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AHistoryofMuslimPhilosophy
Author
:
M.M.
Sharif
CommitteeOfDirectors
Preface
Introduction
Chapter1:Pre
Islamic
Indian
Thought
Supplement
Chapter2:PreIslamicChineseThought
Chapter3:PreIslamicIranianThought
Chapter4:GreekThought
Supplement
Chapter5:AlexandrioSyriacThought
Chapter6:PreIslamicArabianThought
Chapter7:PhilosophicalTeachingsoftheQuran
Supplement
Chapter8:Ethical
Teachings
of
the
Quran
Supplement
Chapter9:EconomicandPoliticalTeachingsoftheQuran
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Chapter10:Mutazalism
Chapter11:Asharism
Chapter12:Tahawism
Chapter13:Maturidism
Chapter14:Zahirism
Chapter15:IkhwanalSafa
CommitteeOfDirectors
1.I.I.Kazi,ViceChancellor,UniversityofSind(Chairman)
2.TheEducationalAdviserandSecretarytotheGovernmentofPakistan
3.MumtazHasan,SecretaryFinance,GovernmentofPakistan
4.KhalifahAbdulHakim,Director,InstituteofIslamicCulture,Lahore
5.SerajulHaque,ProfessorandChairman,DepartmentofArabicandIslamicStudies,
UniversityofDacca
Thelinked imagecannotbedisplayed.Thefilemay havebeen moved,renamed,or deleted.Verify thatthelink pointsto thecorrectfileand location.
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6.M.AbdulHye,VicePrincipal,GovernmentCollege,Rajshahi
7.M.Ahmed,ViceChancellor,RajshahiUniversity
8.M.M.Sharif,President,PakistanPhilosophicalCongress(SecretaryandEditor)
Preface
AboutfouryearsagoIreceivedaletterfromMr.S.M.Sharif,EducationalAdvisertothe
GovernmentofPakistanandnowSecretaryintheMinistryofEducation,drawingmyattentionto
thefactthattherewasnodetailedHistoryofMuslimPhilosophyintheEnglishlanguageand
invitingmetodrawupaschemeforthepreparationofsuchaHistory.Theschemepreparedby
meenvisagedthecollaborationofeightyscholarsfromallovertheworld.Theblueprintsofthe
planwereplacedbyMr.S.M.SharifbeforetheGovernmentofPakistanforapprovaland
provisionoffunds.TheCabinetbyaspecialordinancedeputedmetoedittheHistory,and
appointedaCommitteeconsistingofthefollowingtosteertheschemethrough:
Mr.I.I.Kazi,ViceChancellor,UniversityofSind(Chairman)
TheEducationalAdvisertotheGovernmentofPakistan(Member)
Mr.MumtazHasan,thenSecretaryFinance,GovernmentofPakistan,andnowDeputyChairman,
PlanningCommission(Member)
Dr.Khalifah
Abdul
Hakim,
Director,
Institute
of
Islamic
Culture,
Lahore
(Member)
Dr.SerajulHaque,HeadoftheDepartmentofArabicandIslamicStudies.UniversityofDacca
(Member)
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ProfessorM.AbdulHye,VicePrincipal,GovernmentCollege,Rajshahi(Member)
Myself(MemberSecretary)
TheCommittee
was
later
enlarged
by
the
addition
of
Dr.
M.
Ahmed,
ViceChancellor,
Rajshahi
University.
ButfortheinitiativetakenbyMr.S.M.Sharifandtheconstanthelpandencouragementreceived
fromhim,aliberalgrantfromtheState,andmostwillingcooperationfromtheChairmanand
membersoftheCommittee,itwouldnothavebeenpossibleformetobringthisworkto
completion.
FromtheverybeginningIhavebeenawareofthesheerimpossibilityofdoingfulljusticetosucha
vastcanvasofmovements,thinkers,andthoughts.Iammostgratefultothelargenumberof
contributorswhohavemadeatleasttheoutlinesoftheentirepicturepossible.Asthisisthefirst
majorworkonthehistoryofMuslimphilosophyitisboundtohavemanydeficiencies,buta
beginninghadtobemadeandithasbeenmadewiththehopethatitwillpavethewayforfuture
improvements.
Inacollaborationworklikethiscompleteuniformityof.language,style,andpointsofview,and
evennessofqualityandlength,arehardtoachieve.However,effortshavebeenmadetokeep
disparityinthesemattersaswellasintransliteration,capitalizationandpunctuationasmuch
withinboundsaspossible.Creditforwhatevermeritsthesevolumeshavemustgotothosewho
havejoinedthisventure;responsibilityforwhateverfaultsitmayhaveismine.
IwishtoexpresstheCommitteeofDirectors'deepgratitudetoAsiaFoundationforitsgiftofthe
paperusedinthiswork,andmypersonalthankstoitsRepresentativeinPakistan,Mr.Curbs
Farrar,forthekeeninterestevincedbyhimthroughoutthecourseofitspreparation.Ihaveto
acknowledgemygreatobligationtoMr.R.K.V.GoldsteinofAitchisonCollege,Lahore,andMr.
HughGethinoftheUniversityofthePanjabfortheirhelpfulguidanceinthematteroflanguage.I
amequallyindebtedtoProfessorM.SaeedSheikhofGovernmentCollege,Lahore,whohasnot
onlygoneoverthewholetypescriptandreadproofsbuthasalsosuggestedmanyimprovements
inthoughtandexpression.ImustalsoexpressmythankstoMr.MumtazHasanforhisvaluable
suggestionstowardstheremovalofsomeapologeticpassagesfromtheoriginalmanuscript,and
tohimaswellastoProfessorM.AbdulHye,Mr.A.H.Kardar,andDr.SerajulHaqueforreading
severalchaptersanddrawingmyattentiontosomeomissions.MythanksarealsoduetoMr.
AshrafDarrforpreparingtheIndexandhelpingmeinproofreading,toMr.AshiqHusainfor
typingthewholemanuscript,Mr.AbdusSalamforputtinginthediacriticalmarks,andMr.Javid
Altaf,abrilliantyoungscholar,forcheckingcapitalization.
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IntheendIhavetonotewithgreatregretthattwoofthecontributorstothework,Dr.Khalifah
AbdulHakimofPakistanwhowasalsoamemberoftheCommitteeofDirectorsandDr.Mecdut
MansurogluofTurkey,havepassedaway.Maytheirsoulsrestinpeace!
Lahore:August1,1961
M.M.Sharif
Introduction
IntroductionbytheEditor,M.MSharif,M.A,Director,InstituteofIslamicCulture,Lahore
(Pakistan)
Historiesofphilosophyhavebeeninvariablywritteninthelightofthephilosophiesofhistory
presupposedbytheirauthors.Theresultofthishasbeenthaterrorsvitiatingtheirphilosophiesof
historyhavecreptintoandmarredtheirhistoriesofphilosophy.Inthepresentworkoureffort
hasbeentosteerclearoftheseerrors.
Insteadofreadinghistoryinthemirrorsofpresupposedphilosophieswhichmaygivedistorted
images,itisthestudyofhistoryitselfthroughwhichthedynamicsofhistorycanbeclearlyseen
anditslawsdiscovered.WehopethisstudyofMuslimphilosophyandtheempiricalsurveyofits
coursewillspotlightatleastsomeofthemisconceptionscurrentamongphilosophersand
historiansaboutthenatureofhistoryandthelawsgoverningit.
Itwillperhapsbegenerallyagreedthathumannatureisfundamentallythesametheworldover.
