schematic strengtheningand targeting and administrative measures 5.In view of the above analysis, there is anurgent need to study the developmentalprogrammes/social security programmesintroduced by the government for therehabilitation of NT/SNT/DNTs. Suchprogrammes hardly reached the targetedgroups because many of these tribes do

not have permanent settlement. Thepresent paper is an attempt to understandthe social, political, economic aspects ofthe development of the NT/SNT DNTcommunities and identify the gaps invarious spheres in the state of Karnataka.The paper also makes an attempt tosuggest a concrete policy plan for thedevelopment of these communities.

Classification of NT/DNT/SNTCommunities in Karnataka

In Karanataka, the NT/SNT/DNTcommunities are listed in differentcategories like Scheduled Castes,Scheduled Tribes and Other BackwardClasses. Budaga Jangam, Chenna Dasar,Dakkaliga, Gosangi, Handi Jogi, Korama,Shillekyatha, Sindhollu, and SudugaduSiddha are included in the list of ScheduledCastes. Dongri Garasia, Hakkipiki, Pardhi,and Rajgond are included in the list ofScheduled tribes. Bail Pattar, Dombidasa,Ghisadi, Gondhali, Helava, Khanjarbhat,Sikligar, Alemari Kuruba, and Kadugollaare included in the list of BackwardClasses 6. These communities are socially,educationally, politically and economicallymost vulnerable. They are secluded fromthe mainstream social life. They areleading a poverty stricken life in the entirestate of Karnataka.

Historical Background of NT/DNT/SNT Communities of Karnataka

The Karnataka state took steps todeal with the problem of ‘criminal tribes’during the year 1900. The first CriminalTribes legislation was introduced in the


then princely state of Mysore during theyear 1916. The colonial governmentintroduced the Criminal Tribes Act VII of1916 in order to keep the surveillancemethods on certain wanderingcommunities. The main provisions of thesaid act was registration of the membersof the criminal tribes in a prescribedformat signed by the district magistrate(section 4), summoning and arresting themembers of a tribe/community in themanner prescribed in the criminalprocedure code (section 7), reportingabout such communities to the nearestlocal police authorities within whose limitsthe members CTs were residing (section10), publishing the names of suchcommunity members in the local Gazettes(section 12 and 13), granting passes to theregistered members of CTs to go on leaveto other places for work with police escort(section 14), etc.7. The colonialgovernment opened settlements for thereformation and rehabilitation of thesecommunities such as agricultural, industrial,reformatory and voluntary settlements inGokak Falls, Bagal Kot, Dandeli, Karwar,Hubli, Bijapur, Gadag, and Mysore district 8.These settlements were kept under thesupervision of the Missionaries like theSalvation Army and the police department.The government took note of the progressand efforts made in other provinces forthe development of these communities inMadras, Bombay, Central Provinces, andPunjab. The government of Karnatakaadopted the surveillance and controlmeasures of the Madras Province in orderto manage the criminal classes and theirsettlements effectively in the state. The

government provided industrial andagricultural training to these communities.Co-operative societies were also openedfor the benefit of these sections of thepeople. The reformatory work was handedover to the Salvation Army, a voluntaryorganization working actively to reformand rehabilitate the ‘criminal classes’ inthe Madras province at that time. Thesettlers were also provided withagricultural land, home industries such asrope making, basket making, poultryfarming, cattle rearing, beekeeping,weaving and other activities. Thegovernment officially started thesettlements on 15th April 1929. The totalstrength of the members of the ‘criminaltribes’ in the Karnataka state during theyear 1930 was 3,474 including 1,395 males,1,370 females and 709 children. The mainactivities of the reformation work of thecriminal tribes in Karnataka state was(i) providing land to the settlers foragricultural purpose; (ii) opening ofagricultural and industrial training for skilldevelopment; (iii) opening of Schools forthe education of their children;(iv) providing with special police constableone Dafedar and three police constablesto supervise and control the ‘criminaltribes’ in the settlements; and (v) onepolice sub-station was established in everysettlement in order to patrol the settlers’movements 9.

NT/DNT/SNT Communities adeprived lot in Karnataka

Branded as ‘criminal tribes’ by theBritish rulers during the colonial times, themembers of these communities are


continued to be treated as criminals tillnow. These communities are living in smallgroups in different parts of the state. Theyare hounded by the police and the publicin the urban and rural places. Majority ofthese communities are literally living underthe scanner of the police. After anyincident of theft or burglary, the first targetof suspicion by the police is the well-builtyouth, both men and women, from thesecommunities. These communities formedtheir associations in order to fight theirgrievances in the state. When contactedthe Presidents of various NT/DNT/SNTsanghas (caste associations) in Karnataka,they blamed the society and the police forpushing their youth in the community tocriminal activities by depriving them oftheir opportunities to join the mainstreamsociety 10. Although, some of thesecommunities have been included in thecategories of ST/SC/OBCs the benefitsof reservation or education is still a farcry for these communities 11. Even theshare of these communities in the selfemployment assistance programmesextended by the SC/ST/OBCDevelopment corporations is negligible.The literacy level among thesecommunities is less than 10 per cent.Children of these communities enrolled inthe primary schools dropout very earlyfrom the schools. Only very few pass outthe school education and pursue collegeeducation. Today, one or two youth fromeach of these communities only becomea lawyer, teacher or a police constable.This projects the sorry state of affairs ofthese communities in the state 12. ThePresident of one of the NT/DNT/SNT

communities in Karnataka narrated thatunlike other communities, the Manggarudido not have specific occupation of theirown and the label attached to them is the‘criminal tribe’ 13. It was narrated that theyouth were forced to indulge in illicit liquorbrewing and pretty criminal activities,while others engaged in rag picking, knifesharpening activities and removing the hairof the cattle in the rural areas.Justice Sadashiva Commission’srecommendations also failed in the statedue to lack of political will to develop thesepoorer sections of communities 14. Varioussocieties like Karnataka Rajya BudagaJangam Kshemabhivridhi Sangha,Karnataka Rajya Cheena DasarKshemabhivridhi Sangha, DekkaligaSamaj Kalyan Sangha, AkhilKarnataka Gosangi (SC) Samaj,Dakshina Kannada Jilla Handi JogiSeva Sangha, KLN Charitable Trust,Akhil Karnataka SillekyatharaAbhivrudhi Sangha, Sindhollu SamajKalyana Sangha, Akhil KarnatakaSudugadu Siddha Mahasangha,Karnataka Dungri Garasia (ST)Welfare Association, Akhil KarnatakaHakkipikki Mahasangha, Bellari JillaHakkipikki Janabhivridhi Sangha,Karnataka Rajgond Kalyana Sangha,Karnataka Rajya Bail PattarAlemarigala Kshemabhivrudhi Sangha,Dombidasara KhemabhivrudhiSangha, Akhila Karnataka GhisadiLohar (Kammara) Samaja, AkhilKarnataka Gondhali Samaj Sangha,Akhil Karnataka Helava Samaja, AkhilKarnataka Kanjarbhat Samaj, SikligarSamaj Jagurthi Sangha, Alemari


Kurubara Sangha, Karnataka RajyaKadugollara KshemabhivrudhiSangha, etc.,15 submitted their detailedmemoranda to the State and NationalHuman Rights commissions seekingspecial rehabilitation package to bring theoverall socio-economic and educationaldevelopment of their communities in thestate 16. There is an urgent need to ensurethat these communities should bepolitically motivated so as to enable themto get their share of reservation in theeconomic activities, education and jobopportunities like other communitiesincluded in the categories of ScheduledCastes and Scheduled Tribes list 17. Onlythen social and economic empowermentof these communities will be possible. Thesocial and economic empowerment ofthese communities would help them todraw away these communities from thealleged criminal and unlawful activates andjoin them into the main stream society 18.

Evaluation

In view of the above analysis a fewsuggestions are made in order to improvethe existing conditions of the NT/DNTcommunities in Karnataka.

A. Context

1. The NT/DNT/SNT communitiesare confined to certain uncleanand vulnerable occupations, inboth agricultural sector as well asnon-agricultural sector.

2. Self Employment of NT/DNTSNTs is only 5 per cent whencompared to other communities

which are 70 per cent. The NT/DNT/SNTs are mostly drive towage employment.

