CHAPTER I 1

HILITARIZATION OF POLITICS: ANALYTICAL PRAHEWORK

1. T r a d i t i o n a l R o l e o f H i l i t a r y

The m i l i t a r y is t h e main armed wing o f a s t a t e . I t is

a p a r t o f s o c i e t y ' s p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e and an i n s t r u m e n t of

t h e p o l i c y p u r s u e d by t h e r u l i n g c l a s s e s i n r e g a r d t o

i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l a f f a i r s . The o r g a n i s e d s e t t i n g up o f

t h e m i l i t a r y s t a r t e d when t h e s t a t e emerged .

A l though i t is i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e p r e c i s e l y when

and how t h e s t a t e s y s t e m emerged , it is u n d e n i a b l e t h a t

f o r c e was a p o s i t i v e f a c t o r i n b r i n g i n g i t a b o u t . The

m i l i t a r y came i n t o b e i n g , among o t h e r t h i n g s , t o m a i n t a i n

i n t e r n a l p e a c e and o r d e r and p r o t e c t i n g t h e s t a t e f rom

e x t e r n a l d a n g e r s . T h i s c o e r c i v e power, t h e power t o e n f o r c e

d e c i s i o n , was employed by t h e s t a t e i n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f

i t s f u n c t i o n s . Thus , n a t u r a l l y , t h e s e p o l i c e f u n c t i o n s of

t h e s t a t e n e c e s s i t a t e d t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of a mach ine ry

c a p a b l e o f a c h i e v i n g t h i s e n d . I t is i n t h i s c o n t e x t t h a t

t h e army began t o p l a y i ts r o l e i n p o l i t i c s i n t r a d i t i o n a l

s o c i e t y .

I n an a n t a g o n i s t i c s o c i e t y , t h e army as a whole was an

i n s t r u m e n t i n t h e h a n d s of t h e e x p l o i t i n g c l a s s e s and

c o n f r o n t e d t h e p e o p l e a s an a l i e n and h o s t i l e f o r c e .

I n s t a n c e s o f t h i s c a n b e c i t e d f rom h i s t o r y . The a r m i e s o f

s l a v e s l e d b y S p a r t a c u s i n a n c i e n t Rome, and p e a s a n t s

f i g h t i n g i n p e a s a n t w a r s , u p r i s i n g s i n F r a n c e and England i n

t h e 1 4 t h c e n t u r y , Germany i n t h e 1 6 t h c e n t u r y , t h e armed

w o r k e r s ' d e t a c h m e n t s and m i l i t i a b o d i e s s e t up d u r i n g t h e

P a r i s Commune i n 1 8 7 1 and t h e f i r s t R u s s i a n R e v o l u t i o n o f

1905-1907, e t c . The a r m i e s o f t h e e x p l o i t i n g c l a s s e s , on

t h e o t h e r hand , have a l w a y s been formed f o r t h e s i n g l e

p u r p o s e o f s u p p r e s s i n g t h e e n s l a v e d classes and c o n q u e r i n g

o t h e r c o u n t r i e s and n a t i o n s .

The armies o f b i g c o u n t r i e s i n t h e w o r l d have a l w a y s

been i n t h e f o r e f r o n t o f p r o m o t i n g c o l o n i a l i s m and neo-

c o l o n i a l i s m . I n t h e c o u r s e o f f o u r c e n t u r i e s , B r i t a i n , t h e

o l d e s t c o l o n i a l m a s t e r , u n l e a s h e d more t h a n two hundred war s

t o s e i z e f o r e i g n l a n d s and e n s l a v e o t h e r p e o p l e s . The

h i s t o r y o f U.S i m p e r i a l l i s m a l s o abounds i n wars and

p u n i t i v e e x p e d i t i o n s t o c o n q u e r f o r e i g n l a n d s o r t o s u p p r e s s

i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e s . I n t h e U.S .S .R, t h e S t a l i n i s t r eg ime

u s e d its m i l i t a r y t o widen t h e h o r i z o n s o f i t s power and

i n f l u e n c e i n t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g c o u n t r i e s . The m i l i t a r y was

a l s o u s e d t o f o r c i b l y implement t h e i r i d e o l o g y and power i n

t h e E a s t e r n European c o u n t r i e s . I n A s i a , t h e m i l i t a r y was

n o t p a r t o f t h e r u l i n g e l i t e o r t h e p r i v i l e g e d c l a s s a t t h e

t i m e o f c o l o n i a l r u l e . A s l o y a l s o l d i e r s t h e m i l i t a r y

a c c e p t e d t h e i r c o n f i n e m e n t t o t h e b a r r a c k s and t o obey t h e i r

masters. Over t h e y e a r s , t h e r o l e of t h e m i l i t a r y h a s

e n t i r e l y changed e v e r y w h e r e . Today , t h e armed f o r c e s of

i m p e r i a l s i t s t a t e s p r e s e r v e and e x t e n d t h e i r d o m i n a t i o n even

i n t h e a r e a o f n a t i o n a l i n d e p e n d e n c e s t r u g g l e s .

Ro le o f Mil i tary and C i v i l - H i l i t a r y R e l a t i o n s i n D e v e l o p i n g C o u n t r i e s

The a s c e n d e n c y of m i l i t a r y o v e r p o l i t i c a l power i n many

of t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s is a p e r v a s i v e phenomenon. The

m i l i t a r y had p l a y e d c o v e r t and o v e r t r o l e i n t h e p a s t b u t

t h e e x p a n s i o n o f i t s r o l e i n t h e p o l i t i c a l a r e n a , e s p e c i a l l y

i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , h a s been overwhelming d u r i n g

t h e p a s t t h r e e t o f o u r d e c a d e s . A l a r g e number of

c o u n t r i e s i n A s i a , A f r i c a and L a t i n America succumbed t o

m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n o r p o u ~ d 'e - and c o u n t e r - c o u p s . I n

t h e s e c o u n t r i e s , t h e m i l i t a r y e i t h e r assumed power o r it

emerged as a f o r m i d a b l e a c t o r i n p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s e s .

The r o l e o f t h e m i l i t a r y i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s h a s

u n c o v e r e d a number o f f e a t u r e s t h a t c o n s i d e r a b l y expand

t r a d i t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e s on t h e n i l i t a r y i n s t i t u t i o n . I n

t h e p a s t , a ' m i l i t a r y r e g i m e ' was u n d e r s t o o d m i l i t a r y

c o n t r o l l e d , a d m i n i s t e r e d and l e g i s l a t e d government a t e v e r y

l e v e l . Too o f t e n , t h e l a b e l a l s o s u g g e s t e d t h a t " p o l i t i c s "

was s e p a r a t e f rom t h e m i l i t a r y . But it is s e e n t h a t i n t h e

d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , a c o a l i t i o n o f m i l i t a r y and c i v i l i a n

e l i t e s a s well as t o t a l m i l i t a r y r e g i m e s r u l i n g . E q u a l l y

i m p o r t a n t , p o l i t i c s is as i n t e n s e i n m i l i t a r y as i n c i v i l i a n

c o n t r o l l e d s y s t e m s . D e f i n i n g t h e r o l e of m i l i t a r y r e g i m e s ,

Sam C . S a r k e s i a s t a t e d :

We need t o n o t e t h a t s e v e r a l d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s have " s e r v i c e s " o t h e r t h a n t h e army. A l though t h e g round f o r c e s p l a y c r u c i a l r o l e s i n m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n and s u b s e q u e n t r u l e , it d o e s n o t a l w a y s f o l l o w t h t t h e o t h e r s e r v i c e s d o n o t p l a y i m p o r t a n t r o l e s . 1

A n a l a y s i n g t h e r o l e o f p a r a m i l i t a r y and n a t i o n a l p o l i c e

f o r c e s i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e m i l i t a r y i n d e v e l o p i n g

c o u n t r i e s , S a r k e s i a n p o i n t s o u t :

Such f o r c e s a r e g e n e r a l l y d e e p l y i n v o l v e d i n i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c s , p r o v i d e a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e m i l i t a r y , and a r e u s u a l l y s t a t i o n e d i n s e n s i t i v e a r e a s o f t h e c o u n t r y . T h e r e is a need t o

' S a m C . S a r k e s i a n , " A p o l i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e on M i l i t a r y Power i n D e v e l o p i n g A r e a s " , i n M l l l t a r v and . . S e c u r i t v i n t h e -d International ImDacts, S h e l d a n W . Simon ( e d . ) , ( E n g l a n d : Westview P r e s ~ , 1 9 7 8 ) , p . 3 .

examine t h e p o l i t i c s o f s u c h f o r c e s and t h e impac t t h e y have on m i l i t a r y s y s t e m s and p o l i t i c s . 2

I n t h e T h i r d World phenomena o f m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n s ,

i t is t o o o f t e n s e e n as i n t e r v e n t i o n by a c o h e s i v e and

m o n o l i t h i c m i l i t a r y i n s t i t u t i o n . I n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s ,

m i l i t a r y i n s t i t u i o n s have i n t e r n a l d i s a g r e e m e n t s , d i s p a r a t e

l o y a l t i e s , and d i f f e r i n g p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e i r r o l e .

Sometimes a h a n d f u l o f m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s and s o l d i e r s a r e

s u f f i c i e n t t o o v e r t h r o w e x i s t i n g r e g i m e s i n a number o f

d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . One of t h e e s s e n t i a l a s p e c t s o f a

s u c c e s s f u l m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n is f o r t h e coup

p e r p e t r a t o r s t o i n s u r e t h e b a c k i n g , n e u t r a l i t y , o r a t l e a s t

i n d i f f e r e n c e o f t h e r e s t o f t h e m i l i t a r y . Ano the r i m p o r t a n t

a s p e c t o f m i l i t a r y r o l e is " r e t u r n t o t h e b a r r a c k s "

phenomenon. F o r example , u n d e r what c i r c u m s t a n c e s d o

m i l i t a r y men r e l i n q u i s h f o r m a l c o n t r o l o f a c o u n t r y and

r e t u r n t o t h e i r " t r a d i t i o n a l " r o l e , l e a v i n g p o l i t i c s t o

p o l i t i c i a n s ? T h i s phenomenon r a i s e s q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e

v e t o r o l e of m i l i t a r y who a r e i n t h e b a r r a c k s , a b o u t c i v i l -

m i l i t a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p s and a b o u t t h e d e g r e e o f c i v i l i a n

c o n t r o l .

The m i l i t a r y ' s r o l e i n d e v e l o p i n g n a t i o n s d o e s n o t

always s y n c h r o n i s e w i t h i ts i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f a coup o r w i t h

t h e number o f s e a t s i t occu 'p i e s i n t h e o f f i c i a l s t r u c t u r e o f

a gove rnmen t . Bu t t h e power o f t h e m i l i t a r y e x i s t s

b a s i c a l l y i n i t s c o n t i n u i n g s t r e n g t h and a b i l i t y o r v i s i o n

t o i n f l u e n c e t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s o r s y s t e m o f a c o u n t r y .