Allhumanbeingsandtheculturestheydevelophavethesamefundamentalneeds,customs,
impulses,and
desires
which,
organizer
as
personalities,
determine
their
march
towards
their
personalandsocialgoals.Thefundamentalnatureofmenbeingthesame,thebasiclawsof
culturaldevelopmentanddecayalwaysremainthesame.Butowingtodifferentenvironmental
conditions,culturalgroupsevolvedifferentlyindifferentpartsoftheworldandthousandsof
yearsofindigenousexperiencegivethosegroupstheirownsocialandpsychologicalcharacter;
andtheircharacterinresponsetoenvironmentalstimulicreatesallthedifferencesthatappearin
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theirrespectivelifehistories.Muslimsocietyformsasingleculturalgroup.Ithasbeensubjectto
thesamelawsofgrowthanddecayasanyotherculturalgroup,butithasalsodevelopedsome
peculiarfeaturesofitsown.
Philosophersofsocialhistoryindividuallydifferintheirviewsabouttheuniversallawsofhistory.
Thereisagroupoffourteenth/twentiethcenturyphilosophersofhistorywhobelievethatsocial
historyislikeawave,ithasariseandthenitfallsnevertoriseagain,andviewasocietyora
cultureasanorganismwhichhasonlyonecycleoflife.Likethelifeofanyindividualorganism,the
lifeofaculturehasitschildhood,maturity,oldage,anddeath,itsspring,summer,winter,and
autumn.Justasalivingorganismcannotberevivedafteritsdeath,evensoacultureorasociety
canseenorevivalonceitisdead.Biological,geographical,andracialcausescantoalimited
extentinfluenceitslifecoursebutcannotchangeitsinevitablecycle.Tothisgroupbelong
Danilevsky,Spengler,andToynbee.OurstudyofMuslimcultureandthoughtsupportstheirview
thatincertainrespectsthedynamismofsocietyislikethedynamismofawave;butarethetwo
otherdoctrinesexpoundedbythesephilosophersequallytrue?First,Isittruethatagivensociety
isalivingorganism?And,second,Isittruethatithasonlyoneunrepeatedlifecourse?Letusfirst
takethefirst.Isasocietyoracultureanorganism?LongagoPlatotookaStatetobeanindividual
writlarge.Notthesame,butasimilarmistakeisbeingmadenow.Allanalogiesaretrueonlyupto
apointandnotbeyondthatpoint.Toviewasocietyontheanalogyofanindividualorganismis
definitelywrong.AsSorokinhasbrilliantlyshown,nosocietyissocompletelyunifiedintoan
organicwholethatitshouldbeviewedasanorganism.Anindividualorganismisborn,itgrows
anddies,anditsspeciesisperpetuatedbyreproduction,butaculturecannotrepeatitselfin
speciesbyreproduction.Revivalofindividualorganismisimpossible,buttherevivalofacultureis
possible.Itisachievedbytheactivizationofitsdormantvitality,byresponsesarousedbyfresh
challenges,andbytheinfusionofnewelements.ThefirstrevivalofMuslimcultureitsrevival
aftertheMongolonslaughtswhichbeganwhenhardlyhalfacenturyhadpassedandreachedits
fullfruitionintwocenturiesandahalfwaspartlyduetoitsinherentvitalitywhichcouldnotbe
sappedcompletelyevenbytheseunprecedentedevents.Theyseemedtoaffecttotaldevastation
ofMuslimlands,butinfactcouldproduceonlyadepression.Soonrainbearingcloudsgathered
andtheselandswereagaingreenandteemingwithlife.Thoughthechallengeitselfwasthe
strongesttheworldhaseverseen,itwas,nevertheless,notstrongenoughtodestroyallresponse.
ThisrevivaloftheMuslimculturewaspartlyduetotheinfusionintoitearlierofthefreshbloodof
theTurkishslavesandmercenariesandlaterthatoftheMongolconquerors,fortheythemselves
cameintothefoldofIslambringingwiththemthevigourandvitalityoftheirnomadicancestors.
EachindividualorganismisacompletelyintegratedwholeoracompleteGestalt,butthoughsuch
anintegrationisanidealofeachcultureithasneverbeenfullyachievedbyanyculture.Each
cultureisasupersystemconsistingofsomelargesystemssuchasreligion,language,law,philo
sophy,science,finearts,ethics,economics,technology,politics,territorialsway,associations,
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customs,andmores.Eachoftheseconsistsofsmallersystemsasscienceincludesphysics,
chemistry,biology,zoology,etc.,andeachofthesesmallersystemsiscomprisedofyetsmaller
systemsasmathematicsiscomprisedofgeometry,algebra,arithmetic,andsoon.Besidesthese
systemstherearepartlyconnectedorwhollyisolatedheapswithinthesesystemsandsuper
systems.Thus,"atotalcultureofanyorganizedgroupconsistsnotofoneculturalsystembutofa
multitudeof
vast
and
small
cultural
systems
that
are
partly
in
harmony,
partly
out
of
harmony,
withoneanother,andinadditionmanycongeriesofvariouskinds."Nopastempirewassowell
knitastheUmayyadCaliphateofDamascusandyetgroupsliketheKharijitesandtheShiitesfell
apartfromitstotalstructure.AfterthefalloftheUmayyadsinthereligiousfieldthereappeared
someisolatedgroupsliketheQarmatiansandtheIsma'ilites,andinthepoliticalsphereMuslim
Spainbecamenotonlyindependentofbutalsohostiletothe`AbbasidCaliphateofBaghdad
underwhichMuslimcultureandthoughtmaybesaidtohavereachedtheirgoldenprime.
SomuchabouttheorganismicsideofthetheoryofDanilevsky,Spengler,andToynbeewhen
examinedinthelightofthehistoryofMuslimcultureandthought.Whataboutitscyclicalside?Is
thelifeofapeoplelikeameteor,beginning,rising,falling,andthendisappearingforever?Does
thehistoryofasocietyoracultureseeonlyonespring,onesummer,andoneautumnandthen,
initswinter,completelyclose?Thephilosophersofhistorymentionedabove,exceptSpengler,
concedethatthelengthofeachperiodmaybedifferentwithdifferentpeoplesandcultures,but,
accordingtothem,thecycleisjustonemovingcurveoronewavethatrisesandfallsonlyonce.
Thispositionalsoseemstobewrong.AstheresearchesofKroeberandSorokinhaveconclusively
shown,"manygreatculturalorsocialsystemsorcivilizationshavemanycycles,manysocial,
intellectual,andpoliticalupsanddownsintheirvirtuallyindefinitelylongspanoflife,insteadof
justonelifecycle,oneperiodofblossoming,andoneofdecline."Inthedynamicsofintellectual
andaestheticcreativity,EgyptiancivilizationroseandfellatleastfourtimesandGraecoRoman
Byzantineculture,severaltimes.Similarly,ChinaandIndiahadtwobigcreativeimpulsesandthe
thirdhasnowsurelybegun.TheMuslimcivilizationrosefromthefirst/seventhtothe
fifth/eleventhcentury.Thenitgraduallydeclinedtillitreceivedadeadlyblowintheformofthe
Mongolonslaughts.Itschiefmonumentsofpoliticalandculturalgreatnesswerealmost
completelydestroyed.Andyetitdidnotdie.Itroseagainandsawitssecondrisefromthelast
decadeoftheseventh/thirteenthcenturytotheendoftheeleventh/seventeenthcenturyduring
whichperioditsdomaincoveredthreeofthebiggestempiresoftheworldTurkish,Persian,and
Indianonlytofallagainfromthebeginningofthetwelfth/eighteenthtothemiddleofthe
thirteenth/nineteenthcentury;andasthisstudywillclearlyindicatetherearenowsignsofathird
riseinalmostallMuslimlands(BookEight).