3. The NT/DNTs do not have thevoice to assert themselves. Thepublic work is inaccessible tothem.

B. Context of NT/DNTs Employment

1. After analyzing the position in thenon-agricultural occupationcategories of these communitiesit is observed that the NT/DNTsare very poorly concentrated inhigh pay, high skill jobs. Forexample among teachers therepresentation of thesecommunities are very poor let ussay that less than 1 per cent whereas 37 per cent are from other castes.

2. The NT/DNTs are moreconcentrated in low pay mediumskilled labour incentive jobs likein brick-klin, stone cutting, toolmaking, shoe-making, leatherprocessing, masonry work, coolywork, transport operation likeautos drivers etc.

3. The NT/DNT women are seen inhigh numbers in the jobs of maids,house-keeping, sanitation relatedjobs. Therefore, there is a needfor self employment and credit tobe extended to these categoriesof people where the number ofthese categories of communitiesare very high and club thesecommunities with local self helpgroups, banking institutions andother credit organizations.


C. The Challenges Observed

1. Most of the Union and Stategovernment programmes andbudgets reinforce the caste, classand gender discrimination even inthe orientation, designing andimplementation, through distinctlayering of work similar to thesocial structure based on caste,class and gender divisions. Ifthese are not taken intoconsideration, these schemes willreinforce exclusion anddiscrimination of the NT/DNT/SNT communities.

2. Education being the key driver,has been inaccessible to thesecommunities, resulting in a gap inbuilding resources.

3. Access to physical capital andhuman endowment are linked toeach other. As most of thesecommunities are without anyphysical asset, their growth inhuman endevour is also limited.

4. The utilization of SpecialComponent Plan for the NT/DNTcommunities is abysmally low ataround only 0.5per cent of theamount which is supposed to beallotted.

D. Recommended/ TargetedPolicies for PositiveDiscrimination and Reservation

1. Positive discrimination isnecessary by targeting thepolicies towards the NT/DNTcommunities. This improves theiraccessibility to public employmentand access to land and creditfacilities.

2. There is a need to ensuredocumentation for the NT/DNTcommunities to ensure theireligibility to various institutionalentrepreneurial credit andschemes.

3. There is a need to ensure theirwage employment by: (i) Wage-needed to revise the NationalWage policy; (ii) National ruralEmployment Guarantee Act-needfor reservation in National RuralEmployment Guarantee Act thereby strengthening the labor marketlike brick kiln, salt pans, etc. Thereis also a need to have policies forprotection and inclusion ofMigrant labor; (iii) Socialsecurity-need for strengtheningthe social security mechanisms,like coverage in RashtriyaSwasth Beema Yojana.

4. Need to ensure assignment of landfor the NT/DNT communities toincrease their credit-worthinessboth for sustained livelihoods andalso for availing of collateral.

5. Need to ensure diversity inproduction and market inclusionfor the NT/DNT communities.There has to be positivediscrimination GovernmentDepartmental purchases forproducts made by the NT/DNTcommunities. There needs to bereservation for purchase ofcertain consumer goods from theNT/DNT community enterprises.


E. Higher Education of NT/DNTcommunities

1. Need for supplementary coachingfunded by the state for tenth class,plus two and pre-degree level inEnglish, Mathematics, Science,etc., for clearing of entranceexaminations to professionalcourses.

2. Study of English to be mademandatory in all schools, institutes.

3. Need for fast track professionalscholarship to exceptionallyendowed NT/DNT children forscientific, IT, management, hightech industry and other fastgrowing sectors.

4. Needs of infrastructure supportlike community hall with internetfacilities for all NT/DNT locationsas well as information centers.These are needed to be includedin the Bharat Nirman.

F. Study and Review

1. There is a need for a study andreview of all the existing policies,schemes and their implementationby independent agencies forensuring higher levels of diversityand efficiency and inclusion of thecommunity voice.

2. The results of the various studiesconducted on these communitiesto be uploaded on the ministrywebsite and also ensure widepublicity and policy awareness

through a wide campaign modeto reach the NT/DNTcommunities particularly theyouth.

3. Conducting periodic surveysfocusing on the conditions of theNT/DNT communities withspecial focus on the NT/DNTwomen, children and youth 19.

Conclusion

The problem with most of the NT/SNT/ DNTs is the issue of mainstreaming.It also means how best these people areallowed to participate in socializationprocess. These are (mainstreaming andsocialization) the benchmarks for furtheraction plans. Once the families enjoy acomfortable acceptance into thesurrounding society, the rest is easy foractivists as well as researchers. It isimperative against this background toengage attention in mapping out the effortsof civil society (including organizations,individuals, leaders from NT/SNT/DNTcommunities, etc.,) or the policeadministration in trying to wean themaway from the delinquent habits anddecide for a settled life. Otherwise, thesocial dimension of DNT problem wouldget complicated. For example, the DNTcolonies in Andhra Pradesh were notrecognized as human habitations till late1970s and as a result they had to foregomany of the welfare and developmentprogrammes of the democraticgovernment. A study of the mainstreaming


aspect of the NT/SNT/DNTs in thesouthern states of Karnataka, AndhraPradesh and Tamil Nadu would provideinsights into the state of social life of theNT/SNT/ DNTs and the levels of socialacceptance of these families. Acceptanceby civil society is the basic humanthreshold. Without this status in place,policy recommendations or research-based insights/suggestions for changewould be rendered less effective. Therecommendations made in 2011 byNational Advisory Council (NAC)Working Group on NT/SNT/ DNTs wouldbe made easy when the findings from fieldstudies about social acceptance levels(efforts by civil society and police in tryingto reform the DNT families) positivelycomplement such recommendations.

Notes

1. Government of Madras, G.O. No.SWL 12 TBS 77, dated 23.1.1978.(Karnataka State Archives,Bangalore, here after, KSA).

2. Government of Madras, G.O. No.SWL 123 BCA 79, dated 1.5.1979.

3. Government of Madras, Rules underthe Criminal Tribes Regulation VIIof 1916. (KSA).

4. Government of Madras, File No.103-20 Sl. No. 1-4, Police 1920 (KSA).

5. Government of Madras, File No.100-20 Sl. No. 1-4, Police 1920 (KSA).

6. Government of Madras, File No. 65to 71 — 6-10, Police 1917-18 (KSA).

7. Government of Madras, Sl.No. 1File No. 17721, 1920-21, Police 128-20 (KSA).

8. Government of Madras, File No. 65,17 S-1 No. 1 to 5, Police 1917-18(KSA).

9. Government of Madras, File No. 18,Serial No. 1-4, Police 1917-18 (KSA).

10. Gandhi, Malli, 1996. Development ofDenotified Tribes: Policy andPractice, New Delhi.

11. Ananthakrishna Iyer, L. K., 1998.The Mysore Tribes and Castes,Mittal Publications, Delhi (Reprint).

12. Radhakrishna, Meena, 2001.Dishonored By History, OrientLongman, Hyderabad.

13. D’Souza, Dilip, 2001. Banded ByLaw, Penguin Books, New Delhi.

14. Devy, G. N. (2006). TechnicalAdvisory Group on DenotifiedNomadic and Semi-Nomadic TribesReport, Ministry of Social Justice andEmpowerment, New Delhi :Government of India,

15. Shashi, S. S. (2006). The World ofNomads. New Delhi : Lotus press.

16. Metry, K. M. (Ed). (2008). KarnatakaNomadic Community Studies, Vol.


1-15, Kannada Pustaka Pradhikara,Kannada Bhavana, Bangalore.

17. Manpadi, Mallikarjun. (2009). ASociological Study of DenotifiedCommunities in Karnataka,(Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis).Karnataka : Hampi University.

18. Metry, K. M., Maalikarjun Manpadi,and Jakka Parthasarathi. (2010).

‘Nomads of Karnataka’, BudakattuAdyayana, (Kannada), Karnataka:Hampi University.