The l a b e l " m i l i t a r y gove rnmen t " o r " m i l i t a r y r e g i m e s " was

t r a d i t i o n a l l y u s e d when a m i l i t a r y o f f i c i a l came t o power as

t h e head o f a s t a t e o r when a m i l i t a r y j u n t a became

e x e c u t i v e . But i n r e a l i t y , t h e m i l i t a r y is a l s o c a p a b l e o f

e x e r t i n g power f rom t h e b a r r a c k s .

The i n t e r a c t i o n be tween m i l i t a r y and c i v i l i a n e l i t e s is

a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f t h e r u l e o f t h e m i l i t a r y . its

i n f l u e n c e and i m p a c t on t h e p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m is d e t e r m i n e d

i n no small way by c o a l i t i o n s be tween m i l i t a r y / c i v i l i a n

e l i t e s . The more r e a l i s t i c f o c u s , t h e r e f o r e , is t o examine

c o a l i t i o n b u i l d i n g and f a c t i o n a l p o l i t i c s w i t h i n t h e

m i l i t a r y and c i v i l i a n e l i t e g r o u p s and be tween m i l i t a r y and

c i v i l i a n faction^.^ The r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween m i l i t a r y and c i v i l i a n g r o u p s have an i m p o r t a n t b e a r i n g on p e r f o r m a n c e .

The smooth p e r f o r m a n c e and r u n n i n g of c i v i l i a n r e g i m e s a l s o

is n o t s o l e l y d e t e r m i n e d by t h e c i v i l i a n s who occupy t h e

o f f i c i a l s e a t s o f power . M i l i t a r y b e h a v i o u r and a t t i t u d e of

any c i v i l i a n r e g i m e h a s an i m p o r t a n t impac t on t h e f i n a l

p e r f o r m a n c e of any t y p e of r e g i m e . T h e r e f o r e , t o

a r b i t r a r i l y c a t e g o r i s e g o v e r n m e n t s a s m i l i t a r y o r c i v i l i a n

is t o m i s s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l mix of m i l i t a r y and c i v i l i a n

e l i t e s i n d e v e l o p i n g s t a t e s . A s s u g g e s t e d by S a r k e s i a n , by

a p p l y i n g t h e m i l i t a r y c i v i l i a n c o a l i t i o n one c a n e a s i l y

t r a n s c e n d n a t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s and f o c u s on common p o l i t i c a l

f a c t o r s t h a t c u t a c r o s s r e g i m e s . 5

I n t h e c a s e o f a new n a t i o n , it is more e a s y f o r t h e

m i l i t a r y t o s e i z e power and more d i f f i c u l t t o g o v e r n t h e

c o u n t r y . Whi le e x a m i n i n g r u l e r s and t e c h n i q u e s of r u l i n g ,

Howard W r i g g i n s s t a t e s :

A r e g i m e c a n s u r v i v e f o r a t i m e when t h e c i v i l i a n b u r e a u c r a c y o p p o s e s it . . . But no r eg ime can s u r v i v e i f t h e m i l i t a r y d o e s n o t a t least a c q u i e s c e i n i ts r u l e . . . Most c i v i l i a n l e a d e r s i n new s t a t e s , t h e r e f o r e , a r e a m b i v a l e n t i n t h e i r f e e l i n g s toward t h e i r a r m i e s . They need them f o r many f u n c t i o n s ; t h e y f e a r t h e y may b e o v e r t h r o w n by them. Winni g t h e i r b a c k i n g is a c e n t r a l c o n c e r n o f any l e a d e r . €!

Howard W r i g g i n s , T h e e r ' s I m ~ e r a t i v e , (New York: Columbia U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1969) . pp .65-69 .

I t is a l s o r e l e v a n t t o d i s c u s s t h e q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d by

M o r r i s J a n o w i t z , a C h i c a g o b a s e d s o c i o l o g i s t , namely , t h e

e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e m i l i t a r y

f o r a new n a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e n a t i o n is s t r i v i n g f o r

r a p i d economic d e v e l o p m e n t and s o c i a l m o d e r n i s a t i o n .

Answering t h e s e q u e s t i o n s J a n o w i t z c o n t i n u e d ; "Once

p o l i t i c a l power h a s been a c h i e v e d , t h e m i l i t a ry must d e v e l o p

mass p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i s a t i o n o f a c i v i l i a n t y p e o r it must

work o u t v i a b l e r e l a t i o n s w i t h c i v i l i a n p o l i t i c a l g r o u p s . .. 7 I n s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s t h e m i l i t a r y found it e a s y t o s e i z e

power. B u t , when it came c l o s e r t o t h e r e a l i t y , it was much

more d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e m i l i t a r y t o g o v e r n t h e c o u n t r y and

l o o k a f t e r t h e w e l l - b e i n g o f t h e p e o p l e . The r o l e o f t h e

m i l i t a r y i n t h e p r o c e s s o f m o d e r n i z a t i o n h a s i m p o r t a n t

i m p l i c a t i o n s i n t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s . J a n o w i t z o b s e r v e s

t h a t t h e r e is a w i d e s p r e a d n o t i o n o f t h e m i l i t a r y b e i n g

' t e c h n o c r a t i c i n o r i e n t a t i o n ' and c o n c e r n e d w i t h

m o d e r n i s a t i o n . Such a v i ew i g n o r e s t h e f a c t t h a t ' t h e

m i l i t a r y is a l s o c o n c e r n e d w i t h l e g i t i m a t e a u t h o r i t y and

w i t h h i s t o r i c a l and n a t i o n a l t r a d i t i o n s . '

H. J a n o w i t z , T h e a l l l t a r v i n t h e P o l l a a l D e v e l o ~ d . . . . ~ f New -:. An m v i n C-ive Bnalvsis ( C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , 19641, p . 1 8 .

I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , as V.R,Berghahn h a s p o i n t e d o u t ,

i t was, o f c o u r s e , one t h i n g t o s t a t e t h a t t h e m i l i t a r y i n

d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s d i d n o t f u l f i l a m o d e r n i s i n g r o l e , b u t

q u i t e a n o t h e r t o p u t f o r w a r d p l a u s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s o f

t h i s . On t h e a n a l y s i s o f Samuel P . H u n t i n g t o n - s

m o d e r n i z a t i o n t h e o r y m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n i n p o l i t i c s a r e

n o t m i l i t a r y . Bu t p o l i t i c a l and r e f l e c t n o t t h e s o c i a l and

o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e m i l i t a r y

e s t a b l i s h m e n t , b u t t h e p o l i t i c a l and i n s t i t u t i o n a l

s t r u c t u r e o f ~ o c i e t y . ~ He s t a r t s f rom t h e b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n

t h a t " t h e g e n e r a l p o l i t i c i z a t i o n o f s o c i a l f o r c e s and

i n s t i t u t i o n s ' is t h e most i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o f a l l

d e v e l o p i n g s o c i e t i e s .

When we compare t h e r o l e and f u n c t i o n o f m i l i t a r y i n

d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s , a v a r i e t y o f p a t t e r n s on m i l i t a r y r o l e s

a round t h e wor ld c a n b e s e e n . I n h i s e m p i r i c a l s t u d y , t h e

i m p a c t o f m i l i t a r y r u l e upon Economic and S o c i a l c h a n g e i n

V . R . Berghahn , - InternationalDebate ( W a r w i c k s h i r e : Berg P u b l i s h i n g 1 9 8 1 ) , p . 7 6 .

' S . P . H u n t i n g t o n , Polltlcal . . O r d e r ~ n S o c i e U , (New Haven: Ya le U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 8 ) , p . 1 9 4 .

t h e Non-Western S t a t e s , l0 E r i c N o r d l i n g e r f o c u s s e s on

p o l i c y c o n s e q u e n c e s of m i l i t a r y r u l e i n d e v e l o p i n g areas and

c o n c l u d e s t h a t m i l i t a r y r u l e s a r e f u n d a m e n t a l l y unconce rned

a b o u t s o c i a l change and a r e opposed t o g r o u p s who s t r i v e f o r

r e f o r m . Moreover , he c l a i m s t h a t m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s as a

whole are more c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e i r c o r p o r a t e i n t e r e s t s and

a b o u t t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l s t a b i l i t y . Thus ,

m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s are g e n e r a l l y a t t a c h e d t o t h e i r midd le -

c lass i n t e r e s t s and v a l u e s y s t e m s .

Whi le a n a l y s i n g t h e m i l i t a r y in>lvement i n d o m e s t i c

p o l i t i c s and its c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r f o r e i g n and d e f e n c e

p o l i c i e s , T.W.Park and F . A b o l f a t h i o b s e r v e d t h a t ' c o u n t r i e s

w i t h a s t r o n g p o l i t i c a l r a t i n g o f t h e m i l i t a r y t e n d t o s p e n d

a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t a l r e v e n u e s f o r

d e f e n c e ' . They a l s o found t h a t ' h e a l t h and e d u c a t i o n

e x p e n d i t u r e s t e n d t o d e c r e a s e as m i l i t a r y i n f l u e n c e

i n c r e a s e s . l1 R .D .Mckin lay and A .S .Cohan, w h i l e examinir ig

l0 Eric N o r d l i n g e r . " S o l d i e r s i n M u f t i : The Impac t o f M i l i t a r y Ru le upon Economic and S o c i a l Change i n t h e . . Non-Western S t a t e s " , Bmerican P o l l t l c a l S-ce Revimz, No.64, December 1970 , Pp.1131-1148.

l1 "Tong Whan P a r k and F a r i d A b o l f a t h i . " O r i g i n and c o n s e q u e n c e s of M i l i t a r y i n v o l v e m e n t i n D e f e n s e and F o r e i g n P o l i c y " , ( P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e Midwest P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e A s s o c i a t i o n Mee t ing , Ch icago , i n 1974 A p r i l 26), p . 1 7 .

t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f m i l i t a r y r e g i m e s i n t e r m s o f t h e i r

p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l and economic i m p a c t , c a t e g o r i s e d r e g i m e s

i n t o M i l i t a r y Regimes ( M R ) , c i v i l i a n r e g i m e s t h a t have

e x p e r i e n c e d m i l i t a r y r u l e (CRM), C i v i l i a n r e g i m e s t h a t have

n o t e x p e r i e n c e d m i l i t a r y r u l e and have a mean p e r c a p i t a G N

P of l e s s t h a n US $900 (CR) and c i v i l i a n r e g i m e s w i t h a p e r

c a p i t a G N P g r e a t e r t h a n $900. They c o n c l u d e d t h a t w h i l e

t h e m a j o r i t y o f m i l i t a r y r e g i m e s d o n o t have t h e no rma l

components o f c i v i l i a n r e g i m e s , a s i z e a b l e m i n o r i t y d o n o t

have t h e no rma l components o f c i v i l i a n r e g i m e s , a s i z e a b l e

m i n o r i t y d o a d o p t t h e main f o r m a l p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a c i v i l i a n r e g i m e . 1 2