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Thisshowsthatthereis"nouniversallawdecreeingthateveryculturehavingoncefloweredmust
witherwithoutanychanceoffloweringagain."Aculturemayriseinonefieldatonetime,in
anotherfieldatanother,and,thus,asawholeseemanyrisesandfalls.Inbothperiodsofitsrise
Muslimculturewasmarkedbyitsreligiopoliticalandarchitecturalascendancy;butwhileinthe
firstperioditsglorylayalsoinitscommercial,industrial,scientific,andphilosophicalfields,inthe
secondit
distinguished
itself
chiefly
in
the
fields
of
poetry,
painting,
secular
history,
travels,
mysticism,andminorarts.Ifbythebirthofacivilizationthesewritersmeanasuddenappearance
ofatotalunitlikethatofanorganism,andbydeathatotaldisintegration,thenatotalcultureis
neverbornnordoesiteverdie.Atitssocalledbirtheachculturetakesoverlivingsystemsor
partsofaprecedingcultureandintegratesthemwithnewlybornitems.Asthereaderofthis
workwillfind,Muslimcultureintegratedwithinitselfwhatitregardedastheintrinsicallyor
pragmaticallyvaluablepartsofArabPaganism,Hellenism,Judaism,Christianity,Hindu
mathematicsandmedicine,andChinesemysticismandalchemywithitsowncontributionsto
humanlifeandthought.Again,totalkaboutthedeathordisappearanceofacultureorcivilization
ismeaningless.Apartofatotalculture,itsartoritsreligion,maydisappear,butaconsiderable
partofitisalwaystakenoverbyothergroupsbywhomitisoftendevelopedfurtherand
expanded.TheMuslimsdidnotonlyannexcertainareasofotherculturesbuttheyexpandedtheir
horizonsmuchfurtherbeforeannexingthemasintegralpartsoftheirownculture.Hereitis
importanttoremoveamisconception.Ifsomethoughtofearlierspeculationrunsthroughthe
fabricofMuslimthoughtevenasagoldenthread,itdoesnotmeanthat,likemanyWestern
Orientalists,weshouldtakethethreadforthefabric.Noculture,asnoindividualthinker,makes
anabsolutelynewstart.Newstructuresareraisedwiththematerialalreadyproduced.Thepast
alwaysrollsintothepresentofeverycultureandsuppliessomeelementsforitsemergentedifice.
Statesarebornandtheydie,butcultureslikethemingledwatersofdifferentwavesarenever
bornasorganismsnordieasorganisms.AncientGreeceasaStatedied,butafteritsdeathagreat
dealofGreekculturespreadfarandwideandisstilllivingasanimportantelementinthecultures
ofEurope.JewishStatesceasedtoexist,butmuchofJewishculturewastakenoverbyChristianity
andIslam.Noculturediesintoto,thoughalldieinparts.Inrespectofthosepartsofculturewhich
live,eachcultureisimmortal.Eachcultureorcivilizationemergesgraduallyfrompreexisting
cultures.Asawholeitmayhaveseveralpeaks,mayseemanyupsanddownsandthusflourishfor
millennia,declineintoalatentexistence,reemergeandagainbecomedominantforacertain
periodandthendeclineoncemoretoappearagain.Evenwhendominatedbyotherculturesa
considerablepartofitmayliveasanelementfullyorpartlyintegratedinthosecultures.
Again,thecycleofbirth,maturity,decline,anddeathcanbedeterminedonlybytheprior
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determinationofthelifespanofacivilization,butthereisnoagreementamongthesewriterson
thispoint.WhataccordingtoDanilevskyisonecivilization,say,theancientSemiticcivilization,is
treatedbyToynbeeasthreecivilizations,theBabylonian,HittiteandSumeric,andbySpengleras
two,theMagianandBabylonian.Inthelifehistoryofapeopleonesnoticesonebirthanddeath
sequence,theothertwo,andthethirdthree.Thebirthsanddeathsofculturesobservedbyone
writerare
not
noticed
at
all
by
the
others.
When
the
beginning
and
end
of
aculture
cannot
be
determined,itisextravaganttotalkaboutitsbirthanddeathanditsunrepeatablecycle.A
civilizationcanseemanyupsanddownsandthereisnothingagainstthepossibilityofits
regeneration.Noculturediescompletely.Someelementsofeachdieoutandothersmergeas
livingfactorsintoothercultures.
Thereisagroupoffourteenth/twentiethcenturyphilosophersofhistorywhoconfinethemselves
tothestudyofartphenomenaanddrawconclusionsaboutthedynamicsofcultureingeneral.
PeterPaulLigeti,FrankChambers,andCharlesLalobelongtothisgroup.Wemaynotquarrelwith
themaboutsomeoftheirconclusions;butshouldliketomakeanobservationaboutoneoftheir
hypothesesahypothesisonwhichthestudyofMuslimthoughtthrowsconsiderablelight.
Accordingtomostofthem,itisalwaysthesameartandthesametypeorstyleofartwhichrises
atonestageinthelifehistoryofeachculture:oneartorartformatitsdawn,anotheratits
maturity,andyetanotheratitsdecline,andthengraduallybothartandthecorresponding
culturedie.Wedonotacceptthisconclusion.ThelifehistoryofGreekartisnotidenticalwith
thatofEuropeanartorHinduorMuslimart.Insomecultures,liketheEgyptian,Chinese,Hindu,
andMuslim,literature;insomeotherssuchastheFrench,German,andEnglish.architecture;and
inthecultureoftheGreeks,musicblossomedbeforeanyotherart.TheartofthePaleolithic
peoplereachedthematurityandartisticperfectionwhichdidnotcorrespondtotheirstageof
culture.Insomecultures,astheEgyptian,artshowsseveralwaves,severalupsanddowns,rather
thanonecycleofbirth,maturity,anddecline.Unlikemostothercultures,Muslimculturehas
givennoplacetosculptureanditsmusichasrisensimultaneouslywithitsarchitecture.Its
paintingisnotanartthatdevelopedbeforeallotherarts.Itwasinfactthelastofallitsartistic
developments.Thus,itisnottruethatthesequenceoftheriseofdifferentartsisthesameinall
cultures.Norisittruethatthesamesequenceappearsinthestyleofeachartineveryculture.
Factsdonotsupportthisthesis,fortheearlieststyleofartinsomeculturesissymbolic,inothers
naturalistic,formal,impressionistic,orexpressionistic.
Anothergroupofthefourteenth/twentiethcenturyphilosophersofhistoryavoidthesepitfalls
andgiveanintegralinterpretationofhistory.TothisgroupbelongNorthrop,Kroeber,Shubart,
Berdyaev,Schweitzer,andSorokin.Northrop,however,weakenshispositionbybasingcultural
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systemsonphilosophiesandphilosophiesonscience.Heignoresthefactthatmanycultural
beliefsarebasedonrevelationsorintuitiveapprehensions.Jewish,Muslim,andHinducultures
havephilosophiesbasedonrevelationasmuchasonreason.Thesourceofsomesocialbeliefs
mayevenbeirrationalandnonrational,oftencontradictingscientifictheories.Kroeber's
weaknessconsistsinmakingthenumberofgeniusesratherthanthenumberofachievementsthe
criterionof
cultural
maturity.
Schweitzer
rightly
contends
that
each
flourishing
civilization
has
a
minimumofethicalvaluesvigorouslyfunctioning,andthatthedecayofethicalvaluesisthedecay
ofcivilizations.NeitherthecollapseoftheCaliphateofBaghdadwascausedentirelybythe
MongolinvasionsnorwastheruinoftheUmayyadCaliphateofSpaineffectedbytheattacksof
Christianmonarchsofthenorth;norindeedwastheseconddeclineoftheMuslimworlddue
merelytotheimperialisticdesignsofWesternpowers.Thesewereonlycontributoryfactorsto
thesedownfalls.Thebasicconditionsoftheriseandfallofnationsinvariablyarisefromwithin.In
eachcasetherealcausewastheloweringofmoralstandardsbroughtaboutbycenturiesof
luxuryandoverindulgenceinworldlypleasures,resultingindisunity,socialinjustice,jealousies,
rivalries,intrigues,indolence,andslothalltheprogenyoffabulouswealthandinthecaseofthe
seconddeclinefromabout1111/1700to1266/1850,allroundmoraldegenerationcombinedwith
conformismoftheworsttypedeadeningalloriginalthought.Withoutthismoraldownfallthere
wouldhavebeennoculturaldeclineinIslam.