19. Gandhi, Malli and V. Lalitha. 2010.Tribes under Stigma: Problem ofIdentity, New Delhi : SerialsPublishers.

120 Local Government Quarterly April - June 2014

Mizoram becomes the twenty - thirdstate of the Indian Union since 14th July,1986. As a result of assent given by thePresident of India to the Constitution FiftyThird Amendment, Act of 1986.1 Mizoramon the eve of India’s independence wasknown as the Lushai Hills and it waschanged to Mizo hills District with effectfrom 1st September, 1954 as per theLushai Hills District change of name act(Act XVIII of 1954) which was enactedby the Indian Parliament.2 The then MizoHills District continued to be part ofundivided Assam till it was declared asUnion Territory with the name “Mizoram”on 21st January, 1972 under the provisionof the North Eastern Areas (RecognitionAct of 1972).3 The then Lushai Hillsformed a part of undivided Assam sincepre-independence era. Prior to 1891, therewas no regular administrative set-up in theLushai Hills. It began in the year, 1891;when the territory was divided into twoadministrative Sub-Divisions, such as,North Lushai Hills under the Governmentof Assam and the South Lushai Hills underthe Government of Bengal. As a result ofthe Chin-Lushai Conference, held atCalcutta in 1898, the two Lushai Hills

Local Self Government in the Sixth Schedule Areaof Mizoram vis-a-vis Panchayati Raj Institution (P.R.I.)

Jangkhongam Doungel

Districts were amalgamated into one andnamed it as the Lushai Hills District.Subsequently, the Lushai Hills District wasbrought under the administrativejurisdiction of the Government of Assamwith effect from 1st April, 1898.4

Status of the Sixth Schedule Area ofMizoram in pre-independent era

The administration of the Tribal areasof undivided Assam which was earlierknown as Backward Tract had a historyof its own. Regulation X of 1822, enactedas per the recommendation of David Scotwho was the Magistrate of Rangpur, wasthe first regulation enforced by the BritishAdministration for administering the tribalarea of North East India (the then Assam).The Regulation X of 1822 laid down aspecial plan for administration of justice,adaptable to peculiar custom andprejudices of the region. As per theprovision of the Government of India Actof 1919, the Lushai Hills District wasdeclared as Backward Area on 3rdJanuary, 1921. However, the Governmentof India Act 1935 gave up the terminology“Backward Tract” and described the area

Local Self Government in the Sixth Schedule Area of Mizoram 121

as “Excluded Area” or “Partially ExcludedArea”. As a result, the Lushai Hills Areaswas an excluded area in 1936.5 Despitethese developments, some areas of theextreme south of the Lushai Hills inhabitedby the Pawis and the Lakhers in thepresent Sixth Schedule area wereincluded under British Administration onlyin 1930.6 Infact, the Pawis (Lais) and theLakhers (Maras) began their own systemof governance even before the arrival ofthe British Administration. R.N. Prasadwrites in “Political and EconomicDevelopment of Mizoram” that there weremany ruling clans among the Pawis andthe Lakhers who were never influencedby the Sailo chiefs.7 Indeed, certain rulingclans of the Pawi (Lai) and Lakher (Mara)such as Chinzah(Chozah), Zathang,Khenglawt, Hlawnchhing (Hlychho),Hlawncheu, Bunghai (Bohia), Fanai etc.,were never influenced by the Sailo chiefs.On the contrary, they were all equal instatus and powers to the Sailo chiefs andhad their own parallel administration.

Constitutional status of the SixthSchedule Area of Mizoram sinceindependence

Lushai Hills was accorded anAutonomous District Council under theprovision of the Sixth Schedule to theConstitution of India. Consequently, theLushai Hills Autonomous District Councilwas inaugurated on 26th April, 1952 atAizawl by Bishnuram Medhi, ‘the thenChief Minister of Assam.9 On the otherhand, the Pawis and Lakhers under theonerous initiative of Z.Hengmang andViko had also vigorously demanded for aRegional Council under the Sixth Schedule

provision to the Constitution of India.Subsequently, the Pawi-Lakher RegionalCouncil (PLRC) with Headquarters atSaiha was inaugurated by Ch.Saphrawnga, the then ParliamentarySecretary to the Governor of Assam on23rd April, 1953 at Lunglei.10 With theupgradation of the erstwhile Lushai Hillsto the Union Territory of Mizoram, MizoDistrict Council was abolished in 1972.However, the Pawis, the Lakhers and theChakmas were not in favour of theabolition of the Regional Council.Therefore, the Pawi-Lakher RegionalCouncil (PLRC) was trifurcated into threeRegional councils, namely, the PawiRegional Council (PRC), the LakherRegional Council (LRC) and ChakmaRegional Council (CRC) on 2nd April, 1972and the three Regional Councils wereconsequently upgraded to the status of full-fledged Autonomous District Council on29th April, 1972.11 Later on the PawiAutonomous District Council waschanged into Lai Autonomous DistrictCouncil (LADC) and the LakherAutonomous District Council waschanged into Mara Autonomous DistrictCouncil (MADC) in 1988 through theamendment of Sixth Schedule to theConstitution of India by the IndianParliament. As a matter of fact, PLRCwas the root, from which the present threeAutonomous District Councils of Mizoram,the Chakma Autonomous District Councils(CADC), the Lai Autonomous DistrictCouncils (LADC), the Mara AutonomousDistrict Council (MADC) sprang up.12

The geographical areas of the threeautonomous District Councils where theprovision of the Sixth schedule to the


constitution of India is still enforced is alsopopularly known as the sixth schedule areaof Mizoram.

Local Self Government

The Sixth Schedule to the Constitutionof India provides legislative, executive,judicial and financial powers toAutonomous District Council within itsjurisdiction. In accordance with thisprovision, the structural organization of theAutonomous District Councils (ADCs) ofMizoram is broadly categorized into threemain organs such as Legislative,Executive and Judiciary. The working ofthe three organs of government at the locallevel signify the autonomous powers ofthe District Councils over the area,administered by them (District Council).In pursuance of Paragraph 2(6) of theSixth Schedule to the Constitution of India,the first constitution of the District Councilsof Mizoram, entitled: ‘the MizoramAutonomous District Council (Constitutionand Conduct of Business) of the DistrictCouncil Rules, 1974’ was made by theAdministrator of Mizoram and it becamethe guiding principle for functioning ofDistrict Councils of Mizoram. Further, theAutonomous District Councils areadministratively looked after by the DistrictCouncil Affairs (DCA) department ofGovernment of Mizoram.13

In the Autonomous District Councilarea, the local government can beclassified at three stages such as DistrictCouncil, Town Committee and VillageCouncil. However, Town Committee hasnot yet been established in any of theDistrict Councils of Mizoram. Therefore,

the Village Councils, established at thegrassroots level in the village is the onlyviable Local Self Government all overMizoram including the Sixth ScheduleArea. The Headquarter of the LADC islocated at Lawngtlai and has 86 VillageCouncils. Village Councils in the LADCare guided by the Pawi AutonomousDistrict Council (Village Council) Act, 1974and the Pawi Autonomous District Council(Election to Village Councils) Rules,1981.14 The Headquarter of the CADC islocated at Kamalanagar and has 69 VillageCouncils; whereas, the Village Councilsare guided by the Chakma AutonomousDistrict Council (Village Councils) Act,2002.15 Likewise, the MADC also has 62Village Councils and the Headquarter islocated at Saiha. The villages Councils arealso guided by the Mara AutonomousDistrict Council (MADC) Act, 1987.16

Village Councils are administrativelylooked after by the Local AdministrationDepartment (LAD). Indeed, the exactreplica of what is known as LAD inMizoram may not be found in other states.Herein lies the uniqueness of the LocalSelf Government of Mizoram. However,LAD of the State Government has no sayin the Autonomous District Council area.Thus, each of the Autonomous DistrictCouncil (ADC) has its own LADdepartment to supervise the VillageCouncil functioning and activity. The LocalAdministration Department (LAD) of theADC looks after the Village administrationand sanitation as provided in Paragraph 3,sub-Paragraph 1(e) and (f) of the SixthSchedule to the Constitution of India. Thedepartment as a whole is headed by LocalAdministrative Officer (LAO) who is


assisted by Assistant Local AdministrativeOfficer (ALAO).17 Thus, LAO is thebureaucratic head of the department andExecutive Member incharge of LAD isthe Political Executive head of thedepartment. It is also comparable thatLAO is the replica of Secretary, LAD andExecutive Member incharge of LAD isthe replica of Minister in charge of LADin the Government of Mizoram.