I t is c l e a r t h a t t h e r o l e o f t h e m i l i t a r y i n A s i a ,

Africa and L a t i n Amer ica d i f f e r s c o n s i d e r a b l y f rom Western

p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e r o l e o f t h e m i l i t a r y i n d o m e s t i c

p o l i t i c s . I n t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s , l e a d i n g American p o l i t i c a l

s c i e n t i s t s r e g a r d e d t h e m i l i t a r y a s t h e o n l y i n s t i t u t i o n

which c o u l d m o d e r n i s e t h e i r s o c i e t i e s . l3 M i l i t a r y

l2 R . D . Mckin lay and A.S. Cohan, " M i l i t a r y Coups, M i l i t a r y Regimes, and S o c i a l Change" , ( P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e Annual Mee t ing o f t h e American P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e A s s o c i a t i o n , C h i c a g o , (Augus t 29 t o S e p t 2 , 1974) , p . 1 5 .

l3 P a u l Commack, David P o o l and W i l l i a m T o r d o f f , Third blorld P o l l t l c s : a C o m ~ W i v e In-, (London : . . MacMil lan, 1 9 8 8 ) , p . 1 1 6 .

g o v e r n m e n t s , however , have f r e q u e n t l y been viewed by t h e

c i t i z e n r y as i l l e g i t i m a t e , and a w i d e s p r e a d c i v i l i a n p r o t e s t

r a t h e r t h a n a s t a b l e p o l i t i c a l f rame-work f o r deve lopmen t

h a s been t h e r e s u l t . As r u l e r s , t h e m i l i t a r y i n most cases

d o more o r l e s s t h a n t h e c i v i l i a n a u t h o r i t i e s . M i l i t a r y

r e g i m e s v a r y i n t h e i r d e g r e e o f f r eedom t h e y a l l o w f o r

c i v i l i a n p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n p o l i t i c s . " T h e r e is i n c r e a s i n g

e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t m i l i t a r y r u l e r s d o n o t d i f f e r

a p p r e c i a b l y f rom c o m p a r a b l e c i v i l i a n e l i t e s and p a r t y

g o v e r n m e n t " . l4 The m i l i t a r y a s r u l e r s d o n o t g e n e r a l l y

r u l e a l o n e . I n v a r i a b l y , t h e y a r e i n v o l v e d w i t h c i v i l i a n

p o l i t i c a l g r o u p s and c i v i l s e r v a n t s . U s u a l l y , t h e r e is an

o n g o i n g i n t e r a c t i o n be tween g r o u p s w i t h i n t h e m i l i t a r y and

t h e i r c i v i l a l l i e s .

The f e a t u r e s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f m i l i t a r y e l i t e s a r e

n o t a l w a y s t h e same w i t h i n d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n s . They d i f f e r

f rom c o u n t r y t o c o u n t r y and r e g i o n t o r e g i o n . However,

t h e r e a r e c o m m o n a l i t i e s s u c h as a c t i n g as a c o n s e r v a t i v e

f o r c e , a s a n a t i o n a l i s t i c o r r e v o l u t i o n a r y f o r c e o r as a

c o m b i n a t i o n o f c i v i l - m i l i t a r y a l l i e s o r as a n i n s t r u m e n t i n

t h e hands o f an a u t h o r i t a r i a n r u l e r . I n d e v e l o p i n g

l4 Sam C . S a r k e s i a n , op.cit., P . 11.

s o c i e t i e s , even when t h e m i l i t a r y s t a y s i n s i d e t h e b a r r a c k s ,

it c a n e x e r c i s e s i g n i f i c a n t power o v e r t h e d a y t o d a y

a f f a i r s o f a c i v i l i a n gove rnmen t . I n many cases, t h e

m i l i t a r y c o n s t r u c t s c i v i l i a n f r o n t o r g a n i s a t i o n s o r s t a f f s

o f c a b i n e t s w i t h p o l i t i c a l t e c h n o c r a t s . A s a r e s u l t o f

t h i s , t h e m i l i t a r y r e m a i n s a f o r c e b e h i n d t h e s c e n e t o

s t r e n g t h e n t h e c i v i l i a n r u l e r s , and a t a minimum a p o w e r f u l

p r e s s u r e g r o u p whose i n t e r e s t s and v i e w s must be t a k e n i n t o

a c c o u n t . Norma l ly , a u t h o r i t a r i a n r u l e r s i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g

c o u n t r i e s u s e t h e m i l i t a r y t o p r o t e c t t h e i r i n t e r e s t s .

C a s u a l l y a c i v i l i a n - m i l i t a r y mix w i l l d e v e l o p and it g o e s

o u t o f c o n t r o l b e f o r e v e r y l o n g .

3. F a i l u r e o f P o l i t i c a l P a r t i e s and X i l i t a r y I n t e r v e n t i o n

The m i l i t a r y g e n e r a l l y t a k e s o v e r a c o u n t r y on t h e

p r e t e x t o f c l e a n i n g u p t h e mess c r e a t e d by t h e p o l i t i c i a n s .

The a rgument advanced is t h a t t h e d e m o c r a t i c i n s t i t u i o n s

have been r e n d e r e d i n e f f e c t i v e d u e t o t h e c o r r u p t i o n o f

p o l i t i c i a n s a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n n e e d s t o b e

s t r a i g h t e n e d o u t . I t is t o some e x t e n t a f a c t t h a t most

s o c i e t i e s i n t h e T h i r d World f a i l e d t o e v o l v e a s t r o n g and

v i a b l e p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m . C lemen t J o h n , a P a k i s t a n i l awyer

and human r i g h t s a d v o c a t e h a s s t a t e d t h a t i n Asia, however,

t h i s is n o t d u e t o t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s o f t h e p e o p l e o r

p o l i t i c i a n s . " I t is b e c a u s e most As ian s o c i e t i e s a r e f a c e d

w i t h complex p r o b l e m s r e l a t i n g t o r a c e , c u l t u r e , r e l i g i o n ,

n a t i o n a l i s m , e t h n i c p a r o c h i a l i s m a n d , l a s t b u t n o t t h e

l e a s t , t h e i r c l a s s b a s e . I n s u c h c i r c u m s t a n c e s i t is

d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n a p o l i t i c a l c o n s e n s u s on s u c h complex

i s s u e s " . l5 The m i l i t a r y , on t h e o t h e = hand , r e s o l v e s t h e s e

i n t r i c a t e i s s u e s by impos ing its a r b i t r a r y d e c i s i o n s w i t h

b r u t e f o r c e w i t h o u t t a k i n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e d e s i r e s

o r w i l l o f t h e p e o p l e . I n r e a l i t y t h e i s s u e s a r e n o t

r e a l l y s o l v e d t h e y o n l y submerge f o r a w h i l e . Meanwhile t h e

r e s e n t f u l f e e l i n g s o f t h e p e o p l e keep b u i l d i n g u p b e n e a t h

t h e s u r f a c e and p o l a r i s a t i o n becomes d e e p be tween d i f f e r e n t

s e c t i o n s o f t h e s o c i e t y .

A t t h e same t ime, t h e a r n y n e v e r r e a l i s e t h e f a c t t h a t

p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s c a n n o t be r e s o l v e d b y s u p p r e s s i o n o f t h e

p e o p l e . I n o r d e r t o make it more c l e a r , Clement J o h n h a s

p i n - p o i n t e d two e x a m p l e s : I n Turkey , where a r n y r u l e u n d e r

G e n e r a l G u r s e l o n l y a c c e l e r a t e d t h e p o l a r i s a t i o n be tween t h e

v a r i o u s p o l i t i c a l f a c t i o n s t h e r e s u l t was t h a t , when

c i v i l i a n r u l e was r e s t o r e d , t h e r e were wanton k i l l i n g s and

l5 Clement J o h n , "Human R i g h t s and M i l i t a r i z a t i o n i n A s i a : Focus on P a k i s t a n " , i n P r o f i t a t Gun P o i n t , ( S i n g a p o r e : CCA Youth , 1983), p . 8 7 .

t h e army a g a i n s t e p p e d i n t o c l e a r t h e mess . B a l u c h i s t a n i n

P a k i s t a n is a n o t h e r c a s e where , d e s p i t e two army a c t i o n s

a g a i n s t B a l u c h i s i n 1967 and 1973, t h e q u e s t i o n o f

p r o v i n c i a l autonomy rema ined u n r e s o l v e d . P o l i t i c a l

s c i e n t i s t s l i k e S .E F i n e r b e l i e v e t h a t s o c i o - c u l t u r a l

e n v i r o n m e n t is t h e key f a c t o r f o r m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n s .

He a r g u e s t h a t a l o w - l e v e l o f p o l i t i c a l c u l t u r e is l i k e l y t o

r e s u l t i n m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n and m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n

i t s e l f seems t o i n d i c a t e a low l e v e l o f p o l i t i c a l c u l t u r e . 1 6

E x p e r i e n c e s i n t h e p a s t , show t h a t a t t h e t i m e o f a

p o l i t i c a l c r i s i s i n a c o u n t r y , m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n s

e s t a b l i s h m i l i t a r y r e g i m e s o r a g r o u p of o f f i c e r s a p p o i n t a

c i v i l i a n government and act as a r b i t e r s o f p o l i c y and

p o l i t i c s . The m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s j u s t i f y m i l i t a r y r u l e on

t h e g round t h a t t h e army r e p r e s e n t s t h e n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t ,

o r t h a t o n l y m i l i t a r y r u l e c a n s e c u r e and m a i n t a i n a s t a b l e

p o l i t i c a l o r d e r f o r economic d e v e l o p m e n t . Whatever t h e

n a t u r e of a m i l i t a r y r u l e , t h e r e is a g e n e r a l t e n d e n c y f o r

t h e s o l d i e r s t o e s t a b l i s h a v e n e e r of c i v i l l e g i t i m a c y ,

e i t h e r t h r o u g h p r e s i d e n t i a l p l e b i s c i t e s , t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n

o f s y m p a t h e t i c i n d i v i d u a l s o r c i v i l i a n p a r t i e s , o r t h r o u g h

l6 Quoted i n P a u l Commek and David Rooj , oo.cit., p . 115 .

e s t a b l i s h i n g new p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i s a t i o n s .

4 . M i l i t a r i z a t i o n and C i v i l i a n Regimes

M i l i t a r i z a t i o n is i d e n t i f i e d as a m u l t i f a c e t e d

phenomenon. The r u l i n g g r o u p e n f o r c e s i t a s a s y s t e m t o

c o n t r o l t h e economic , p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l s p h e r e s o f l i f e .