Asithasbeensaidbeforeaculturemayriseinonefieldatonetime,inanotherfieldatanother,
butwhileitmayberisinginonefielditmayyetbedecliningonthewhale.Thepoliticosocialrise
orfallofaculturenecessarilygoeswithitsmoralriseorfall.Butthecaseseemstobedifferent
withintellectualdevelopment.Apeoplemaydeclineinthepoliticosocialsphereandyetits
declinemayitselfundersuitablecircumstancesbecomeastimulusforitsintellectualadvance.The
politicalandmoraldeclineofthe`AbbasidCaliphateofBaghdadbeganinaboutthemiddleofthe
third/ninthcentury,andthecollapseoftheUmayyadCaliphateofSpainanddecadenceofthe
FatimidCaliphateofEgyptinthebeginningofthefifth/eleventhcentury.Yetthedeeprooted
traditionofthepatronageoflearningintheMuslimworldkeptitsintellectualachievementsrising
frompeaktopeakrightuptothetimeoftheMongoldevastation.Thus,despiteitsdownfallin
otherfields,inthefieldoflearningMuslimculturesawitsascendancyrightuptothemiddleof
theseventh/thirteenthcentury.Infactthisperiodofpoliticalandmoralfalltheperiodduring
whichMuslimseverywherelosttheirsolidarityandthethreeCaliphatesbrokeintopettyStatesor
sundrydynastieswasexactlytheperiodwhentheMuslimintellectreacheditsfullflowering.It
wasduringthisperiodofpoliticalandmoraldeclinethatflourishedsuchillustriousphilosophers
asalFarabi,ibnSina,Miskawaih,ibnHazm,alGhazali,ibnBajjah,ibnTufail,ibnRushd,andFakhr
alDinRazi;thefamousmysticShihabalDinSuhrawardi;greatpoliticalphilosopherslikeal
MawardiandNizamalMulkTusi;renownedscientistsandmathematicianslikealMajriti,ibn
Yunus,ibnHaitham,ibnalNafis,alBiruni,alBakri,alZarqah,`UmarKhayyam,ibnZuhr,andal
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Idrisi;andsuchcelebratedliteraryfiguresasalTabari,alMasudi,alMutanabbi,Firdausi,
Baqillani,Sana'i,alMa'arri,NasirKhusrau,alZamakhshari,Kashani,Niyami,`Attar,andibnal
Athir.Thoughthreecelebrities,Rumi,Sa'di,andNasiralDinTusi,diedlongafterthesackof
Baghdad,theywereactuallytheproductsofthisveryperiodandmuchoftheirworkshadbeen
producedwithinit.[1]Whenmoraldegenerationsetsin,aculture'sintellectualachievements
maystray
but
cannot
avert
the
evil
day.
Inthisexamplethereisalessonforthosewhoareusingtheirhighintellectualattainmentsforthe
conquestevenofthemoon,Venus,andMars,fortheymayyetbeculturallyonthedecline,if
superabundanceofwealthleadsthemtoluxury,licence,andmoraldegradationonthewhole.
C
IntheIntroductiontotheHistoryofPhilosophy,EasternandWestern,itiscomplainedthat
historieswrittensincethebeginningofthethirteenth/nineteenthcenturysufferfromthedefect
thattheyignorealldevelopmentsinphilosophybeforethetimeoftheGreeks.Thiscomplaint,or
ratherindictment,isperfectlyjustified,notonlyinthecaseofthehistoriansofthethir
teenth/nineteenthcenturybutalsoofthoseofthetwelfth/eighteenthcentury.Everythinkerof
thesetwocenturiesunderstoodhistoryasifitwereidenticalwithWesternhistory.Theyviewed
historyasonestraightlineofeventsmovingacrosstheWesternworld;dividedthislineintothree
periods,ancient,medieval,andmodern;andlumpedtogethertheEgyptian,Indian,Chinese,and
Babyloniancivilizations,eachofwhichhadpassedthroughseveralstagesofdevelopment,inthe
briefestpossibleprelude(insomecasescoveringnotevenapage)totheGraecoRomanperiod
designatedas"ancient."Historiesofothercivilizationsandpeopledidnotcount,exceptforthose
eventswhichcouldbeeasilylinkedwiththechainofeventsinthehistoryoftheWest.Toynbee
justlydescribesthisconceptionofhistoryasanegocentricillusion,andhisviewissharedbyall
recentphilosophersofhistory.Whatevertheirdifferencesinothermatters,inonethingthe
twentiethcenturyphilosophersofhistoryareunanimous,andthatistheirdenunciationofthe
linearconceptionofprogress.Weassociateourselveswiththeminthis.Justasinbiologyprogress
hasbeenexplainedbyatrendfromlowertohigher,orfromlessperfecttomoreperfect,orfrom
lessdifferentiatedandintegratedtomoredifferentiatedandintegrated,similarlyHerder,Fichte,
Rant,andHegelandalmostallthephilosophersofthetwelfth/eighteenthand
thirteenth/nineteenthcenturiesexplainedtheevolutionofhumansocietybyoneprinciple,one
socialtrend,andtheirtheorieswerethusstampedwiththelinearlawofprogress.Thepresent
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daywriterscriticismofthemisperfectlyjustifiedinrespectoftheirviewofprogressasaline,
ascendingstraightorspirally,whetheritisFichte'slineadvancingasasequenceofcertainvalues,
orHerder'sandKant'sfromviolenceandwartoJusticeandpeace,orHegel'stoeverincreasing
freedomoftheIdea,orSpencer'stogreaterandgreaterdifferentiationandintegration,or
TonniesadvancingfromGemeinschafttoGesellschaft,orDurkheim'sfromastateofsociety
basedon
mechanical
solidarity
to
organic
solidarity,
or
Buckle's
from
diminishing
influence
of
physicallawstoanincreasinginfluenceofmentallaws,orNavicow'sfromphysiological
determinationtopurelyintellectualcompetition,oranyotherlineofasingleprincipleexplaining
theevolutionofhumansocietyasawhole.
Everycivilizationhasahistoryofitsownandeachhasitsownancient,medieval,andmodern
periods.Inmostcasestheseperiodsarenotidenticalwiththeancient,medieval,andmodern
periodsofWesternculturestartingfromtheGreek.SeveralculturesprecededtheWestern
cultureandsomestartingearlierarestillcontemporaneouswithit.Theycannotbethrowninto
oblivionbecausetheycannotbeplacedinthethreeperiodsoftheculturesoftheWest,ancient,
medieval,andmodern.Westerncultureisnotthemeasureofallhumanityanditsachievements.
Youcannotmeasureotherculturesandcivilizationsorthewholeofhumanhistorybythethree
knottedyardstickofprogressintheWest.Mankindconsistsofanumberofgreatandsmall
countrieseachhavingitsowndrama,itsownlanguage,itsownideas,itsownpassions,itsown
customsandhabits,itsownpossibilities,itsowngoals,anditsownlifecourse.Ifitmustbe
representedlineally,itwouldnotbebyonelinebutseverallinesorratherbandsofvariegated
andconstantlychangingcolours,reflectingoneanotherandmergingintooneanother.
WhilethelearnededitorsoftheHistoryofPhilosophy,EasternandWestern,haveendeavoured
toremoveoneflawinthetreatmentofancienthistory,theyhavefailedtoremovesimilarflawsin
thetreatmentofwhattheWesternwritersdesignateasthe"medieval"periodofhistory.Avery
largepartofthisperiodiscoveredbythephenomenalriseanddevelopmentofMuslimthought
whichcarriedhumanachievementintheintellectualfield,asinmanyotherfields,tooneofits
highestpeaks.Forthisthemostgloriouspartofmedievalhistorynotmorethanfouroutofforty
eightchaptershavebeenassignedinthehistoryofPhilosophy,EasternandWestern.Nor,indeed,
hasevenawordbeensaidaboutthewellrecognizedroleofMuslimphilosophyintransmitting
GreekthoughttotheWest,inadvancinghumanknowledge,insupplyingamouldfortheshaping
ofWesternscholasticism,indevelopingempiricalsciences,inbringingabouttheItalian
Renaissance,andinprovidingstimulustothespeculationofWesternthinkersfromDescartesto
Kant.