There is limit for composition ofmembers of the Village Council. As perthe Pawi Autonomous District Council(Village Council) Act, 1974, a villagehaving less than twenty houses shall notbe entitled to have separate VillageCouncil. A Village Council shall becomposed of members according to thenumber of houses it contains as specifiedbelow18

(a) For villages not exceeding 50 houses— 3 members.

(b) For villages between 51 - 100 houses— 4 members

(c) For villages between 101 - 150houses — 5 members

(d) For villages having 151 houses andabove — 5 members

It is also laid down in the rules that,one third of the members shall benominated by the Executive Committeeof the District Council and the rest shallbe elected by adult members of the villagein accordance with the rules made by theDistrict Council under this Act. Thequalifications for membership of theVillage Council are listed as given below:19

(i) He/She should be a Schedule Tribe.

(ii) He/She should be at least 25 yearsof age.

(iii) He/She should be a voter from thevillage where he is contesting.

(iv) He/She is not a member of any otherVillage Council.

(v) He/She is not of unsound mind.

There shall be a President in eachVillage Council, known as the VillageCouncil President (VCP) who is electedby members of the Village Council fromamongst themselves by a majority ofvotes. The VCP is assisted by Secretaryof the Village Council in the discharge ofhis function. There is a ‘Tlangau’ or‘Village Crier’ who publicizes and informsthe villagers about the decision of theVillage Council and any other necessaryinformation. Members of the VillageCouncil including the President, the VicePresident, the Secretary and the Tlangauare entitled to receive such remunerationand privileges as may from time to timeas determined by the ExecutiveCommittee of the ADC. In fact, thedistribution of jhum and subsidiary plotsare to be done by the Village Council inaccordance with the laws framed by theADC under Paragraph 3, sub-paragraph1(d) of the Sixth Schedule to theConstitution of India.20

The Executive Committee of theDistrict Council is given the authority tofix the number of seats in the VillageCouncil. Election to Village Council isconducted by the Local AdministrativeDepartment in accordance with the laws,enacted by the ADC. As such, ReturningOfficer, Presiding Officer and PollingOfficers were appointed for conduct ofVillage Council election. The securitydeposit of the candidates was fixed atRupees 25/- and Election Tribunal is


constituted by the Executive Committeeof the District Council to hear any directionpetition concerning Village Councilelection.21 However, necessary preparationand conduct of election of the VillageCouncil is now conducted by the StateElection Commission after enactment ofthe new law by the respective ADC.

Village Council is the responsibleLocal Self Government at the village levelwhich is endowed with legislative,executive and judicial functions. VillageCouncil is a legislature because itperforms legislative functions of the village,such as, law making, convening generalmeeting of the village and performing suchother necessary legislative works. It is alegislature because the Village Council isconstituted through popular election byelected members who are elected by thevillagers. Village Council is also anExecutive because it executes all itslegislative decisions as well as the ruleswhich are laid down in the Village Councilrules. Besides these, Village Council is alsothe main organ which ushersdevelopmental works at the villages whichare sanctioned by District Council, StateGovernment and Central Government.Village Council as an executive at thevillage level is also the main channel ofcommunication between the VillageCouncil and the government at differentlevels, such as, District Council, StateGovernment and Central Government.

Village Council is also the judiciaryof the village and it performs certainjudicial functions. In fact, Village Councilsalso act as a Village Court. In such away,the Village Council is also known as VillageCouncil Court and the VCP himself is the

President of the Village Council Court.There are courts at three levels, viz.,Village Council Court, IntermediateDistrict Council Court and District CouncilCourt in each District Council as per thelaw, enacted by the ADC. The VillageCouncil for each village sits as a villageCourt but where the Village Council sitsas a Court, the quorum to constitute aVillage Court shall not be less than twoand the jurisdiction shall extend to hearingand trial of suits and cases arising withinthe territorial limits of the village and theVillage Court can impose a fine up toRupees Sixty (Rs. 60). An appeal of anyjudgment from the Village Court within theBlock lies to the Intermediate DistrictCouncil Court within ninety days of thedate of deliverance of order appealedagainst, excluding the time necessary forobtaining copy of the order. In the likemanner, an appeal against the judgmentof the Intermediate District Council Courtlies to the District Council Court. Howeveran appeal against any judgment of theDistrict Council Court lies only in the HighCourt. 22

Village Council as a Local SelfGovernment, is also a good training groundfor giving political education to the peoplebecause it creates political awareness andmakes the people familiar withparliamentary democratic system. In fact,popular election of Village Council ensuresdemocratic spirit at the grassroots leveland it intensifies the active participationof political parties. It is worth mentioningthat every village, having a Village Councilis a multi-member constituency where alimited vote system is practised. So, everyvoter has the number of votes, which are


equal to the number of elected membersin the Village Council. Thus, every voteris given the ballot papers which equal thenumber of elected members of the VillageCouncil, but he has to cast his votes fordifferent candidates. If a voter cast all hisvotes for a particular candidate, all thevotes, he casted will be automaticallyinvalid. Therefore, winners are declaredfrom candidates, obtaining the highestnumber of votes in succession dependingupon the number of members a VillageCouncil is entitled.23 As the Village Councilelection is fought on the basis of partyticket, major dominant political partiesestablish units in all villages. In such away,villagers practically learnt the democraticpractices such as voting, campaign andelectoral politics through the systematicfunctioning of the Village Council.Therefore, Village Council is a multi-purpose training ground for villagers in allaspects of developments.

Demand for Direct Funding

Direct Funding is the most talk-aboutpolitical issue in the Sixth Schedule areaof Mizoram. Leaders of the AutonomousDistrict Council (A.D.C.’s) of Mizoraminterpret ‘Direct Funding’ as the financialchannel in which the A.D.C.’s will beempowered to receive funds both plan andnon-plan directly from the CentralGovernment without passing through theState Government.24 Some leaders of theA.D.C. claimed that Direct Funding waspromised to A.D.C.’s of Mizoram by RajivGandhi during his visit to Mizoram atAreopagi, Lawngtlai in 1987 and thisversion seemed to be the genesis of Direct

Funding issue in the Sixth Schedule areaof Mizoram. Most politicians and publicleaders often quoted the speech of RajivGandhi at Lawngtlai Areopagi with certainadditions and exaggerations, as such; thepublic were lured in the utopian land ofDirect Funding since the past many years.In such away, the promise of Rajiv Gandhiin connection with Direct Funding is widelycirculated with exaggerated eloquence tothe public in the region and political partiestries their best possible efforts to takeadvantage of this vexed political issue.25

Rajiv Gandhi indeed mentioned aboutdirect flow of fund to villages of the SixthSchedule area, however, his statementwas based upon the concept of PanchayatiRaj. He had suggested for amendment andenactment of the Village Council systemin line with the provision of PanchayatiRaj which might enable villages of the SixthSchedule area to receive Panchayati Rajfund directly from the CentralGovernment. Thus, the Direct Funding,mentioned by Rajiv Gandhi at LawngtlaiAreopagi in 1987 concerned with villageempowerment, decentralization of powerand adoption of Panchayati Raj system inthe village administrative set-up26 but it didnot directly deal with direct funding of boththe plan and non-plan budget (Grant-in-aid) of the Autonomous District Councilby the Central Government.

The Direct Funding as claimed andexpected by the leaders of A.D.C.’s ofMizoram is not within the provision of theConstitution of India and it may only beconcretized by amending Article 275 (1)and Paragraph 13 of the Sixth Scheduleto the of the Constitution of India. Article275 (1) states about the funding pattern


of the states from the consolidated fundof India by the parliament. It is laid downthat funds shall be released from theconsolidated fund of India by theGovernment of India to the state as grants-in-aid so as to enable the StateGovernments to enable them to meet theexpenditure for the development works,undertaken by them (State Governments).Whereas, Paragraph 13 of the SixthSchedule to the constitution of India statesthat Estimated receipts and expenditurepertaining to autonomous districts to beshown separately in the annual financialstatement.27 Contrary to the claim andexpectation of the leaders of the A.D.C.’sof Mizoram; Panchayati Raj, Villageempowerment, Centrally SponsoredScheme (C.S.S.) and Border AreaDevelopment Programme (B.A.D.P.)seemed to be the version of DirectFunding which has been emphasized bythe Government of India.