I t s d i v e r s i t y l i e s i n t h e d i f f e r e n t y e t i n t e r r e l a t e d

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s t h a t c a n be a t t a c h e d t o i t . ' D e f i n e d

o p e r a t i o n a l l y , m i l i t a r i z a t i o n c a n r e f e r t o t h e d e f e n s i v e

r e a c t i o n of a t h r e a t e n e d economic and p o l i t i c a l o r d e r , t h e

p o s t u r e o f wh ich o f t e n t e n d s t o m i l i t a r y a b u s e s and t h e

c u r t a i l m e n t o f c i v i l l i b e r t i e s . I t c a n a l s o mean t h e

p r o c e s s whereby t h e m i l i t a r y is engaged i n an a c t i v e p u r s u i t

o f p o l i t i c a l d o m i n a t i o n ' . l7 E x i s t i n g g o v e r n m e n t s j u s t i f y

m i l i t a r i z a t i o n t h r o u g h p o l i t i c a l manoeuvres and on t h e need

f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y a g a i n s t i n t e r n a l and

e x t e r n a l a g g r e s s i o n . I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f m i l i t a r i z a t i o n

v a r y , s i m p l y b e c a u s e c o n d i t i o n s w a r r a n t i n g its r i s e and t h e

e x t e n t o f i t s i n f l u e n c e v a r y . The p r o c e s s o f m i l i t a r i z a t i o n

i n any s o c i e t y is d e t e r m i n e d by t h e p r e s e n c e o f a p o w e r f u l

l7 Fernando V.Cao, " H i l i t a r i z a t i o n and t h e T h i r d World" , m i n e C m , ( M a n i l a ) , No.29, 1 3 Novermber 1986 .

m i l i t a r y i n s t i t u t i o n c a p a b l e o f e x e r t i n g its i n f l u e n c e o v e r

g o v e r n m e n t a l d e c i s i o n s .

The r ise o f m i l i t a r i s m i n g e n e r a l and o f a m i l i t a r y

e l i t e i n p a r t i c u l a r is now a common phenomonen i n most As ian

c o u n t r i e s . Those d a y s a r e gone when G e n e r a l s b e l i e v e d i n

and a d h e r e d t o a h i g h d e g r e e o f p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m , one

s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t o f which was t o keep t h e army c o n f i n e t o

t h e b a r r a c k s . Today i t is t h e r e v e r s e . S e v e r a l o f t h e

c i v i l i a n r u l e r s who u s e t h e m i l i t a r y c o n t i n u o u s l y f o r t h e i r

own s a k e , c l a i m a r o l e f o r t h e m i l i t a r y i n t h e c o u n t r y ' s

p o l i t i c s as a matter o f r i g h t . Keeping t h e s o l d i e r s away

f rom c i v i l l i f e was c o n s i d e r e d n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t

them f rom succumbing t o i ts t e m p t a t i o n s . M i l i t a r y , t h e n ,

had a s p e c i f i c and r e s t r i c t i v e r o l e t o p l a y i n t h e power

s t r u c t u r e s . The r i g h t t o r u l e was c o n s i d e r e d t h e domain o f

t h e c o l o n i a l m a s t e r s , who u s e d t h e s e r v i c e s of t h e

b u r e a u c r a t s and t h e p o l i t i c i a n s f o r t h e p u r p o s e . The

m i l i t a r y was t r a i n e d and c o n d i t i o n e d and groomed t o s e r v e

t h e n e e d s o f t h e c o l o n i a l s y s t e m , which r a n g e d f rom b e i n g

u s e d as cannon f o d d e r t o b e i n g u s e d t o s u p p r e s s and c o n t r o l

t h e p e o p l e .

Over t h e y e a r s , c i v i l i a n r u l e r s i n T h i r d World

c o u n t r i e s s h a r p e n e d t h e r o l e of t h e m i l i t a r y and beceme

authoritarian with the support of the military. Military is

being used to advance the cause of the vested interests and

the ruling civilian elites. With increase in military power,

the ruling elite become more and more repressive in

suppressing political dissent. And thk military officers,

who enjoy a lot of privileges under the patronage of

civilian rulers, are not answerable to any one. This

obviously leads to abuse of power and authority. The

military succeeds in keeping the lid on the situation by

increasing the process of militarization in society.

Australian political scientist Richard Tanter describes

some characterstics of a militarised society. First, the

presence of the military in government, either as a military

government or immediately beneath the executive power.

Second, the military's presence in that society's economic

life. The level at which this intervention takes place may

vary from village level coercion to something close to a

corporatist national security role for the military in

economic developement. Third, is the militarization of

social instituions where the traditional values and norms

are bent, or are in the process of being bent, toward

military values and norms. Fourth, is the administrative

l8 Quoted in Fernando V.Cao, m.cit.

v i o l a t i o n of human r i g h t s . F i f t h , c o u n t e r - i n s u r g e n c y

o p e r a t i o n s which a r e n o t h i n g b u t a more o v e r t n i l i t a r y

e x p r e s s i o n o f a g e n e r a l r e p r e s s i v e s t a n c e . S i x t h ,

i n t e r n a t i o n a l a g g r e s s i o n a g a i n s t p e r c e i v a b l e s m a l l e r and

weaker s t a t e s . And l a s t l y , an expanded m i l i t a r y a rms

t r a n s f e r and d o m e s t i c a rms p r o d u c t i o n which c a n p a r t l y

e x p l a i n a huge m i l i t a r y b u d g e t .

A l l t h e s e f e a t u r e s d e v i a t e f rom t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e p t

and r o l e of t h e m i l i t a r y . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l

2 0 t h c e n t u r y p o l i t i c a l mode l s , t h e m i l i t a r y ' s t a s k s a r e

s i m p l y t o d e f e n d and p r o t e c t t h e e x i s t e n c e o r i n t e g r i t y o f

t h e s t a t e a g a i n s t a n y p e r c e i v e d e x t e r n a l o r i n t e r n a l t h r e a t

o r a t t a c k . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n F e r n a n d o V.Cao s t a t e s :

S i n c e t h e m i l i t a r y owes its l o y a l t y o n l y t o t h e s t a t e and n o t j u s t t o any o f its b r a n c h e s , t h e m i l i t a r y s h o u l d n o t e n g a g e i t s e l f i n t h e p o l i c y making p r o c e s s e s i n t h e gove rnmen t , e x c e p t p e r h a p s f o r m a t t e r s d i r e c t l y c o n c e r n i n g i t . Thus , t h e m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t is c o n s t r u e d t o b e s t r i c t l y a p o l i t i c a l and n o n - p a r t i s a n , an o b e d i e n t e n f o r c e r of l a w a g and p o l i c i e s a r r i v e d a t by o t h e r s t a t e o r g a n s .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e e v i l s o f a u t h o r i t a r i a n o r d i r e c t

m i l i t a r y j u n t a s r e s u l t i n t h e m i l i t a r y ' s n o t i o n o f i ts

responsibility as covering all state processes; that it no

longer is a component of the state but the latter's

synonym. Here, we must understand from our Asian

experiences, especially of the civilian democratic regimes,

the fact that militarisation is not just military

leadership. In fact, it is merely one of its more blatant

features. This phenomenon has often developed under

civilian leadership or where the military is kept on a

fairly tight leash by civilian politicians. In developing

nations where a civilian government is in power,

militarization has become the most important cause of

increased political instability. F-V-Cao reveals the fact

that the emergence of authoritarian strongmen were generally

preceded by dramatic political and social unrest or tragic

events which dramatize the apparent impotence of civilian

rulers operating under the conventional democratic

processes. Usually, the situation appears to be so chaotic

that to let things deteriorate means the collapse of that

society. 20

In order to exaggerate t h e gravity of the

internal situations, normally civilian authoritarian rulers

p r o p a g a t e an i d e a t h a t t h e c o u n t r y is i n d a n g e r and t h a t

r e v o l u t i o n a r y g r o u p s are o u t t o s e i z e power . Amid a l l

t h i s p r o p a g a n d a would emerge a u t h o r i t a r i a n f i g u r e s a s t h e

r e a l " p a t r i o t s " i n t h e c o u n t r y , o r m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s who

c l a i m t h a t t h e i r i n t e r v e n t i o n i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o meet t h e

" g r a v e s i t u a t i o n " . A c l a s s i c example o f t h i s was t h a t o f

P r e s i d e n t Marcos o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s who, t i l l he was d e p o s e d

u s e d t o j u s t i f y h i s d i c t a t o r s h i p s a y i n g t h a t i t was

n e c e s s a r y " t o s a v e t h e n a t i o n and r e f o r m s o c i e t y " .

The P h i l i p p i n e s is a t y p i c a l example o f how a c i v i l i a n

d e m o c r a t i c r e g i m e t u r n e d i n t o an a u t h o r i t a r i a n d i c t a t o r s h i p

u n d e r t h e s u p p o r t g i v e n by t h e m i l i t a r y . B e f o r e M a r t i a l law

was imposed i n 1972, t h e c o u n t r y was p a s s i n g t h r o u g h a g r a v e

s i t u a t i o n . P e o p l e were d i s g r u n t l e d . The economy o f t h e

c o u n t r y had d e t e r i o r a t e d , w h i l e t h e r u l e r s p roved t o be

p r o d i g a l s . The s o c a l l e d communist i n s u r g e n c y was n o t a t

a l l a t h r e a t t h e n , b u t a s n a l l g u e r i l l a g r o u p ; b u t , t h e r e

was p o l i t i c a l u n r e s t r o c k i n g even t h e p r e s i d e n c y . Even

t h o u g h , t h e r e was n o d e c i s i v e p o l i t i c a l o p p o s i t i o n which was

s t r o n g enough t o c a p t u r e s t a t e power - o n l y t h e Marcos gove rnmen t and its m i l i t a r y backup were sup reme .

T h i s k i n d o f a c i v i l i a n gove rnmen t shows a t e n d e n c y t o

s e i z e a l l g o v e r n m e n t a l powers and c o n s o l i d a t e i ts a u t h o r i t f .

T h e s e r e g i m e s , t h e n , d e v e l o p d e p e n d e n c e i n t h e West by

enmeshing t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l economic and

p o l i t i c a l o r d e r . They e n c o u r a g e f o r e i g n i n v e s t m e n t s i n

t h e i r economies and r e s o r t t o c o u n t e r - i n s u r g e n c y o p e r a t i o n s

a t home. They r e c e i v e huge m i l i t a r y a i d f rom t h e West t o

s t r e n g t h e n t h e i r m i l i t a r y s o as t o b e a b l e t o s u p p r e s s t h e i r

p e o p l e ' s c o l l e c t i v e i n i t i a t i v e s .