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Moreover,intheaccountgivenofthe"modern"periodofhistory,thephilosophical
achievementsoftheEast,exceptthoseinIndia,havebeencompletelyomitted.Thereaderofthis
historicalworkgetstheimpressionthatfromthetimeofDescartestothatofSartre,i.e.,the
presentday,
the
East,
outside
India,
intellectually
ceased
to
exist.
ItistruethattheHistoryofPhilosophy,EasternandWestern,isnotalonecharacterizedbythese
omissions.Thesamegaps,evenmoreyawning,arefoundinthehistoriesofphilosophywrittenby
Westernscholars;butwhileintheworksoftheWesternerstheyareunderstandable,inthoseof
theeasternscholarstheyareunpardonable.Nevertheless,inthisparticularcasetheybecame
unavoidablefortheableeditorsdidintendtohavesomemorechaptersonMuslimphilosophy,
butthewritertowhomthesechapterswereassignedwasalsoaministeroftheStateholdingan
importantportfolioandhisheavyofficialdutieslefthimnotimetowritethem.
D
ThehistoryofMuslimthoughtthrowsafloodoflightonthelogicofhistory.Acontroversyhas
goneonforalongtimeaboutthelawsthatgovernhistoricalsequences.Vicointhe
twelfth/eighteenthcenturycontended,underthedeepimpressionofthelawfulnessprevailingin
naturalsciences,thathistoricaleventsalsofollowoneanotheraccordingtotheunswervinglaws
ofnature.Thelawofmechanicalcausalityisuniversalinitssway.Thesameviewwasheldby
SaintSimon,HerbertSpencer,KarlMarxandinrecenttimesbyMandelbaumandWiener.Onthe
otherhand,idealistslikeMaxWeber,Windelband,andRickertareoftheviewthattheobjectsof
historyarenotunitswithuniversalqualities;theyareunique,unrepeatableeventsinaparticular
spaceandaspecifictime.Therefore,nophysicallawscanbeformedaboutthem.Historical
eventsareundoubtedlyexposedtoinfluencesfrombiological,geological,geographical,andracial
forces;yettheyarealwayscarriedbyhumanbeingswhouseandsurmounttheseforces.
Mechanicallawsrelatetofactsbuthistoricaleventsrelatetovalues.Thereforethehistorical
orderoflawsisdifferentfromthephysicallawsofmechanicalcausation.Tousitseemsthatboth
thegroupsgotoextremes.Theempiriciststakenoaccountofthefreedomofthewillandthe
resolves,choices,andgoalsofhumanbeings,andtheidealistsforgetthatevenhumanbeingsare
notminds,butbodyminds;andthoughtheyinitiateeventsfromtheirowninnerresources,they
placetheminthechainofmechanicalcausality.Itistruethathistoricaleventsandthelivesof
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civilizationsandculturesfollowoneanotheraccordingtotheinnerlawsoftheirownnature,yet
historyconsistsinthemoral,intellectual,andaestheticachievementsofindividualsandgroups
basedonresolvesandchoices,usingcausationadivinegiftasatool,nowobeying,nowrevolting
againstdivinewillworkingwithinthemaidintheworldaroundthem,nowcooperatingandnow
fightingwithoneanother,nowfalling,nowrising,andthuscarvingtheirowndestinies.
E
ThethoughtofHegelandofMarxishavingagreatinfluenceonthedevelopmentofthe
philosophyofhistory.Asiswellknown,Hegelisadialecticalidealist.Thewholeworldforhimis
thedevelopmentoftheIdea,arationalentity,whichadvancesbyposingitselfasathesis;
developsfromitselfitsownopposite,antithesis;andthetwoideas,insteadofconstantly
remainingatwar,getunitedinanideawhichisthesynthesisofboth;andthissynthesisbecomes
thethesisforanothertriadandthustriadaftertriadtakestheworldtohigherandyethigher
reachesofprogress.Thus,thehistoricalprocessisaProcessofantagonismsandtheir
reconciliations.TheIdeadividesitselfintothe"Ideainitself"(theworldofhistory)andthe"Idea
initsotherness"(theworldasnature).Hegel'sdivisionoftheworldintotwowatertight
compartmentshasvitiatedthethoughtofseveralofhissuccessors,Rickert,Windleband,and
Spengler,andevenofBergson.Ifelectrons,amoebas,fleas,fishes,andapesweretospeak,they
couldreasonablyaskwhy,bornofthesamecosmicenergy,determinedbythesamelaws,having
thesamelimitedfreedom,theyshouldbesupposedtobemerenaturehavingnohistory.To
dividetheworldstuffintonatureandhistoryisunwarranted.Historyconsistsofsequencesof
groupsofevents,andwehavelearntsinceEinsteinthatobjectsinnaturearealsogroupsof
events.Thereisnoessentialdifferencebetweenthetwo.Theonlydifferenceisthatuptoa
certainstagethereisnolearningbyexperience;beyondthatthereis.AccordingtoHegel,the
linearprogressoftheIdeaorIntelligence,inwinningrationalfreedom,culminatesintheState,
thebestexampleofwhichistheGermanState.Suchalineofthoughtjustifiesinternaltyranny,
externalaggression,andwarsbetweenStates.Itfindsnoplaceinthehistoricalprocessforworld
organizationsliketheUnitedNationsortheWorldBankandisfalsifiedbythefactualexistenceof
suchinstitutionsinthepresentstageofworldhistory.Intelligenceisreallyonlyoneaspectofthe
humanmind,andthereseemstobenogroundforregardingthisoneaspect,theknowingaspect,
ofonlyonekindoftheworldstuff,i.e.,mankindastheessenceoftheworldstuff.
ThemindofonewhorejectsHegel'sidealismatonceturnstoMarx.Marxiandialecticisexactly
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thesameasHegel's.But,accordingtoMarx,theworldstuffisnottheIdea,butmatter.Heuses
thisword,matter,inthesenseinwhichitwasusedbythethirteenth/nineteenthcenturyFrench
materialists.Buttheideaofmatterasinertmasshasbeendiscardedevenbypresentdayphysics.
Worldstuffisnowregardedasenergywhichcantaketheformofmass.Dialecticalmaterialism,
however,isnotdisprovedbythischangeofmeaningoftheword"matter."Itcanstillbeheldin
termsof
arealistic
dialectic
the
terms
in
which
the
present
day
Marxists
hold
it.
With
the
new
terminology,then,theMarxistdialectictakesthisform:Somethingreal(athesis)createsfrom
withinitselfitsopposite,anotherreal(antithesis),whichboth,insteadofwarringperpetuallywith
eachother,getunitedintoasynthesis(athirdreal)whichbecomesthethesisofanothertriad,
andthusfromtriadtotriadtill,inthesocialsphere,thisdialecticofrealsleadstotheactualization
ofaclasslesssociety.OurobjectiontoHegel'spositionthathedoesnotfindanyplacefor
internationalorganizationsinthehistoricalprocessdoesnotapplytoMarx,buttheobjectionthat
Hegelconsiderswaranecessarypartofthehistoricalprocessappliesequallytohim.Hegel's
systemencourageswarsbetweennations;Marx'sbetweenclasses.Besides,Marxismisself
contradictory,forwhileitrecognizestheinevitabilityornecessityofthecausallaw,italso
recognizesinitiativeandfreecreativityofclassesinchangingtheworld.BothMarxandHegel
makehistorycompletelydetermined,andcompletelyignorethemostuniversallawofhuman
nature,thelawthatpeople,becomingdissatisfiedwiththeirsituationatallmomentsoftheirlives
exceptwhentheyareinsoundsleep,areinthepursuitofidealsandvalues(whichbeforetheir
realizationaremereideas);andthusifefficientcausespushthemon(whichbothHegelandMarx
recognize),finalcausesareconstantlyexercisingtheirpull(whichbothofthemignore).