Introduction of modified form ofP.R.I. in the Sixth Schedule Area ofMizoram

Despite the many pressures anddemands for Direct Funding, the repliesof the Government of India in this regardtill now adhere to Panchayati Raj Institution(P.R.I.). The report of the NationalCommission to Review the Working of theConstitution in 2000 has highlighted thedesire of the A.D.C.’s of Mizoram fordirect funding of their expenses by theCentral Government; however, no furthercomment has been highlighted in thisregard. On the other hand, the proposalfor feasibility of adopting P.R.I. in theVillage Council functioning has been

highlighted.28 Central Team of Expert,comprised of four members, namely, —V. Rama Chandran, Chairperson, CentralTeam of Expert; B.N. Yugandhar,Member, Planning Commission;T.R. Raghunandan I.A.S., Joint Secretary,Ministry of Panchayati Raj and NaveenVerma I.A.S., Joint Secretary, Ministry ofHome Affairs was sent to Lawngtlai on16 May, 2007 and the team was grandlyreceived by the general public at Lawngtlaihelipad under the initiative of the L.A.D.C.authority. It was propagated by someleaders of L.A.D.C. that the study andfinding of the visiting team was concernedwith the granting of Direct Finance toA.D.C.’s of Mizoram. However, in a queryto the main purpose of the visit of Centralteam of experts whether Direct Fundingwas the purpose of the visit or not,A. Lallungmuana, the official from theL.A.D.C. who accompanied the teamstated that, empowerment of the villagethrough P.R.I. and upliftment of the remotevillages through Panchayati Raj fund havebeen advocated by the team. Likewise,Chaterjee, Assistant Civil IntelligenceOfficer (A.C.I.O.) of S.I.B., Lawngtlaitoo stated that the main purpose of visit ofthe Central Team of experts was villageempowerment and Panchayati Raj.29

Another Central Team under the guidanceof Dr Hrishekesh Panda, AdditionalSecretary, Ministry of Panchayati Raj,visited Aizawl in April, 2011. Othermembers of the team included SambhuSingh, Joint Secretary, Ministry of HomeAffairs, Dr. J.P. Sharma, Joint Secretary,Ministry of Development of North EasternRegion (DONER) and Dr. Mathur,Ministry of Urban Development. The team


met Executive Secretary, L.A.D.C.;Executive Secretary, C.A.D.C andExecutive Member in charge of Revenue,M.A.D.C. at Aizawl. Infact, DirectFunding was expected to be the mainagenda for interaction in the meeting.However, the team briefed therepresentatives of the A.D.C.’s aboutPanchayati Raj and adoption ofPanchayati Raj system in villageadministration of the Sixth Schedule areaof Mizoram.30

The agenda for enforcement ofPanchayati Raj in the tribal areas has beentactfully pursued in different levels. Theconstitution of State Election Commissionand its (State Election Commission) powerto supervise and conduct all local bodies’election, such as, Panchayat, VillageCouncil, Municipalities and AutonomousDistrict Councils had already beenpublished in the Mizoram Gazette on 26thAugust, 2008.31 Despite the publication inthe State Gazette, the enactment in thelegislature of the District Council isrequired for enforcement of the StateElection Commission functioning in theSixth Schedule area. As such, theGovernor of Mizoram convened a meetingof the Executive Members, ChiefExecutive Members, M.L.A. and Ex. M.P.of the Sixth Schedule area at the RajBhavan, Aizawl on 11th May, 2011. Themeeting discussed about Direct Fundingfrom the Central Government to the threeA.D.C.’s of Mizoram and it is observedby the Governor that the present financialsystem of the A.D.C.’s needs upgradation.So, it was resolved that proposals forupgradation of financial system should besubmitted to the Government by all the

A.D.C.’s of Mizoram. The meeting alsoresolved that the three A.D.C.’s shouldadopt resolution in their respectiveCouncils so as to enable appropriateamendment for vesting the power tosupervise and conduct election of VillageCouncils and District Councils to the StateElection Commission. Further, the meetingalso discussed about the implication of theSeventy Third Amendment Act, 1992 andSeventy Fourth Amendment Act, 1992 andit recommended the adoption of PanchaytiRaj (Seventy Third Amendment, Act,1992) in the Sixth Schedule Area ofMizoram.32 The meeting in Raj Bhavanwas preceded by another significantmeeting in the next day i.e., on 12th May,2011 which was chaired byP. Chakraborty, Principal Secretary,District Council Affairs Department,Government of Mizoram in his officechamber. The meeting was attended by 9prominent leaders of the three A.D.C.’sof Mizoram and the deliberation of themeeting was the adoption of SeventyThird Amendment Act, 1992 and SeventyFourth Amendment Act, 1992 in the SixthSchedule Area of Mizoram.33

Consequently, the Lai AutonomousDistrict Council in its emergency sessionheld on 2nd - 4th June, 2011adopted oneresolution and two legislations, namely, theLai Autonomous District Council (VillageCouncils) (Amendment) Act, 2011 and theLai Autonomous District Council(Constitution, Conduct of Business etc.)(Amendment) Rules, 2011. The term‘Village Assembly’ is to be used insteadof ‘Gram Sabha’ and one seat in eachVillage Council shall be reserved forwomen34 Subsequently, the State Election


Commission has been authorized tosupervise and conduct election for DistrictCouncils and Village Councils in the SixthSchedule area. Over and above that,certain provision of the Seventy ThirdAmendment Act, 1992 are incorporatedin the functioning of the Village Councilsin the Sixth Schedule area. The legislationsbecame effective with publication in theState Gazette on 21st July, 2011 and 12thAugust, 2011 respectively.35 Likewise, theMara Autonomous District Council tooenacted the same legislation in itsemergency session held on 3rd - 6thAugust, 2011.36 The C.A.D.C too enactedit in its legislature in 2011. Thus, the variouspolitical demands for more autonomyespecially Direct Funding issue of the SixthSchedule area of Mizoram have beentactfully responded by the Government ofIndia with village empowerment andPanchayati Raj Institution (P.R.I.).

Conclusion

Village Council is the only viableresponsible Local Self Government atpresent in Mizoram because there is noconcrete evidence of the existence of anyTown Committee or Municipality prior tothe existence of Aizawl Municipal Council.However, recollecting the system ofVillage Council functioning, certainamendments seem to be required in thestructure of the Village Council system.Panchayati Raj in modified form to suitthe local situation is now introduced in thesixth Schedule area of Mizoram as perthe provision of the Seventy ThirdAmendment Act of the Indian Parliamentwith out disturbing the District Councilsystem. Thus, rural areas of the sixth

schedule area are expected to bedeveloped by the fund of the CentralGovernment with out touching theexchequer of the District Council and theState Government. Village Council as aminiature government at the village levelis also quite important because it ushersall types of developmental works fromdifferent levels of governments. However,adequate measures should be initiated inorder that extreme politicization should beshrewdly averted. It is evident thatintensed party rivalries in some villagesintensified factionalism and party rivalrywhich disturb the peaceful atmosphere ofthe village. In this regard, political partiesare required to impart constructive politicaleducation to the villagers for attainmentof political maturity rather than pollutingthe ignorant villager’s mind with hatredand party feeling. Therefore, politicalawareness, sense of responsibilities andpolitical maturity are highly required forenabling constructive development andsmooth functioning of Village Counciladministration. Moreover, P.R.I in modifiedform without disturbing the traditionalsystem should also be extended to the non-Sixth Schedule Area of Mizoram so as toenable village empowerment and socio-economic development.

References

1. Basu, D.D. (1997). Introduction tothe Constitution of India, New Delhi:Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.

2. Hansaria, B.L. (1983). SixthSchedule to the Constitution ofIndia - A Study, Gauhati: JyotiPrinters. pp. A279 - A 280.


3. Rao, Venkata V., Thansanga, H. andHazarika, Niru. (1987). A Centuryof Government and Politics inNorth East India, Vol-III, Mizoram,New Delhi : S. Chand & Company(Pvt). Ltd. p. 61.