Somehow, t h e r e have been s p r e a d two n o t i o n s , t h a t t h e

p r a c t i c e o f democracy h i n d e r s deve lopmen t i n T h i r d World

c o u n t r i e s and t h a t d e v e l o p m e n t c a n come o n l y f rom t h e West.

Behind t h i s is t h e b e l i e f t h a t u n d e r d e v e l o p e d n a t i o n s are

u n d e r d e v e l o p e d b e c a u s e o f t h e i r p o l i t i c a l i m m a t u r i t y , which

is t r a c e a b l e t o c i v i l i a n p o l i t i c i a n s and t h e i r p o l i t i c k i n g k .

5 . G l o b a l M i l i t a r i z a t i o n : Its C a s u s e s and Consquences

S i n c e 1700 A . D . t h e r e have been 4 7 1 w a r s , ( c o n f l i c t s

i n v o l v i n g t h e d e a t h o f 1,000 o r more p e r y e a r ), r e s u l t i n g

i n 1 0 1 , 5 5 5 , 0 0 0 f a t a l i t i e s . 21 To convey a t r u e s e n s e of t h e

r e a l i t y b e h i n d t h o s e numbers - t h e human t r a g e d i e s and f u t i l e w a s t e o f l i f e -- is beyond t h e l i m i t e d l i t e r a r y

. . Ruth L e g e r S i v a r d , b r l d M-d S o c i a l e s 1987 - 8 8 . 1 2 t h e d i t i o n , (Washington D.C:

World P r i o r i t e s , 1988) p . 2 8 .

s k i l l s o f a s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s t . But t h e number t h e m s e l v e s

and t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d s d o c a r r y some m e s s a g e s which may

h e l p t o w a r d s an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h i s extreme m a n i f e s t a t i o n

of t h e m i l i t a r y i m p e r a t i v e .

H i s t o r i c a l l y , as many c i v i l i a n s a s p r o f e s s i o n a l

s o l d i e r s have been k i l l e d i n wars. I n t h e 1 8 t h , 1 9 t h and

t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r i e s , c i v i l i a n s r e p r e s e n t e d a b o u t 50 p e r c e n t

o f w a r - r e l a t e d d e a t h s . R e c e n t l y , t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e

c i v i l i a n d e a t h t o l l h a s been g o i n g u p . I n t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s ,

c i v i l i a n s a c c o u n t e d f o r 52 p e r c e n t o f t h e d e a t h s ; i n t h e

1 9 7 0 ' s f o r 73 p e r c e n t ; and s o f a r i n t h e 1 9 8 0 ' s f o r 8 5

p e r c e n t . 22

Europe was t h e p r i n c i p a l s i t e o f wars and war r e l a t e d

d e a t h s o v e r t h e p a s t t h r e e c e n t u r y s p a n . But t h e g e o g r a p h y

o f w a r f a r e h a s changed r a d i c a l l y . S i n c e t h e Second World

War, o n l y o n e c o n f l i c t , (U.S .S .R i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h e

Hunga r i an c i v i l war i n 1 9 5 6 ) , h a s t a k e n p l a c e i n Europe . 2 3

A l l o t h e r w a r s have been f o u g h t i n t h e T h i r d . World. They

23 R .L .S iva rd p r e p a r e d and p r e s e n t e d a c h a r t on wars and w a r - r e l a t e d d e a t h s ( 1700-1987) i n hlprld

re. I b i L . Pp.29-31.

have n o t , however , been w i t h o u t t h e i n v o l v e m e n t o f t h e ma jo r

powers , and r e c e n t l y t h i s i n v o l v e m e n t , b o t h o v e r t and

c o v e r t i n n a t u r e , a p p e a r s t o have i n c r e a s e d . Weapons u s e d i n

a l l t h e s e w a r s were p roduced m o s t l y i n t h e s o - c a l l e d F i r s t

and Second Wor lds . I n some a r e a s , t h e s u p e r powers were

i n v o l v e d d i r e c t l y . I t is s i g n i f i c a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e a rms

p r o d u c t i o n and t r o o p b u i l d - u p and t r a i n i n g i n many o f t h e s e

c o u n t r i e s t o d a y a r e d o n e w i t h t h e i n t e n t t o u s e them, n o t i n

t h e i r own t e r r i t o r i e s , b u t i n T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s .

Today t h e s i t u a t i o n h a s c h a n g e d . The mos t o u t s t a n d i n g

f e a t u r e s o f c u r r e n t g l o b a l m i l i t a r i z a t i o n are t h e n u c l e a r

and c o n v e n t i o n a l arms r a c e , a n i n c r e a s i n g t e n d e n c y t o r e s o r t

t o f o r c e and i n t e r v e n t i o n i s m , and t h e t r e n d t o w a r d s u s i n g

m i l i t a r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t o d o m i n a t e i n t e r - s t a t e r e l a t i o n s ,

e t c .

(a). A r m s Race: a Catalyst of Hilitarization

The i n c r e a s e i n wor ld m i l i t a r y e x p e n d i t u r e h a s become

t h e s i g n o f an a rms r a c e . T h i s arms r a c e h a s gone o u t o f

c o n t r o l and ac ts a s a c a t a l y s t o f m i l i t a r i z a t i o n . World

o u t l a y s f o r g l o b a l m i l i t a r y s p e n d i n g have been e s t i m a t e d as

$800 b i l l i o n i n 1988 and $930 b i l l i o n i n 1 9 8 7 . ~ ~ Al though

24 R . L . S i v a r d , oo.cit., p . 8 .

some c u t - o f f i n m i l i t a r y s p e n d i n g h a s been e f f e c t e d i n

c o n f l i c t a r e a s , t h e a p p a r e n t l y u n d i m i n i s h e d m i l i t a r y

e x t r a v a g a n c e o f t h e two s u p e r - p o w e r s keep o v e r a l l

I n h e r s t u d y , h x l d U t a r v and e x p e n d i t u r e s r i s i n g .

SCLCial EXD- R . L . S i v a r d u s e d two s t a t i s t i c a l i n d i c a t o r s t o g u a g e m i l i t a r y t r e n d s , t h e numbers i n t h e

2 5 armed f o r c e s and t h e f l o w o f arms i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e . ,

I n n e i t h e r c a s e , however , is t h e o v e r a l l p i c t u r e

unambiguous . The wor ld ,s armed f o r c e s ( r e g u l a r s ) d e c l i n e d

f rom a p e a k o f 26,982,000 i n 1984 t o 25,752,000 i n 1986, b u t

t h a t b i g d r o p was i n C h i n a a l o n e . I n t h e H i d d l e East and i n

S o u t h Asia t h e numbers were r i s i n g , and t h i s p r o c e s s , by

1987, had b r o u g h t t h e t o t a l u p t o 26,620,000. A r m s

t r a n s f e r s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e o f f i c i a l U.S c o u n t , f e l l s h a r p l y

i n 1985 i n c o n s t a n t U.S d o l l a r s , a f t e r l e v e l l i n g o f f

be tween 1981 and 1984. I t h a s been r e p o r t e d t h a t s e c r e t

t r a d e t h r o u g h a n e x t e n s i v e i n t e r n a t i o n a l n e t w o r k o f a rms

d e a l e r s and a l s o a m a s s i v e u n d e r c o v e r f l o w o f weapons is

q u i t e common.

The m i l i t a r i z a t i o n of t h e T h i r d World h a s i n c r e a s e d b y

t h e i m p o r t o f m i l i t a r y t e c h n o l o g y and o f modern arms. The

U.S and U.S.S.R i n t h e p o s t war p e r i o d t o o k on a new r o l e

a s weapons s u p p l i e r s t o T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . The r e s o u r c e s

d e v o t e d t o m i l i t a r y p u r p o s e s i n t h e T h i r d World i n t h e fo rm

of R e s e a r c h and Development (R & D) and m i l i t a r y

e x p e n d i t u r e s a r e much h i g h e r a l w a y s . The p e r c e n t a g e

d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r A r m s p r o d u c t i o n e x p e n d i t u r e shows t h a t

t h e U.S.A, U.S.S.R and o t h e r N A T 0, W T 0 c o u n t r i e s

a c c o u n t f o r 7 8 . 1 p e r c e n t w h i l e t h e s h a r e o f t h e

a p p r o x i m a t e l y 100 T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s is b u t 1 2 . 3

p e r c e n t . 2 6

S i n c e t h e advanced i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s p r o d u c e

weapons on a l a r g e s c a l e , t h e y want t o e x p o r t a l l t h e i r

p r o d u c t i o n s t o o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . Normal ly t h e i r c u s t o m e r s

a r e t h e p o o r u n d e r d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s . I t r e m a i n s t r u e t h a t

t h e ma jo r powers i n t h e wor ld - t h e U.S and U.S.S.R - a r e t h e l e a d i n g powers i n t h e f i e l d of a rms d e v e l o p m e n t ,

f o l l o w e d by West European p r o d u c e r s s u c h a s U . K and F r a n c e

and a l s o a g r o u p o f c o u n t r i e s w i t h e x p a n d i n g arms

i n d u s t r i e s , s u c h a s I t a l y , F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c o f Germany,

26 S i g n e Landgren Backs t rom, " A r m s T r a d e and ~ r a n s f ' e r o f M i l i t a r y Techno logy t o t h e T h i r d World C o u n t r i e s " , i n . . ems o f C o n t w a r v . m, A s b j o r n E i d e and Marek Thee ( e d s . ) , (London: Croon Helm, 1 9 8 0 ) , p . 2 4 5 .