Ourrecognitionoffinalcausesasdeterminantsofthecourseofhistoryleadsustothe
formulationofanewhypothesis.Accordingtothishypothesis,humanbeingsandtheiridealsare
logicalcontrariesordiscreprantsinsofarastheformerarerealandthelatterideal,andrealand
idealcannotbeattributedtothesamesubjectinthesamecontext.Norcanapersonandhisideal
bethoughtofintherelationofsubjectandpredicate.For,anidealofapersoniswhattheperson
isnot.Thereisnoessentialoppositionbetweentwoidealsorbetweentworeals,butthereisa
genuineincompatibilitybetweenarealandanideal.Whatisrealisnotidealandwhateverisideal
isnotreal.Bothareopposedintheiressence.HegelianideasandMarxistrealsarenotofopposite
nature.Theyareinconflictintheirfunction.Theyaremutuallywarringideasorwarringrealsand
areseparatedbyhostilityandhatred.Theincompatiblesofourhypothesisaresointheirnature,
butnotintheirfunction,andareboundbyloveandaffectionand,thoughrationaldiscrepants,
arevolitionallyandemotionallyinharmony.Inthemovementofhistoryrealselvesareattracted
byideals,andthen,inrealizingthem,aresynthesizedwiththem.Thismovementisdialectical,but
itistotallydifferentfromtheHegelianorMarxistdialectic.Theirthesisandantithesisare
strugglingagainsteachother.Here,oneisstrugglingnot"against"but"for"theother.The
formulaofthedynamicofhistory,accordingtothisconception,willbe:Areal(thesis)creates
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fromwithinitselfanideal(antithesis)whichbothbymutualharmonygetunitedintoanotherreal
(synthesis)thatbecomesthethesisofanothertriadandthusfromtriadtotriad.thedialecticof
humansociety,accordingtothisformula,isnotastruggleofwarringclassesorwarringnations,
butastruggleagainstlimitationstorealizegoalsandideals,whichgoalsandidealsarewilledand
lovedratherthanfoughtagainst.Thisisadialecticofloveratherthanofhatred.Itleads
individuals,masses,
classes,
nations,
and
civilizations
from
lower
to
higher
and
from
higher
to
yet
higherreachesofachievement.Itisadialecticwhichrecognizesanoverallnecessityofa
transcendentallydeterminedprocess(adivineorder),takesnoticeofthepartialfreedomofsocial
entitiesandoftheplaceofmechanicaldeterminationasatoolindivineandhumanhands.
Thishypothesisisnotlinearbecauseitenvisagessocietyasavastnumberofinteracting
individualsandintermingling,interactingclasses,societies,cultures,andhumanityasawhole,
movingtowardsinfiniteideals,nowrising,nowfalling,butonthewholedevelopingbytheir
realization,likethecloudsconstantlyrisingfromthefoothillsofamountainrange,nowmingling,
nowseparating,nowflyingoverthepeaks,nowsinkingintothevalleys,andyetascendingfrom
hilltohillinsearchofthehighestpeak.
ThishypothesisavoidstheSpencerianideaofsteadyprogress,becauseitrecognizesupsand
downsinhumanaffairsandrisesandfallsofdifferentcivilizationsandtheirthoughtatdifferent
stagesofworldhistory.Itavoidsmeasuringthedynamicsofhistorybythethreeknottedrodof
Westerncultureanddoesnotshelvethequestionofchangeinhumansocietyasawhole.It
leavesthedooroffutureachievementopentoallanddoesnotcondemncertainlivingculturesto
death.
Brieflystated,thehypothesistowhichthestudyofMuslimthought,asthestudyofMuslim
cultureasawhole,lendssupporthasanegativeaswellasapositiveaspect.Negatively,itisnon
organismic,noncyclic,andnonlinear;and,positively,itinvolvesbeliefinsocialdynamics,in
progressinhumansocietythroughtheagesbyrisesandfalls,intheimportanceoftheroleof
ethicalvaluesinsocialadvance,inthepossibilityofculturalregeneration,intheenvironmental
obstaclesasstimulitohumanaction,infreedomandpurposeastheultimatesourcesofchange,
andinmechanicaldeterminismasaninstrumentindivineandhumanhands.
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F
ThechiefaimofthisworkistogiveanaccountnotofMuslimcultureasawhole,norofMuslim
thoughtin
general,
but
only
of
one
aspect
of
Muslim
thought,
i.e.,
Muslim
philosophy.
But
since
thisphilosophyhaditsbeginninginareligionbasedonphilosophicalfundamentalsandit
developedincloseassociationwithotherspheresofthought,sciences,humanities,andarts,we
havethoughtitdesirabletogivebriefaccountsoftheseotherdisciplinesaswell(BookFive).Book
Fivehasbecomenecessarybecauseinmanycasesthesamethinkerswereatoncephilosophers,
scientists,andwritersontheHumanitiesandFineArts.BesideswritingonphilosophyalKindi
wrote,tonumberonlythemainsubjects,alsoonastrology,chemistry,optics,andmusic;alFarabi
onmusic,psychology,politics,economics,andmathematics;ibnSinaonmedicine,chemistry,
geometry,astronomy,theology,poetry,andmusic;ZakriyaalRazionmedicineandalchemy;al
Ghazaliontheology,law,physics,andmusic;andtheIkhwanalSafaonmathematics,astronomy,
geography,music,andethics.Likewiseibn.Haithamleftworksnotonlyonphilosophybutalsoon
optics,music,mathematics,astronomy,andmedicine,andNasiralDinTusionmathematics,
astronomy,physics,medicine,mineralogy,music,history,andethics.InMuslimSpain,ibnBajjah
wroteonphilosophy,medicine,music,andastronomy;ibnTufailonphilosophyandmedicine;and
ibnRushdonphilosophy,theology,medicine,andastronomy.Andwhatistrueofthesethinkersis
trueofahostofothers.
IntheIntroductiontotheHistoryofPhilosophy,EasternandWestern,towhichreferencehas
alreadybeenmadeithasbeenrightlyobservedthatthehistoriesofphilosophywrittenbeforethe
nineteenthcenturymightbeaptlydescribedasthehistoriesofphilosophersratherthanthe
historiesofphilosophy.Butitseemstousthatwhenahistoryaimsatgivinganaccountof
theoriesandmovements,itcannotdowithoutdealingwithphilosophers,fortherelation
betweenthemandthemovementstheystartorthetheoriestheypropoundistoointimateto
allowtheircompleteseverance.Therefore,inourendeavourtogiveahistoricalaccountofthe
movements,systems,anddisciplinesinMuslimthoughtwehavemadenoefforttoeliminatethe
treatmentofindividualphilosopherswhereithasbeencalledfor.Inthisprocedurewehavefol
lowedtheexcellentexampleofT.J.deBoerwhocanbejustlyregardedasapioneerinthismost
neglectedfield.
WehavebegunourtreatmentofthesubjectbygivinginBookOneabriefaccountofthewhole
fieldofphilosophyinthepreIslamicworldingeneralandArabiainparticular.Wehavedevoted
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BookTwotophilosophicalteachingsoftheQur'an.Thiswehavedonewiththeexpresshopethat
thesetwobookstogetherwillgivethereaderacorrectideaoftherealsourceofMuslimphilo
sophyandenablehimtoviewthisphilosophyinitstrueperspective.