4. Singh, S. N. (1994). Mizoram, NewDelhi : Mittal Publication, p. 113.

5. Hansaria, B.L., Op.cit, pp. 6 & AI-3.

6. Rosangluaia, R.S.(1994). Tribes ofMizoram. Aizawl: Tribal ResearchInstitute (T.R.I.), pp. 22 & 96.

7. Prasad, R.N. & Aggarwal, A.K.(1991). Political and EconomicDevelopment of Mizoram, NewDelhi : Mittal Publication. p. 125.

9. Lalsawia, Zoram Hminghmel,Lalsawia, Aizawl, 1994, pp. 63-65.

10. Doungel, Jangkhongam. (2010).Evolution of District councilautonomy in Mizoram,Guwahati :Spectrum Publication, pp. 7-8.

11. Hnialum, R. T. (1988). Road to PawiAutonomous District Council.Lawngtlai. Lai Autonomous DistrictCouncil, pp. 7-8.

12. Op.cit, p. 61.

13. Government of India, TheConstitution of India (As on 1st June,1996) Department of Publication,1996, p. 162.

14. Records and documents, LocalAdministration Department, LaiAutonomous District Council,Lawngtlai, Mizoram,

15. Latest sources from Inlong Chakma,Local administrative Officer,C.A.D.C. Kamalanagar, 12th

December, 2013.

16. Latest sources from P. Sama, Localadministrative Officer, M.A.D.C.,Saiha, 7th December, 2005 andsources, collected from LocalAdministration Department, MADC,Saiha, 18th October, 2013

17. LADC (Local AdministrativeDepartment), Record and Documents,Lawngtlai, 8th November, 2013.

18. Hnialum, R.T. (1972). The Collectionof the Pawi Autonomous DistrictCouncil Acts, Regulations andRules, Volume-I, Pawi districtCouncil, Lawngtlai, p. 41.

19. Doungel, Jangkhongam, Op.cit, pp.172-174.

20. Ibid.

21. Hnialum, R. T. The Collection ofthe Pawi Autonomous DistrictCouncil Acts, Regulations andRules, Volume-I, Op.cit, p.41

22. Thanhranga, H. C. (1994). Administrationof Justice in Mizoram, LengchhawnPress, Aizawl, pp. 8-14.

23. LADC (Local AdministrativeDepartment), Election of VillageCouncil, Rules, 1981, Lawngtlai, pp.2-4 & 18-19.

24. Direct Funding is the main campaignissue of Indian National Congress inthe Sixth Schedule Area of Mizoramduring election campaign for electionto District Council, LegislativeAssembly and Village Council. It isalso the important political slogan ofPolitical leaders of the area whichhas been often mentioned in publicmeetings in the area.


25. Facts, collected from discussion,interview and speeches of politiciansin formal and informal interactionsand public meetings.

26. Interview with Sapliana Vandir, Ex.M.L.A., Lawngtlai, 4th August, 2009.

27. Bakshi, P. M. (2006). The Constitutionof India, Delhi: Universal LawPublishing Co. Pvt. Ltd, pp. 234-235& 354.

28. Government of India. (2001,December). A Consultation Paperon Empowering and Strengtheningof Panchayati Raj Institution/Autonomous District Councils andTraditional Tribal GoverningInstitution in the North East India,New Delhi, Vigyan Bhawan Annexe,pp. 37 &125-126.

29. Sources from A. Lallungmuana andChaterjee in interview with them atLawngtlai in 2007.

30. (a) Sources from Doordarshan News,Aizawl on 5th April, 2011 and LocalNews Papers.

(b) Sources from C. Zoramthanga,Executive Secretary, L.A.D.C.,Lawngtlai, Mizoram.

31. Government of Mizoram. TheMizoram Gazette Extra Ordinary

Vol -XXXVII, 26.8.2008, Issue No.329, Aizwal : Controller, Printing &Stationery.

32. Minute proceeding of the meeting ofthe officials, Executive Members,Chief Executive Members, M.L.A.and Ex. M.P. at Raj Bhawan underthe Chairmanship of His Excellencythe Governor of Mizoram on 11th

May, 2011 at 11. A.M.

33. Minute proceeding of the meeting ofthe Chief Executive Members andChairman Of the AutonomousDistrict Councils of Mizoram, Aizawl,12 May, 2011

34. Observation of the L.A.D.C.Emergency Session from gallery on2nd June, 2011.

35. Government of Mizoram. TheMizoram Gazette Extra OrdinaryVol XL, 21.7.2011, Issue No. 307& The Mizoram Gazette ExtraOrdinary Vol XL, 12.8.2011, IssueNo. 349,Aizawl: Controller, Printing& Stationery.

36. Sources from Lalmalsawma Zasai,M.D.C and President, Mizo NationalFront (M.N.F.), Mara District, 5th

December, 2011, Saiha.

Climate Change Update 131

The Summary for Policy Makers(SPM) of the Fifth Assessment Report(AR5) of the Working Group III-Mitigation of Climate Change wasapproved on 12 April, 2014. The report isof more than of 2000 pages. A briefheadline type summary of the key findings,as summarized by GreenpeaceInternational , an international institutionof repute, is as under:

1. “Serious emission cuts haven’t reallystarted. Despite global agreementsand national policies, emissions keepgrowing- mostly in emergingeconomies – while old industrializedcountries’ emissions remain at highlevels. Global emissions grew fasterin 2000-2010 than in the previousdecades. Without further action, weare heading towards 4-50 C warmingor even more.

2. 2000-2010 was the decade of coal.Almost 80 per cent of the emissionsgrowth during this period was causedby fossil fuel combustion, and inparticular burning of coal.

Climate Change UpdateFifth Assessment Report of the IPCC- Reportof the Working Group III – Mitigation of Climate Change

F. B. Khan

3. It is not too late to limit warming toless than 20 C- even 1.50 C with lesscertainty- the levels beyond whichrisks start to accelerate substantially.But we have to stay within a limitedcarbon budget that is shrinking fast.Scenarios that b ring temperatureback to 1.50 C imply 70-95 per centemission cuts by 2050 from 2010levels, while 20 Scenarios imply atleast 40-70 per cent cuts by 2050.

4. We need to head towards fossil fuelphase out and zero net emissions.Energy sector is the biggest sourceof emissions and that’s where afundamental transformation isneeded, including a “long-termphase-out of unabated fossil fuelconversion technologies”. Global netCO2 emissions must decline towardzero. Rapid decarburization of theelectricity system is a key componentof cost-effective strategies, startingfrom conventional coal power plants.

5. Renewable energy is ready to go bigand comes with most co-benefits.Renewable energy technologies have


advanced to substantially inperformance and costs since the lastIPCC report (AR4) and a growingnumber of them have achieved alevel of technical and economicmaturity to enable deployment atsignificant scale. The same can’t besaid for nuclear and carbon captureand storage (CCS). Out of the zeroor low carbon options assessed,which the report says must be tripledto nearly quadrupled by 2050 forbelow 2 degrees scenarios,renewable stand out as the east thingto do and are associated with manyco-benefits.

6. Using energy more smartly plays afundamental role in emission cuts.Near term reductions in energydemand are important for costeffective mitigation. The more is doneon energy efficiency, the lesspressure there is to rely on riskyoptions on the energy supply side.Efficiency potential is large anddeploying it would help avoid lock-into carbon-intensive infrastructureswhile unleashing important co-benefits.

7. Clean energy transmission meansfossil fuel divestment. Transitioningto a low-carbon world would implylarge changes in investment patternsin the next 15 years, with majordeclines in fossil fuel extraction andpower plant investments and majorincreases in energy efficiency andrenewable energy. To stay below20 C, only about a fifth of all fossil

reserves can be burned. Hence,climate policies may devalue fossilfuel assets. The effect on coal andoil exporters is expected to be largelynegative.

8. Costs of action are tiny when putinto context. Keeping below 20 Ccould reduce consumption growth byabout k0.06 percentage belowbaseline. In other words, instead ofabout 1.6-3 per cent annual growthin global consumption, we wouldhave 1.54-2.94 per cent growth overthe century. These numbers ignorethe benefits of avoided climatedestruction as well as co-benefits ofcutting pollution. In reality, the airquality co-benefits alone can oftenbe of a similar order of magnitude asthe mitigation costs themselves-or farexceed them.