Sweden, S w i t z e r l a n d , Belgium a s well a s I s r a e l i n t h e T h i r d

World. Thus , t h e s e c o u n t r i e s p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e

p r o c e s s o f i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f n i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f t h e T h i r d

World. The arms p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r i e s i n t h e wor ld a r e

t r a n s f e r r i n g t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n t o t h e T h i r d World i n s e v e r a l

ways s u c h as commerc i a l sales , m i l i t a r y a s s i s t a n c e o r on

c r e d i t b a s i s and s o o n . The U n i t e d S t a t e s a c c o u n t s f o r

a p p r o x i m a t e l y h a l f o f wor ld a rms e x p o r t s and t h e S o v i e t

Union f o r a n o t h e r 2 5 p e r c e n t . A U.S s t a t e d e p a r t m e n t

p o l i c y r e l e a s e n o t e s t h a t

U.S a rms a r e t r a n s f e r r e d i n s e v e r a l ways, i n c l u d i n g g r a n t a i d u n d e r t h e M i l i t a r y A s s i s a t n c e Programme (HAP), now a small p a r t o f t o t a l t r a n s f e r ; commerc i a l s a l e s - a b o u t 10% o f t h e t o t a l ; and government - t o - gove rnmen t . F o r e i g n M i l i t a r y s a l e s (FMS) on a c a s h o r c r e d i t b a s i s , which a c c o u n t f o r most t r a n s f e r s . . . The LDC's a r e b u y i n g f o r e i g n a rms a t a ra te f a s t e r t h a n any o t h e r g roup o f n a t i o n s , nd a b o u t t w o - t h i r d s o f g l o b a l e x p o r t s g o t o them. 29

B e s i d e s arms f o r t h e m i l i t a r y , weapons f o r p o l i c e

f o r c e s a r e a l s o e x p o r t e d t o T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . Michae l

T . K l a r e , who d i d r e s e a r c h on t h e t r a n s f e r o f p o l i c e weapons

and t e c h n o l o g y by t h e U.S t o t h e T h i r d World, l i s t e d p o l i c e

27 Quoted i n Miles D . Wolpin, " A r m s T r a n s f e r and C o n t e m ~ p r a r v Dependency", i n Prablens o f

~ ~ . c i t , , p . 2 5 9 .

weapons s u c h as " p i s t o l s and r e v o l v e r s , r i f l e s and a n t i - r i o t

equipment s u c h as c h e m i c a l m u n i t i o n s , s h o t g u n s , c l u b s , and

w a t e r cannon ; s u r v e i l l a n c e and i n t e l l e g e n c e s y s t e m s ; t o r t u r e

d e v i c e s s u c h as thumbscrews , e l e c t r o n i c s h o c k d e v i c e s and

t r a u m a - p r o d u c i n g d r u g s . Under t h e U.S Freedom o f

I n f o r m a t i o n A c t , r e s e a r c h e r s a t t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r P o l i c y

S t u d i e s have found e v i d e n c e t h a t U.S s u p p l i e d T h i r d World

p o l i c e f o r c e s some 615.000 tear g a s g r a n a d e s , 51 ,000 r i f l e s

and submach ine g u n s , 126 ,000 p i s t o l s and r e v o l v e r s and 5 5

m i l l i o n r o u n d s o f ammuni t ion t h r o u g h t h e commerc i a l sales

programme. 28 A s examples o f s u c h weapons s a l e s t o Asia

M i c h a e l T , K l a r e l i s t e d s a l e s t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , M a l a y s i a ,

S i n g a p o r e , T h a i l a n d . S o u t h Korea , e t c .

T r a n s f e r o f arms m a n u f a c t u r i n g t e c h n o l o g y is w i d e l y

s p r e a d d u r i n g t h e p a s t s e v e r a l y e a r s . F o r example , - i n 1945 , I n d i a was t h e o n l y c o u n t r y i n Asia c a p a b l e o f

p r o d u c i n g weapons o t h e r t h a n small arms and ammuni t ion .

Today , N o r t h Korea p r o d u c e s a i r c r a f t , w a r s h i p s and small

arms, e t c . , u n d e r l i c e n c e o f t h e S o v i e t Union; S o u t h Korea

l i k e w i s e p r o d u c e s a i r c r a f t , w a r s h i p s and small arms a l l

28 M i c h a e l T . K l a r e , " M i l i t a r i s m , Techno logy and Human R i g h t s : The I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e p r e s s i o n , T r a d e . . and Superpower I n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h e T h i r d Wor ld ," nllltarism andHuaan (Geneva: CCIA-WCC, 1 9 8 2 ) , p . 2 3 .

u n d e r l i c e n s e o f t h e U.S; P a k i s t a n p r o d u c e s a i r c r a f t u n d e r a

1972 F r e n c h l i c e n c e and m i s s i l e s u n d e r a c a n c e l l e d West

German l i c e n c e ; t h e P h i l i p p i n e p r o d u c e s a i r c r a f t u n d e r a

1975 West German and U.S l i c e n c e , and small arms u n d e r a U.S

l i c e n c e ; S i n g a p o r e p r o d u c e s w a r s h i p s u n d e r a West German

l i c e n c e ; Taiwan p r o d u c e s m i s s i l e s u n d e r a 1976 U.S l i c e n c e ;

and T h a i l a n d p r o d u c e s a i r c r a f t u n d e r a 1973 U.S l i c e n c e . 2 9

The t e c h n o l o g y f o r a rms p r o d u c t i o n is s p r e a d i n g t h r o u g h

a g r e e m e n t s w i t h e s t a b l i s h e d a rms p r o d u c e r s , and t h e c o v e r t

t r a d e and t h e d e v i o u s s e c r e t a r r a n g e m e n t s f a c i l i t a t e i t .

The l i n k be tween I n t e r n a t i o n a l M i l i t a r y and Economic O r d e r

is a key f a c t o r i n t h e p r o m o t i o n of m i l i t a r i z a t i o n . A r m s

t r a n s f e r s , f o r example , a r e n o t u n i m p o r t a n t a f f a i r s ; a rms

r e q u i r e s p a r e p a r t s , m a i n t e n a n c e , and t r a n s f e r s . So a rms

t r a n s f e r s r e s u l t i n c o n t i n u i n g s a l e s . A r m s s a l e s , i n f a c t ,

a r e o f t e n j u s t i f i e d by arms e x p o r t i n g c o u n t r i e s as

30 d e c r e a s i n g t h e c o s t t o t h e n o f r e s e a r c h and d e v e l o p m e n t . .

D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1975 - 1983 , o v e r two t h i r d s o f a l l arms

29 S i g n e Landgren Backs t rom. "The T r a n s f e r o f M i l i t a r y Techno logy t o T h i r d World C o u n t r i e s " , t i n o f P e a c e P r o ~ o s a l s , ( O s l o ) , Vo1.8. No.2. 1977 , Pp .110-120 .

30 J o s e W . Diokno, . . n Pol- ( W p u b l i s h e d Monograph)

were e x p o r t e d t o r e p r e s s i v e g o v e r n m e n t s . The l a r g e s t

s u p p l i e r , a c c o r d i n g t o U.S o f f i c i a l e s t i m a t e s , was t h e

S o v i e t Union ( e s p e c i a l l y t o S y r i a , I r a q and L y b i a ) ; t h e n e x t

i n r a n k were t h e U.S and F r a n c e , which s u p p l i e d a rms t o a

l a r g e number o f r e p r e s s i v e g o v e r n m e n t s b u t g e n e r a l l y i n

small q u a n t i t i e s . 3 1

The s p r e a d o f s o p h i s t i c a t e d a rms t h r o u g h o u t t h e

d e v e l o p i n g wor ld h a s been o n e o f t h e most s t r i k i n g and

d i s q u i e t i n g f e a t u r e s o f t h e modern arms r a c e and arms

m a n u f a c t u r e t e c h n o l o g y . A s a r e s u l t o f t h i s phenomenon, t h e

p r o c e s s of m i l i t a r i z a t i o n a l s o is s p r e a d i n g w i d e l y ,

e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s .

(b) . Super-Power I n t e r v e n t i o n s

Both t h e U.S and t h e U.S.S.R a b e t m i l i t a r i z a t i o n

b e c a u s e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n t i e s d e v e l o p i n g n a t i o n s t o them, as

ASEAN c o u n t r i e s f o r example , a r e t i e d t o t h e U.S and Vietnam

t o t h e U.S .S .R, and f u e l s t h e a m b i t i o n s o f t h e s u p e r - powers t o r u l e t h e w o r l d . Militarism p r o v i d e s t h e s u p e r

powers w i t h t e s t i n g g r o u n d s f o r new weapons, and a r e a s i n

which t o f i g h t p roxy w a r s , u s i n g t h e a r m i e s o f t h e i r

s a t e l l i t e s t o t e s t e a c h o t h e r ' s s t r e n g t h of w i l l w i t h o u t

c o m m i t t i n g t h e i r own t e r r i t o r i e s o r r i s k i n g t h e s a f e t y o f

t h e i r own p e o p l e .

I n 1987 t h e r e a r e s i x t i m e s a s many Amer icans u n d e r

arms as t h e r e were b e f o r e World War I1 and m i l i t a r y

e x p e n d i t u r e s i n r e a l terms are t w e n t y - f i v e t i m e s as l a r g e . 3 2

S e v e r a l f a c t o r s a c c o u n t f o r t h i s r a d i c a l change i n t h e

m i l i t a r y p r o f i l e o f t h e c o u n t r y . I n two ma jo r r e s p e c t s U.S

p o s t - w a r g o v e r n m e n t s assumed m i l i t a r y commitments which

expanded t h e i r c o u n t r y ' s g l o b a l r o l e . One r e l a t e d t o t h e

c o n t a i n m e n t o f S o v i e t and C h i n e s e e x p a n s i o n i s m i n Europe and

Asia; t h e o t h e r t o a c h i e v e an t i - communi s t o b j e c t i v e s i n t h e

T h i r d World. A t h i r d i n f l u e n c e , a f f e c t i n g b o t h p o l i c y and

s i z e o f t h e b u d g e t , was t h e i n c r e a s e d p o l i t i c a l power o f t h e

m i l i t a r y - i n d u s t r y complex .

A f t e r t h e f o r m a t i o n o f NATO i n 1949, a l a r g e body o f

U.S f o r c e s r ema ined i n Europe , and t h e U.S h a s , f rom t h e

e a r l i e s t y e a r s , c a r r i e d t h e ma jo r s h a r e of t h e o v e r a l l

f i n a n c i a l b u r d e n o f NATO d e f e n c e . U.S r o l e i n A s i a and t h e

P a c i f i c a l s o were a f i n a n c i a l b u r d e n t o t h e c o u n t r y . U.S

o c c u p a t i o n f o r c e s r ema ined i n J a p a n a f t e r J a p a n ' s d e f e a t i n

1945 and i n S o u t h Korea a f t e r t h e end o f t h e Korean war.

Throughou t t h e P a c i f i c a r e a , t h e U.5 c r e a t e d a v a s t n e t w o r k

of an t i - communi s t m i l i t a r y a l l i a n c e s t o c o n t a i n C h i n a and

N o r t h Korea , as w e l l a s t h e U . S . S . R . R.L. S i v a r d comments:

"An i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t r o l e is n o t new f o r t h e U.S, b u t i n

s c o p e , v a r i e t y , and i n c o s t , t h e a c t i o n s t a k e n i n r e c e n t

d e c a d e s are u n p r e c e d e n t e d . "33 U n l i k e i n t h e e a r l i e r p a r t o f

t h i s c e n t u r y , U.S i n t e r v e n t i o n s have been g e o g r a p h i c a l l y

more wide r a n g i n g . I n d i r e c t f o r m s o f i n t e r v e n t i o n

( i n t e r v e n t i o n s n o t i n v o l v i n g U.S f o r c e s d i r e c t l y ) have a l s o

become more common, A l t h o u g h n o t a l w a y s s u c c e s s f u l , s u c h

c o v e r t o p e r a t i o n s d i d s u c c e e d i n o v e r t h r o w i n g some

p o p u l a r l y - e l e c t e d b u t l e f t i s t g o v e r n m e n t s which were t a k e n

o v e r by t h e armed f o r c e s .