MuslimphilosophylikeMuslimhistoryingeneralhaspassedthroughfivedifferentstages.The
firststagecoverstheperiodfromthefirstfirst/seventhcenturytothefallofBaghdad.Wehave
dealtwiththisperiodundertheheading"EarlyCenturies."Thisisfollowedbyashockabsorbing
periodofabouthalfacentury.Itsthirdstageisthatofitssecondfloweringtreatedunderthe
heading"LaterCenturies."Itcoverstheperiodfromthebeginningoftheeighth/fourteenthtothe
beginningofthetwelfth/eighteenthcentury.Thefourthstageisthatofthemostdeplorable
declinecoveringacenturyandahalf.ThisisinthetruestsensetheDarkAgeofIslam.Withthe
middleofthethirteenth/nineteenthcenturybeginsitsfifthstagecoveringtheperiodofthe
modernrenaissance.Thus,inthecurveofitshistory,Muslimphilosophyhashadtworisesand
twofallsandisnowshowingclearsignsofathirdrise.
Wehavesaidverylittleabouttheperiodsofdecline,forthesehavelittletodowithphilosophical
developments.DuringthefirstperiodofitsgreatnessMuslimphilosophyshowsfourdistinctlines
ofthought.Thefirstisthetheologicophilosophicalline,thesecondismystical,thethird
philosophicalandscientific,andthefourthisthattakenbythosewhomwehavecalledthe
middleroaders.ThesehavebeentreatedrespectivelyinBookThree,Parts1,2,3,and4.In
BookFourwehavetracedthesamelinesofthoughtrunningthroughthesecondriseofIslamin
ordertobringitinclearcontrastwiththefirst.
DuringbothoftheseperiodsofIslamicrise,considerableactivityisnoticeableinotherdisciplines.
WehavedealtwithalltheseinBookFive.
TheperiodofmodernrenaissanceinIslam,abriefaccountofwhichisgiveninBookEight,is
markedbypoliticalstruggleforemancipationfromforeigndominationandfreedomfrom
conformisminbothlifeandthought.Thephilosophersofthisperiodarenotmerephilosophers.
Theyaremorepoliticalleaders,socialreformers,andmenofaction.Therefore,althoughchapters
LXXII,LXXIII,LXXIV,LXXVII,LXXX,andLXXXIIIcontributelittletoacademicphilosophy,yetthey
throwafloodoflightonthephilosophiesoflifeandhistory,andforthatreasonhavebeen
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consideredindispensableforourwork.
Somuchaboutthepast.Butwhataboutthepresentandhowaboutthefuture?Thepositionof
philosophyamongst
the
Muslim
peoples
today
is
no
worse
than
it
is
in
the
rest
of
the
world.
What
typeofphilosophicalthoughtthefuturehasinstoreforthemweshalltrytoforecastinour
concludingremarks,
Notes:
[1]AsRumi'smostimportantwork,theMathnawi,waswrittenbetween659/1261and670/1272,
wehaveincludedhimamongwritersofthecenturiesfollowingthesackofBaghdad.
Chapter1:PreIslamicIndianThought
PreIslamicIndianThoughtbyC.AQadir,M.A,ProfessorofPhilosophy,GovernmentCollege,
Lahore(Pakistan)
MauriceBloomfieldsaysparadoxicallyinTheReligionoftheRigVedathat"Indianreligionbegins
beforeitsarrivalinIndia."[1]BythishemeanstoimplythatIndianreligionisacontinuationof
theprimitivefaithoftheIndoEuropeanracetowhichtheAryansthatcametoIndiabelonged.
"TheSanskritworddeva(toshine)forGodissimilartotheLatinworddeus;yajaSanskritword
forworshipiscommontomorethanoneIndoEuropeanlanguage;whiletheVedicgodMitrahas
hiscounterpartintheIraniangodMithra."Fromacomparativestudyofthebeliefsandpractices
oftheTeutonic,Hellenic,Celtic,Slavonic,Italian,Armenian,andPersianpeopleswhichallsprang
fromthe
Indo
European
race,
it
has
been
established
beyond
the
slightest
doubt
that
the
basis
of
theirreligionwasananimisticbeliefinaverylargenumberofpettygods,eachofwhichhada
specialfunction.Theywereworshippedwithsacrifice,accompaniedwithpotentformulasand
prayers.Magicwashighlyregardedandmuchused.
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Itisgreatlyregrettedthatthereisneitheranyformalhistorynoranyarchaeologicalremainto
throwlightontheearlyhomeofthisancientraceoronthetimewhenthegreathistoricalpeople
hivedofffromit.Ourprincipalsourceforthehistory,religion,andphilosophyoftheIndianbranch
istheVedasbesidestheEpicsandthePuranas.
TheVedas AmongtheVedas,theoldestisRgVedawhichconsistsofmorethanathousand
hymnscomposedbysuccessivegenerationsofpoetsduringaperiodofmanycenturies.The
hymnsareconnectedinvariouswayswiththesacrifices,thedomesticceremonies,andthe
religiousspeculationofthetime,andareconcernedchieflywiththeworshipofgods,who
representpersonificationofnaturalforces,andthepropitiationofdemoniacbeings.
IntheIndoIranianperiodtherefreshingdrinkpreparedfromthesomaplantwasofferedtogods
inaspecialritualandthesingingofahymnwasanecessarypartoftheritual.TheAryansbrought
thiscustomwiththemandcontinuedtocomposeversesforthesamaritualandfortheoccasions
ofannualsacrificesintheirnewhomeland.Asthehymnsweretobesung,aclassofpriestsarose
whosedutyitwastorecitepoemsofpraiseinhonourofgods.Thepriestswhocouldsingbetter
hymnsandwereinpossessionofasecretlore,whichenabledthembyconductingsacrificesinthe
rightwaytowinthefavourofgodsfortheirpatrons,wereingreatdemand.Consequently,a
numberofpriestlyfamiliesviedwithoneanotherincomposinghymnsinthebestlanguageand
metrethenavailable.TheRgVedagivesevidenceofsevensuchfamilieseachbearingthenameof
apatriarchtowhomthehymnsareascribed.Atfirstthehymncollectionsofsixfamilieswere
broughttogetherandthenofnine.Atamuchlaterstagesomescholarscollectedonehundred
andninetyonepoemswhichweretaughtasthelastsectionoftheoralcurriculumofhymns.
Thus,therebecametenbooksoftheRgVeda.
ThemantrasoftheAtharvaVedaconsistlargelyofspellsformagicalpurposesandadvocatepure
andunalloyedpolytheism.TheotherVedasareentirelysacrificialinpurpose.TheSamaVeda
consistsofversesborrowedfromtheRgVedatobeappliedtosomasacrifice.TheYajurVeda
consistsofritualformulasofthemagicaltype.
ForalongtimethenumberoftheVedaswaslimitedtothree,theAtharvaVedabeingtotally
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excludedfromthegroupoftheVedas.Insupportofthiscontentionthefollowingversefrom
Manucanbecited:"FromAgni,Vayu,andRavi,Hedrewforthfortheaccomplishmentofsacrifice
theeternaltripleVeda,distinguishedasRik,YajushandSaman."[2]Similarly,inSatapatha
Brahnmanasitissaid,"TheRikYajushSamanversesarethethreefoldscience."[3]
AprobablereasonfortheexclusionoftheAtharvaVedafromtheVedasisthat"itconsistsmostly
ofmagicspell,sorcery,andincantationswhichwereusedbythenonAryansandthelowerclasses
toachieveworldlygoodssuchaswealth,riches,children.health,freedomfromdisease....The
AtharvaVedawasrecognizedlateronwhenhymnsrelatingtosacrificesseemtohavebeenadded
toittogainrecognitionfromtheorthodoxy."[4]
VedicConceptionofGod ThereligionoftheVedasispolytheism.Ithasnotthecharmandgrace
ofthepantheonoftheHomericpoems;butitcertainlystandsnearertheoriginofthegods.All
godswhethergreatorsmallaredeifiednaturalphenomena.Theinterestingthingaboutthemis
thattheyareidentifiedwiththegloriousthingswhosedeificationstheyareandarealso
distinguishedfromthem.Theyarestillthoughtofasbeingsun,moon,rain,wind,etc.,yeteach
godisconceivedasagloriousbeingwhohashishomeinheavenandwhocomessailinginhisfar
shiningcartothesacrificeandsitsdownonthegrasstohearhisownpraiserecitedandsungand
toreceivetheofferings.[5]Thehymnssungbythepriestsweremainlyinvocationsofthegods
meanttoaccompanytheoblationofsomajuiceandthefiresacrificeofthemeltedbutter.