9. Acting fast reduces costs and risksand avoids inconvenient measures.The longer we delay action, thehigher the overall costs and thesmaller our chances to preventcatastrophic warming. Delayreduces technology options, forcingus to rely increasingly on unprovenand speculative technologies, such ascarbon dioxide removal with bio-energy coupled with carbon captureand storage (BECCS), which entailmany challenges and risks.

10. Global cooperation is needed andmaking it more fair could help. Sofar success in global cooperation onclimate action has been limited, interms of actual emission cuts, butaddressing distributional equity and

Climate Change Update 133

fairness could help the way forward.There are no universally agreedmethods for fair effort sharing, butlooking at all effort sharingframeworks together suggests thatif aim is to keep warming below 20

C, then in 2030 OECD 1990countries’ emissions allowanceswould need to be approximately halfof 2010 levels, with a large range,roughly two-thirds in the Economiesin Transition (EIT), roughly at the2010 emissions level of slightly belowin Asia, slightly above the 2010 levelin the Middle East and Africa, andwell below the 2010 level in LatinAmerica .

Finally, it is not just technology andpolicy that needs to change- nor justenergy. Behavior, lifestyle and culturehave a considerable influence on energyuse and emissions, with high reductionpotential in some sectors. Changes inconsumption patterns and dietary changeand reduction in food wastes cansubstantially lower emissions. In the land-use sector, reducing deforestation is amongthe most cost-effective mitigation options.

Conclusions for action

From a decade of coal to the centuryof renewable. The problem is clearand so are solutions. Our energysystem needs to undergo afundamental transformation fromfossil fuels to renewable and smartenergy. In recent years, the transitionhas already started, but it must scaleup and speed up.

From phase down to phase out. It isnot enough to cap emissions or toreduce their growth. What we need,eventually, is a phase out of fossil fueltechnologies altogether. It willdecades, but to get there, changemust start today. It means avoidinginvestments into high-carboninfrastructure and shiftinginvestments to energy efficiencyacross sectors and renewable energyin power in particular, wheredecarburization can be fastest. Clearand consistent long-term goals andpolicies play a crucial role.

Decision-makers are everywhere.Climate change is too big an issue tobe left to policymakers alone.Advancing a future powered by100 per cent needs game changersat all levels, from financial regulatorsto investors; from CEOs to unionsand from city councils to churches.Thanks to rapidly declining RE costs,individuals can increasingly takecontrol of their own energy andbecome drivers of change.

Paris Treaty must mark thebeginning of the end to fossil fuel era.United Nations climate negotiationsare stuck in the past seeing climateaction as a burden. In reality, notacting is the burden. Smart energy,forest protection and climate resilientagriculture come with major co-benefits to pave the way towards a100 per cent renewable energyfuture for all and start the count downof fossil fuel phase out.


Courtesy: Greenpeace International:(www.greenpeace.org international/.../international/ . . . /IPCC-WGIII-key%...)

Carbon footprint

Carbon footprint is a key concept andtool in knowing how much emissions aregenerated from an activity, whether of anindividual or collective activity. It is definedas is a measure of the impact our activitieshave on the environment, and in particularclimate change. It is a sum total of thetotal greenhouse gas emissions produceddirectly and indirectly in our day-to-daylives through burning fossil fuels forelectricity, heating and transportation etc.Much awareness has now been createdto see the carbon footprint of megaevents. For example report is cited below:

Brazil promises ‘greenest’ everWorld Cup

Brazil announced a package ofpollution-cutting measures aimed atmaking this year’s World Cup moreenvironmentally friendly, ranging from anemissions-trading scheme to a “greenpass-port” smart-phone application. “Wewant to score green goals”, said theMinister Izabella Teixeria. The World Cupand other major sports events generally

leave giant carbon footprints. Teixeria saidthis year’s World Cup, which runs fromJune12 to July 13, is expected to add 59,000tonnes of carbon to the atmosphere. Whenindirect emissions linked to the tournamentare included, the total rises to 1.4 milliontonnes- just under half the footprintattributed to the London Olympics in 2012.The government has launched a programto offset pollution by asking companies togive carbon credits in exchange for theright to advertise themselves as official‘green seal’

Free Press Journal, Mumbai dated29 May, 2014

New Ministry for Climate Change inIndia. As per the institutional arrangementat central government level, the subjectof climate change, in the previous regime,has been handled by the Ministry of EarthSciences, under which the IndianMeteorology Department comes, and theMinistry of Environment and Forests.According to the announcement made bythe newly appointed Minister ofEnvironment under the premiership ofMr. Narendra Modi, the name of theMinistry of Environment and Forests willbe changed to the Ministry ofEnvironment, Forests and ClimateChange.

Book Review 135

Book Review

Datt & Sundharam - Indian Economy.by Gaurav Datt and Ashwani Mahajan.S. Chand & Co., New Delhi.63rd Revised Edition, 2011ISBN: 81-219-0298-3

All the people who have done graduationor post-graduation in economics from 1965 tillnow, all the people who have appeared for highercompetitive examination like Indian Civil Service,all the persons who, as a part of their job/profession are required to keep tabs on Indianeconomy have had one thing in common, viz.,all of them have read, referred to or relied uponthe book Indian Economy by Ruddar Datt andK.P.M. Sundharam. Covering Indian economyis a big task. A large number of books arebrought out and continue to come out on variousaspects/sectors of Indian economy, but when itcomes to putting the whole subject in a compactvolume, so as to cover all the essential things,especially syllabi of the universities in India onthe subject, the book has had no rival orsubstitute. Economy is dynamic by nature. Indianeconomy, after Independence embarked on FiveYears Plans, various new policies have beendeclared from time to time, changes are madein them, and developments in various sectors ofthe economy have taken place and continue totake place, as such data on economy changesas fast as fashion styles. In such a scenario it isa huge task for any author on economy to keeptrack of such changes, to replace old data andcome up with new statistics. The authors havedone this admirably, and every edition came out

with up to date facts and figures, so that thebook has always remained new. A hallmark of agood author, especially of educational books isthat the language used should be so simple andpresentation should so lucid that the contentsshould find a free flow to the mind of the reader.Perhaps this was one of the reasons for thepopularity of the book with the students and thefaculty.

Late Professor- Ruddar Datt was anerudite scholar of economics and a great teacherof the subject. Mr. K.P.M. Sundharam is prolificwriter of books on the vast range of subjects ofeconomics. One of his book earlier titled ‘MoneyTrade Finance and Banking’, later styled as‘Monetary Theory and Practice’ was equallypopular book throughout India amongst thestudents of economics and the bank employeeswho used to appear for CAIIB certification. Itis no surprise that when these two legends cametogether, the resultant outcome would be amasterpiece. From 1965 ti l l 2000 (furthercontinued with new author duo) new editionscame out every year, with reprints coming twicein most of these years. It must be recognizedthat the publisher of the book S. Chand & Co.,which is a renowned publishing house in India,brought out the book with all the requiredqualities of print, get up, binding etc.

In 2009, Professor Ruddar Datt passedaway. It was a huge loss to the academic worldin India and to the nation, when it lost a manwho was a pulse reader of the economy.Naturally, doubts came in the minds of thousandsas to the continuity of the masterwork. LateProfessor Ruddar Datt, had not only enlightenedthe tens of thousands students of economics, buthad passed on his learning in economics, hispassion for the subject to his gifted, bright son


Gaurav Datt, to carry the baton. Thus, camethe next generation to continue the tradition.Gaurav Datt, who is a senior economist withthe World Bank found a competent associatein Ashwani Mahajan, who teaches at PGDAVCollege. Professor K.P.M. Sundharam blessedthis new author duo to continue the rich tradition.As such from 2009 editions of this book comeout with the authorship of the duo.

The 2011 (63rd edition) of the book is underreview. The title of the book has been styled asDat t & Sundhar am- I ndian Economy.Presenting the vast subject of Indian economyin the covers of a book is a tough job, when thelucidity of the original work has to be maintained.As such dividing the whole matter into partsand chapters is necessary, as was the originalwork. The book is divided into five Parts andthe chapters grouped under them, as under.