A f t e r t h e Vietnam war , . t h e U.S a d o p t e d a " n e v e r a g a i n "

s t a n c e on t h e u s e o f U.S combat t r o o p s i n i n t e r n a l c o n f l i c t s

i n t h e T h i r d World - t h i s b e i n g t h e s o c a l l e d "Vietnam

Syndrome". Under t h e N i x o n D o c t r i n e , Amer icas

c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y f u n c t i o n was d e l e g a t e d t o " s u r r o g a t e

gendarmes" s u c h a s I r a n and ~ r a z i l . ~ ~ With t h e f a l l o f t h e

Shah , however , U.S l e a d e r s l o s t c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e Nixon

D o c t r i n e , and began moving t o w a r d s t h e r e i n s t a t e m e n t o f

Amer icas t r a d i t i o n a l i n t e r v e n t i o n a r y p o s t u r e . Michae l T .

K l a r e s ta tes t h a t " t o a l a r g e d e g r e e , t h e c u r r e n t m i l i t a r y

p o s t u r e of t h e U.S.A r e p r e s e n t s a r e a f f i r m a t i o n o f t h e

Truman and E i senhower d o c t r i n e s , and o t h e r c o l d war p o l i c i e s

which were u s e d t o j u s t i f y U.S i n t e r v e n t i o n a g a i n s t p r o -

S o v i e t f o r c e s i n t h e T h i r d World" .

While a n a l y s i n g t h e new e l e m e n t s i n U.S i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t

p o l i c i e s and i d e o l o g i e s , M i c h a e l T . K l a r e p o i n t s o u t a new

e l e m e n t which he c a l l s 'Brown D o c t r i n e ' , named a f t e r f o r m e r

S e c r e t a r y o f D e f e n c e , Haro ld Brown. T h i s D o c t r i n e b a s i c a l l y

s t a tes t h a t ' T h i r d World i n s t a b i l i t y by i t s e l f - w h a t e v e r

t h e i d e o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e a n t a g o n i s t s i n v o l v e d - is

a t h r e a t t o t h e e x i s t i n g w o r l d o r d e r and t h u s t o U.S

economic s e c u r i t y . The Brown D o c t r i n e f u r t h e r a s sumes t h a t

" t h e U.S.A and its i n d u s t r i a l a l l i e s a r e becoming

i n c r e a s i n g l y d e p e n d e n t on t h e raw m a t e r i a l s ( e s p e c i a l l y o i l )

and m a r k e t s o f t h e T h i r d World, and t h a t t h e s e " V i t a l

34 Michae l T . K l a r e , oo.oit., p . 2 6 ( n o . 2 8 ) 35 -

i n t e r e s t s " a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y t h r e a t n e d by T h i r d World

' t u r b u l e n c e ' - meaning s o c i a l . economic , p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s s t r i f e " . 35 T h i s i d e a was f i r s t e l a b o r a t e d by

c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y t h e o r i s t Guy P a u k e r . P a u k e r s t a t e d :

" T h e r e is a n o n - n e g l i g i b l e c h a n c e t h a t mankind is e n t e r i n g a

p e r i o d of i n c r e a s e d s o c i a l i n s t a b i l i t y and f a c e s t h e

p o s s i b i l i t y o f a breakdown o f g l o b a l o r d e r as a r e s u l t o f

s h a r p e n i n g c o n f r o n t a t i o n be tween t h e T h i r d World and t h e

i n d u s t r i a l d e m o c r a c i e s . " And b e c a u s e T h i r d World

gove rnmen t s c a n no l o n g e r b e r e l i e d upon t o c o n t r o l s u c h

d i s o r d e r s u s i n g i n d i g e n o u s r e p r e s s i v e c a p a b i l i t i e s a l o n e ,

t h e U . S . A , "as a s u p e r - power c a s t by h i s t o r y i n t h e r o l e

o f wor ld l e a d e r s h i p " , would have t o b e p r e p a r e d t o " u s e i ts

m i l i t a r y " f o r c e t o p r e v e n t t h e t o t a l c o l l a p s e o f t h e wor ld

o r d e r . 3 6

The same a p p r o a c h was s t a t e d even more c r u d e l y by Gen.

Maxwell D . T a y l o r , a r c h i t e c t o f t h e U.S i n t e r v e n t i o n i n

Vietnam: " A s t h e l e a d i n g a f f l u e n t ' h a v e ' power we may e x p e c t

t o have t o f i g h t f o r o u r n a t i o n a l v a l u a b l e s a g a i n s t e n v i o u s

" h a v e - n o t s " . T h i s a p p r o a c h became n a t i o n a l p o l i c y i n 1980 ,

36 Guy P a u k e r , U t s r v I~D- 1s I n t h e 1 9 8 0 ' s ( S a n t a Monica: RAND, 1 9 7 7 ) , pp .1 -

2 , q u o t e d i n Michae l T . K l a r e , ~ ~ . c i t , , p . 2 6 .

when s e c r e t a r y Brown t o l d C o n g r e s s t h a t " i n t e r n a t i o n a l

economic d i s o r d e r c o u l d a l m o s t e q u a l i n s e v e r i t y t h e

m i l i t a r y t h r e a t f rom t h e S o v i e t Union", and t h a t , " i n a

wor ld of d i s p u t e s and v i o l e n c e , we c a n n o t a f f o r d t o g o

a b r o a d unarmed. 37 Out o f t h i s l o g i c came t h e Rapid

Deployment F o r c e and t h e p r e s e n t r e v i v a l o f t h e

c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e Vietnam e r a . And

w h i l e t h e Reagan A d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a s r e p u d i a t e d many o f t h e

p o l i c i e s o f t h e C a r t e r A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , it h a s f u l l y e n d o r s e d

t h e Brown D o c t r i n e and p l e d g e d t o d e f e n d U.S o v e r s e a s

economic i n t e r e s t s a g a i n s t any f u r t h e r o u t b r e a k o f T h i r d

Word l a w l e s s n e s s . 3 8

Q u i t e o f t e n t h e U.S a c t s i n t h e r o l e o f a s e l f

a p p o i n t e d c u s t o d i a n o r g u a r d i a n and a r b i t e r o v e r o t h e r

s o v e r e i g n n a t i o n s . The p rob lem is t h a t t h e U.S is

c o m p l e t e l y o b s e s s e d w i t h its s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t and geo-

p o l i t i c a l r o l e . Ano the r a s p e c t o f t h e U.S r o l e i n

i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f m i l i t a r i z a t i o n is t h e a n t i - c o m m u n i s t

a t t i t u d e . I t is i n t h i s c o n t e x t t h a t t h e U.S p o l i c i e s and

r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h o t h e r c o u n t r i e s a r e d e t e r m i n e d and

37 H a r o l d Brown, Dept . o f D e f e n s e Annual R e p o r t f o r F i s c a l y e a r 1981 (Washington D.C) q u o t e d i n Lhid,

f o r m u l a t e d . The c o m b i n a t i o n of s e v e r a l o f t h e s e a s p e c t s

makes t h e U.S a n i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t power. Be it i n t h e l a b e l

o f i n t e r e s t o f arm i n d u s t r y o r "communist p h o b i a " , t h e U.S

makes i t i t s b u s i n e s s and s t r a t e g y t o keep t h e f l a m e s o f

c o n f l i c t and t e n s i o n s m o u l d e r i n g t o f u r t h e r i ts own

i n t e r e s t s .

The case of t h e U.S.S.R is d i f f e r e n t . Because of t h e

g e o g r a p h i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f U .S .S .R , i t s s e c u r i t y is

d e f i n e d more as a p rob lem o f t h e s e c u r i t y o f i t s b o u n d a r i e s .

The Warsaw P a c t is t h e d e f e n c e r e s o r t t h a t would impede a

c o n v e n t i o n a l a g g r e s s i o n o f t h e S o v i e t Union f rom Europe . I n

a d d i t i o n t o t h i s , s i n c e t h e 1 8 6 0 ' s t h e r e is t h e p r o t e c t i o n

t o c e r t a i n a l l i e d c o u n t r i e s l i k e Cuba, Vie tnam, Ango la ,

E t h i o p i a and Mozambic. The i n v a s i o n o f A f g h a n i s t h a n is p a r t

o f t h e d e f e n c e - b o u n d a r y l o g i c and t h e s e c l u s i o n and

c o n f i n e m e n t p s y c h o s i s , a f t e r t h e U.S.A-China a p p r o x i m a t i o n .

The main d a n g e r is found i n t h e e f f e c t s t h a t t h e American

p o l i c y c a n have i n t h e S o v i e t m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t and i n

t h e i n s t a b i l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s o f t h e c o u n t r i e s o f t h e Warsaw

P a c t . 39 A l l t h i s c o u l d l e a d t h e U.S.S.R t o t a k e p a r a l l e l

a c t i o n s t o t h o s e o f t h e U.S.A.

39 J . A . Viera - G a l i o , " N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y D o c t r i n e s and t h e i r impac t on Human R i g h t s " , i n S e c u r i t v T r e , (Rome: IQOC I n t e r n a t i o n a l , 1 9 8 2 ) , p . 9 3 .

T h e r e a r e a l s o p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s f o r t h e i n v o l v e m e n t o f

d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s i n t h e m i l i t a r i z a b o n o f t h e d e v e l o p i n g

n a t i o n s . The s u p e r p o w e r s employ weapons t r a n s f e r s a s a

means of e s t a b l i s h i n g a p o l i t i c a l p r e s e n c e i n a p a r t i c u l a r

a r e a . T h i s is e s p e c i a l l y t r u e f o r t h e S o v i e t Union, which

h a s l e s s t o o f f e r new f r i e n d s i n t h e a r e a s o f t r a d e and

i n v e s t m e n t t h a n d o e s t h e U.S. Moscow's s a l e o f weapons t o

P e r u on a l ong- t e rm l o w - i n t e r e s t b a s i s is an example o f

t h i s . 40 One o f t h e o t h e r r e a s o n s f r e q u e n t l y c i t e d by t h e

s u p e r p o w e r s f o r a r m i n g c e r t a i n T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s is t o

m a i n t a i n r e g i o n a l power b a l a n c e s . Both East and West have

j u s t i f i e d m a s s i v e arms s a l e s t o t h e v o l a t i l e r e g i o n s as a

means o f p r e s e r v i n g ' t h e power b a l a n c e s and p e a c e . T h i s

r a t i o n a l e h a s been n o r m a l l y u s e d t o s u p p o r t arms t r a n s f e r s

t o C h i l e and P a k i s t a n w h i l e S o v i e t s a l e s have gone t o P e r u

and I n d i a .

Anothe r i m p o r t a n t p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n f o r t h e supe rpower

i n v o l v e m e n t i n m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f t h e T h i r d World is t o

m a i n t a i n s p h e r e s o f i n f l u e n c e which a r e s y m p a t h e t i c t o t h e i r

p a r t i c u l a r economic , p o l i t i c a l and i d e o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n s .