1. Part I covers the structure of the Indianeconomy. This Part has 9 chapters and65 topics- all very aptly chosen, l ikestarting from the meaning and implicationof an underdeveloped economy, majorissues of development in India, how theIndian economy was handled during theBritish rule, what were the consequencesof that exploitation and transition fromcolonization to modernization. NationalIncome is a key concept, which isexplained in the Indian context.Development is meant for the people; assuch the chapters on Human Resourcesand Economic Development, HumanDevelopment in India, OccupationalStructure and Economic Developmentsubstantiate this. These are the naturalresources that are to be optimally used(not exploited), and development of

infrastructure and social sector is crucial.Chapters on these vital topics are explainedin the chapter.

2. On gaining Independence, the speech ofTryst with Destiny epitomized the enormouschallenge before the nation. The challengewas huge and resources l imi ted. Theliberated nation embarked upon the FiveYear Plans. The Par t I I -Planning andEconomic Development covers thi sjourney of the country. The chaptersstarting from the Objectives and Strategyof Economic Planning, Industrial Policy andIndian Planning, Public Sector and IndianPlanning, Redefining the Role of the Stateand Privatization and Economic Reforms,Globalization and its Impact on India, rightup to XI Plan are nicely covered. Capitalformation i s crucial for economicdevelopment; as such the efforts of thecountry for this are well presented in thechapters on The Problem of Capi talFormation, Foreign Capital, Foreign Aid andEconomic Development. A SpecialInvestigative Team is formed by the newgovernment now (2014) to go into the issueof bringing back the black money stashedabroad. Earlier there was (and presentlycontinuing) a issue of parallel economy, andso far a number of strategies have beenadopted to tackle the issue. Nation’sexperience (mostly failure) to address thisissue finds place in chapter on ParallelEconomy in India. Poverty has been solong prevalent (along with riches) in Indiathat it is sanctified as daridra narayan.Our so called poverty alleviation schemespresent a pathetic picture. The book dealswith the topic in the chapter as Poverty

Book Review 137

and the Planning Process. Our schoolsand colleges have produced millions ofmatriculates, undergraduates, graduatesand post-graduates. Vocation courseswere late to come. Rising unemploymenthas been a painful feature of the society.The chapter Unemployment in Indiadiscusses the unemployment in India withvarious employment guarantee schemes.This part l acks a chapter on sel f -employment and national pol icy onprotection of livelihood of hawkers. Thechapter on Balanced RegionalDevelopment briefly discusses the matter,as there is no State in the country, whichdoes not have an issue of imbalances indevelopment of regions in it.

3. India has for long been identified as apredominantly agriculture based country.In spite of this the fact was that till 1970swe needed to import or receive foodgrains in aid. Part I I I -Agriculture in theNational Economy takes note of IndianAgriculture under the chapter on the FiveYear Plans: Green Revolution. This Partencompasses the chapters of FoodSecurity, Irrigation and other AgriculturalInputs, Land Reforms, Size of Farms,Organization of Rural Credit in India,Agriculture Marketing and Warehousingand Agricultural Labourer. All these topicsrequire a lot of statistics to support thefacts of successes or failures, which areprofusely provided in the form of tables.

4. Chapters on Indian Industries are inPart IV. Today India has diversified inindustries. IT industry is a sunshineindustry which has earned name for theIT professionals in India and abroad. The

chapters of Industrial Pattern and thePlans, Some Large Scale Industries,Information Technology Industry, Small-Scale Enterprise, Labour Problems andLabour Policy, Unorganized Sector andInformalisation of the Indian Economy,Second National Commission on Labourare well chosen and well covered. Failureof our labour policy lies in the fact that itleaves from its scope a substantial chunkof informal sector, where petty artisans,tradesmen, labourers pull on with l ifewithout any social security, and there isno organization to take care of them.

5. Part V – The Tertiary Sector in the IndianEconomy is the last part with chaptersfrom 43 to 54. These include – TheForeign Trade of India, India’s Balanceof Payments, Special Economic Zones,GATT, WTO and India’s Foreign Trade,Indian Currency System, Indian FinancialSystem: Commercial Banking System,Indian Financial System II: Money andCapital Markets in Indi, The Reserve Bankof India and Monetary Management,Indian Public Finance, Financial Relationsbetween the Centre and the States,Thirteenth Finance Commission (2010-2015) and Government Subsidies in India.

Accommodating all these 379 chapters withfacts and figures in 1003 pages of the paperbackis a marvelous work.

Using the book

While authors have been forthright to show,at relevant places, what were our successes andfailures; it is remarkable that they have beenobjective throughout in the treatment of thesubject, a hallmark of standard educational and


informative books. Primarily this book is usedby students and faculty. A question rises whetherthis book is sufficient for the study of the paperon Indian economy? The reviewers reply to thisquestion is that while this is a very good book tocover the syllabus, students should use this bookas a text book, but should not confine themselvesto this book alone. First fundamental principleof learning is that you do not retain all that youread. One must have a wide range of reading ofthe subject. Secondly, Indian economy, or forthat matter economy of any country is dynamic,various developments take place, there are anumber of institutions, both academic, institutionaland professional, that bring out various journals,periodicals, books. Students of Indian economyshould keep referring to such publications anddevelop a habit of compiling their own statisticaltables, notes from this book and other authenticsources etc.

The reviewer has all the praises for thebook and the authors in the review, because in

the limited space the authors have covered thefull range of the syllabi of the Indian universities.As mentioned above the coverage is pithy, styleis lucid, treatment is objective and explanatory,and language is simple. At the same time it isfelt that the authors should give a recommendedlist of journals, periodicals, or websites at theend of the book, from where the students canget additional matter to broaden their reading onthe subject. Usefulness of the book is not limitedto students. Any other person whether a teacherof the subject, a bureaucrat, professional, ajournalist or any one interested in Indianeconomy will find this book immensely useful.

Printing industry in India has progressedimmensely. Aided by computer and goodsoftware, the quality of printing has becomeremarkably well. The publisher and the printerof the book also deserve appreciation forbringing out a compact volume of 1003 pageshandy volume.

F. B. Khan

139

Our Contributors

Mukesh KanaskarDr. Mukesh Kanaskar is Professor & Director-International, All India Instituteof Local Self-Government, Mumbai

Arpan De SarkarMr. Arpan De Sarkar is Public Policy Analyst / Economist, Policy ProgrammeSupport Unit, Support to National Policies for Urban Poverty Reduction (SNPUPR),Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Reduction, Government of India.

Nitin R VaidyaMr. Nitin R Vaidya is President, OSS Educational Society, Pune, Maharashtra.

Shweta GuptaMs. Shweta Gupta is Assistant Director, International Centre of EQI-T of AllIndia Institute of Local Self-Government, Pune, Maharashtra.

Prajakta ThipseMs. Prajakta Thipse is Associate faculty, International Centre of EQUI-T of AllIndia Institute of Local Self-Government, Pune, Maharashtra.

Vivek TrivediMr. Vivek Trivedi is working as Social Development Officer in State UrbanPoverty Alleviation Cell, a Programme of Ministry of Housing and Urban PovertyAlleviation at Chandigarh Municipal Corporation. Prior to this, he was ProjectDirector to United Nation Development Programme and Government of Indiaproject on Urban Poverty Alleviation & Livelihood, under National Strategy forUrban Poor (NSUP).

Pooja GuleriaMs. Pooja Guleria is Assistant Professor, Guru Ramdas School of Planning,Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab.

Contd...

Malli GandhiDr. Malli Gandhi is Professor of History, Regional Institute of Education, NCERT,Manasgangotri, Mysore - 6, Karnataka.

Jangkhongam DoungelDr. Jangkhongam Doungel is Associate Professor and Head, Department ofPolitical Science, Mizoram University, Aizawl, Mizoram.

F. B. KhanMr. F. B. Khan is Executive, Urban Cell of All India Institute of Local Self-Government, Mumbai, Maharashtra.

All India Institute of Local Self-GovernmentM. N. Roy Human Development Campus, Plot No. 6,’ F Block,

TPS Road No. 12 Bandra (E), Mumbai - 400 051.Tel.: 2657 1713 / 2657 17 14 / 2657 17 15 Fax : 2657 21 15

Email : [email protected] / [email protected] Website : www.aiilsg.org