40 " M i s s i l e s and M a l n u t r i t i o n : The l i n k s between M i l i t a r i z a t i o n and Underdeve lopmen t " , -res Working W 87-2, ( W a t e r l o o ) , p . 9 .

F o r t h e U.S, t h i s means a d v a n c i n g a pro-Western f r e e m a r k e t

s y s t e m . A l though American S t a t e Depa r tmen t o f f i c i a l s s t r e s s

on t h e p romot ion o f d e m o c r a t i c p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m s , U.S

invo lvemen t i n S o u t h Korea , I n d o n e s i a , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s u n d e r

Marcos, e t c . , s h o w t h a t U.S g i v e s h i g h e r p r i o r i t y t o b a c k i n g

Pro-American g o v e r m e n t s t h a n t o p r o m o t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s i n

which t h e p e o p l e p a r t i c i p a t e f r e e l y i n p o l i t i c a l l i f e . I n

t h e same way, t h e S o v i e t s s u p p l y a rms t o t h e n a t i o n s which

have o p t e d f o r communism, o r a t least a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o a

Weste rn economic and p o l i t i c a l model . Thus t h e y have

s u p p l i e d weapons t o v a r i o u s n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n movements -

g o v e r n m e n t s l i k e t h a t o f A l l e n d e ' s C h i l e and p r e s e n t d a y

N i c a r a g u a , as w e l l a s t o N o r t h Korea , Vie tnam, Cuba,

E t h i o p i a and o t h e r communist c o u n t r i e s . 4 1

N e v e r t h e l e s s , a rms s a l e s w i l l p r o b a b l y c o n t i n u e t o

remain a p r i m e i n s t r u m e n t f o r b o t h t h e S o v i e t Union and t h e

U n i t e d S a t e s i n t h e i r r i v a l r y f o r t h e . a l l e g i a n c e of t h e

v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s .

Over t h e p a s t 25 y e a r s , t h e S o v i e t Union h a s become

more d e e p l y i n v o l v e d i n t h e T h i r d World a f f a i r s , and is

41 SIPRI , "World Armaments and Disarmament ' ; mRI Y e a Bask, ( S t o c k h a l m : S t o c k h a l m I n t e r n a t i o n a l P e a c e R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e , 1 9 8 3 ) , p . 3 6 6 .

e v i d e n t l y p r e p a r e d t o h e l p d e f e n d i ts a l l i e s and c l i e n t s

a g a i n s t Wes te rn - sponso red i n t e r v e n t i o n s . So it is d e f i n i t e

t h a t an i n t e r v e n t i o n by one supe rpower i n a T h i r d World

c o u n t r y w i l l r e s u l t i n a c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t h e f o r c e s of

t h e o t h e r s u p e r p o w e r . Superpower t e n s i o n s o f t e n o v e r l a y and

i n t e r m i n g l e w i t h i n t e r n a l and r e g i o n a l u n r e s t . F o r example ,

b o t h t h e U.S and t h e U.S .S .R b a s e n a v a l and a i r f o r c e u n i t s

i n A s i a t o p r o t e c t what t h e y s e e a s t h e i r l e g i t i m a t e

i n t e r e s t s i n t h e P a c i f i c . The U.S h a s b i l a t e r a l s e c u r i t y

t r e a t i e s w i t h J a p a n , S o u t h Korea and t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . The

S o v i e t Union h a s T r e a t i e s of F r i e n d s h i p , C o - o p e r a t i o n and

Mutua l A s s i s t a n c e w i t h A f g a n i s t h a n , I n d i a , Mango l i a , N o r t h

Korea , Vie tnam, e t c . T h i s k i n d o f v a r i o u s l i n k a g e s w i t h

T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s e s t a b l i s h mo the r s t a t e - c l i e n t s t a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s and t h a t t e n s i o n s be tween t h e s u p e r p o w e r s

o f t e n f l o w down and i n c r e a s e t e n s i o n s be tween r e s p e c t i v e

c l i e n t s t a t e s . I n v e r s e l y , i n c r e a s e d t e n s i o n s between

r e s p e c i t v e c l i e n t s t a t e s o f t e n r e s u l t i n h e i g h t e n e d f r i c t i o n

between t h e supe rpower p a t r o n s .

The U.S and t h e U.S.S.R a l s o d e p l o y b o t h s e a b o r n e and

a i r b o r n e s t r a t e g i c n u c l e a r weapons i n s e v e r a l p a r t s o f t h e

w o r l d , e s p e c i a l l y t h r o u g h o u t A s i a , a s p a r t o f t h e i r g l o b l a l

n u c l e a r s t r a t e g y . Superpower b a s i n g c e n t r e s i n A s i a

i n c l u d i n g Yokusuka and Ukinawa i n J a p a n , S u b i c and C l a r k i n

t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , D a Nang and Cam Ranh i n Vie tnam, T h a i l a n d ,

Guam, e t c . , would be p r i m a r y t a r g e t s . The r i v a l r y between

t h e s u p e r p o w e r s t e n d s t o p o i s o n r e l a t i o n s be tween o t h e r

c o u n t r i e s and l e a d s t o b i g power i n v o l v e m e n t i n l o c a l

r i v a l r i e s .

6. H i l i t a r i z a t i o n i n t h e T h i r d World

I f t h e g l o b a l m i l i t a r i z a t i o n ' s mos t o u t s t a n d i n g

f e a t u r e s a r e t h e n u c l e a r and c o n v e n t i o n a l a rms r a c e , an

i n c r e a s i n g t e n d e n c y t o r e s o r t t o f o r c e and i n t e r v e n t i o n i s m ,

and t h e t r e n d t o w a r d s u s i n g m i l i t a r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t o

d o m i n a t e i n t e r - s t a t e r e l a t i o n s , e q u a l l y p e r t u r b i n g t r e n d s

c a n be n o t i c e d a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l . T a k i n g i t i n t h e

g l o b a l c o n t e x t , m i l i t a r i z a t i o n c a n assume t h e c h a r a c t e r o f

supe rpower n a t i o n s s t o c k p i l i n g and p r o d u c i n g n u c l e a r - a r m e d

weapons i n t h e s e e m i n g l y u n e n d i n g race f o r m i l i t a r y

sup remacy . But m i l i t a r i z a t i o n is n o t j u s t m e r e l y m i l i t a r y

l e a d e r s h i p o r n u c l e a r and c o n v e n t i o n a l a rms p r o l i f e r a t i o n .

I n f a c t , t h e s e a r e m e r e l y i ts more b l a t a n t f e a t u r e s .

" M i l i t a r i z a t i o n is o n e phenomenon t h a t h a s d e v e l o p e d u n d e r

c i v i l i a n l e a d e r s h i p o r whe.re t h e m i l i t a r y is k e p t on a

f a i r l y t i g h t l e a s h by c i v i l i a n p o l i t i c i a n s " . 4 2

4 2 Fernando V.Cao, QQ.L&L

A number of external and internal factors promote

militarization, whether it is at the global level or at

national level. However, common factors can be seen in both

cases, such as: 1. Militarization was the product of fear;

fear of the people in one case, and fear of the ousted elite

and colonial power in the other; 2. Militarization required

the collaboration of technocrats with the military: without

the former's know-how, the latter's coercive power was not

enough to govern the country; 3. Militarization would not

have succeeded or lasted for as long as it has were it not

abetted and aided by the superpowers. 43

When we analyse the causes of Third World

militarizsation, we can find several internal factors such

as unjust social system, racial structures, national

security syndrome, authoritarianism, internal violence,

insurgency, growth of popular movements, etc. And there are

also external factors such as superpower interventions, arms

race, etc.

In the Third World countries,normally a small segment

of the total population enjoys privileges and owns a major

part of the wealth of the country. The privileged class has

43 Jose W . Diokno, no.cit,, P.4.

a c c e s s t o t h e government o r r u l i n g e l i t e s . A t t h e same

t i n e , t h e i r c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e r u l i n g c l a s s is l i k e l y

t o r e l y on t h e u s e o f m i l i t a r y f o r c e t o d e t e r o r overcome

any t h r e a t s t o t h e e x i s t i n g o r d e r which is b e n e f i c i a l t o

them. T h i s t e n d e n c y r e s u l t s i n what h a s been t e rmed a

s y s t e m o f "economic a p a r t h e i d " , w h e r e i n t h e p r i v i l e g e d few

l i v e i n " s a n c t u a r i e s o f w e a l t h " s u r r o u n d e d by and p r o t e c t e d

f rom t h e i m p o v e r i s h e d m a s s e s . 44 Same is t h e c a s e o f any

s o c i e t y where t h e r e is u n j u s t r a c i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . I n s u c h

s o c i e t y , t h e d o m i n a n t r a c i a l g r o u p i n g t e n d s t o r e l y on f o r c e

t o d i s c o u r a g e and overcome r e b e l l i o n on t h e p a r t o f t h e

o p p r e s s e d . 45 I n o r d e r t o p r o t e c t t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e

p r i v i l e g e d c l a s s e s , o n c e t h e m i l i t a r y is u s e d t o s u p p r e s s

t h e o p p r e s s e d masses o r a s o c i e t y h a s c r e a t e d a p o w e r f u l

m i l i t a r y a p p a r a t u s i n r e s p o n s e t o some r e a l o r imagined

t h r e a t , t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n w i l l o f t e n s e e k t o expand and

e n h a n c e i ts p r e r o g a t i v e s a t t h e e x p e n s e o f c i v i l i a n

i n s t i t u t i o n s . M i c h a e l T . K l a r e o b s e r v e s : I n t h e advanced

c o u n t r i e s , t h i s d r i v e is o f t e n l i n k e d t o and f e d by t h e

s e l f - p e r p e t u a t i n g mechanisms of t h e m i l i t a r y i n d u s t r i e s ; i n

44 P e t e r Lock and H e r b e r t Wulf , "The D i a l e c t i c s o f Rearmament and Dependence" , P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e WCC C o n s u l t a t i o n on M i l i t a r i s m

45 Michae l T . K l a r e , " M i l i t a r i s m t h e I s s u e s Today", i n t v T r a v , o v . c i t . , p . 7 7 .

t h e p o o r e r c o u n t r i e s , i t is some t imes p roduced by t h e d e s i r e

o f t h e o f f i c e r class (wh ich is o f t e n composed o f m i d d l e and

even l o w e r - c l a s s p e r s o n s ) t o e n h a n c e t h e i r s t a t u s v i s - a - v i s

t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r u l i n g e l i t e . 46

A u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m is on t h e i n c r e a s e i n many o f t h e

T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , where m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s a r e a s suming

c o n t r o l o f t h e g o v e r n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e r e s p e c t i v e

c o u n t r i e s . I n s o n e c o u n t r i e s t h i