TheVedasarenotconsistentintheiraccountofthegods.Inonemyththesunisamale,in
anotherafemale.Thesunandthemoonarementionedinoneplaceasrivals,elsewhereas
husbandandwife.Thedogisextolledinoneplaceasadeityandinanothermentionedasavile
creature.Againthesun,thesky,andtheeartharelookeduponsometimesasnaturalobjects
governedbyparticulargodsandsometimesasthemselvesgodswhogenerateandcontrolother
beings.
IntheRgVeda,heavenandearthareordinarilyregardedastheparentsofgods,pitra[6]or
matra.[7]Inotherpassagesheaven(dyaus)isseparatelystyledasfatherandtheearth(prithivi)
asmother.[8]Atotherplaces,however,theyarespokenofashavingbeencreated.Thusitissaid,
[9]thathewhoproducedheavenandearthmusthavebeenthemostskilfulartisanofallthe
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gods.Again,Indraisdescribedashavingformedthem,tofollowhimaschariotwheelsdoahorse.
AtotherplacesthecreationoftheearthandtheheavenisascribedtoSomaandPushan.
Thus,while
the
gods
are
regarded
in
some
passages
of
the
Rg
Veda
as
the
offsprings
of
heaven
andearth,theyareatotherplacesconsideredindependentofthesedeitiesandeventheir
creators.
InvarioustextsoftheRgVedathegodsarespokenofasbeingthirtythreeinnumber.Thusitis
saidintheRgVeda:"ComehitherNasatyas,Asvins,togetherwiththethriceelevengods,todrink
ournectar."[10]Again,"Agni,thewisegodslendaneartotheirworshippers.Godwiththeruddy
steeds,wholovestpraise,bringhitherthosethreeandthirty."[11]IntheSatapathaBrahmanas
thisnumberofthirtythreegodsisexplainedasmadeupofeightvasus,elevenrudras,andtwelve
adityas,togetherwithheavenandearth,or,accordingtoanotherpassage,togetherwithIndra
andPrajapatiinsteadofheavenandearth.
TheenumerationofgodsasthirtythreeisnotadheredtothroughouttheVedas.IntheRgVeda,
thegodsarementionedasbeingmuchmorenumerous:"Threethousand,threehundred,thirty
andninegodshaveworshippedAgni."[12]Thusversewhichisoneofthemanyshowsthatthe
VedicIndianbelievedintheexistenceofamuchlargernumberofsupernaturalbeingsthanthirty
three.
Thegodswerebelievedtohavehadabeginning;theywerestatedtobemortal,butcapableof
overcomingdeathbythepracticeofausterity.TheRgVedasaysthatthegodsacquired
immortalitybydrinkingsoma.Stillthegodsarenotselfexistentorunbeginningbeings.Ithas
beenseenthattheyaredescribedinvariouspassagesoftheRgVedaasoffspringsofheavenand
earth.InvarioustextsoftheRgVedathebirthofIndraismentioned,andhisfatherandmother
arealsoalludedto.[13]
TheVedicgodscanbeclassifiedasdeitiesofheaven,air,andearth:
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1.CelestialGods TheoldestgodisDyaus,generallycoupledwithPrithiviwhenthetwoare
regardedasuniversalparents.AnotherisVaruna,thegreatestoftheVedicgodsbesidesIndra.It
ishewhosustainsandupholdsphysicalandmoralorder.InthelaterVedas,whenPrajapati
becamecreator
and
supreme
god,
the
importance
of
Varuna
waned,
and
in
the
post
Vedicperiod
Varunaretainedonlythedominionofwatersasgodofthesky.Variousaspectsofthesolar
activityarerepresentedbyfivegods,namely,Mitra,apersonificationofthesun'sbeneficent
power;Surya,thepropernameofthesun,regardedasthehusbandofdawn;Savitri,thelife
givingactivityofthesun;Pusan,apastoraldeitypersonifyingthebountifulpowerofthesun;and
Visnuoccupyingthecentralplaceinthispantheon.
2.AtmosphericGods ThemostimportantofthesegodsisIndra,afavouritenationaldeityofthe
AryanIndians.Heisnotanuncreatedbeing.Itissaidofhim,"Thyfatherwastheparentofamost
heroicson;themakerofIndra,healsoproducedthecelestialandunconquerablethunder...was
amostskilfulworkman."[14]Again,"Avigorous(god)begothim,avigorous(son),forthebattle;
aheroicfemale(nari)broughthimforth,aheroicsoul."[15]Hiswholeappearanceisgolden;his
armsaregolden;hecarriesagoldenwhipinhishands;andheisborneonashininggoldencar
withathousandsupports.Hiscarisdrawnbytwogoldensteedswithflowinggoldenmanes.Heis
famousforslayingVrtaafteraterrificbattle,asaresultofwhichwaterisreleasedformanand
lightisrestoredtohim.Certainimmoralactsarealsoattributedtohim.Heoccasionallyindulges
inactsofviolencesuchasslayinghisfatherordestroyingthecarofDawn.Lessimportantgodsof
thisgroupareTrita,ApamnapatandMatarisvan.ThesonsofRudra,themalignantdeitiesofthe
Vedas,aretheMaruts(thestormgods)whohelpIndrainhisconflicts.ThegodofwindisVayu
whilethatofwaterisApah.
3.TerrestrialGods Riversaredeified.ThusSindu(Indus),Vipas(Bias),andSutudri(Sutlej)are
invokedintheRgVeda.ThemostimportantgodisSarasvati,oftenregardedasthewifeof
Brahma.AnotherveryimportantgodisAgni,thegodoffire.Thenumberofhymnsaddressedto
himfarexceedthoseaddressedtoanyother,divinitywiththeexceptionofIndra.IntheRgVeda
heisfrequentlyspokenofasagoblinslayer.AnothergodisSoma,thedivinedrinkwhichmakes
thosewhodrinkitimmortal.ApriestsaysintheRgVeda:"WehavedrunkSoma,wehavebecome
immortal,wehaveenteredintolight,wehaveknowngods."
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Inadditiontothese,thereisahostofabstractdeitiesandalsodeitiesoflessimportancewhich
cannotbedescribedhereforwantofspace.Sufficeittosaythatanattemptwasmadebythe
sages(rsis)tointroduceorderinthebewilderingmultiplicityofgods.Asseveralgodshadsimilar
functions,theywereinsomecasesbracketedtogether,sothatitmightbesaidthatwhenIndra
andAgniperformedidenticalfunctions,AgniwasIndraorIndrawasAgni.Hencearosemanydual
gods.A
farther
effort
in
the
direction
of
systematization
was
made
through
what
Max
Miller
has
calledhenotheismatendencytoaddressanyofthegods,say,Agni,Indra,Varuna,oranyother
deity,"asforthetimebeingtheonlygodinexistencewithanentireforgetfulnessofallother
gods."Macdonellhasadifferenttheorytoexplainthesocalledhenotheismbyascribingtoit
exaggeration,thusretainingthechargeofpolytheismagainsttheVeda.SomemodernHindus
undertheinfluenceofSwamiDayanandarepudiateboththesetheoriesasinconsistentwiththe
truespiritoftheVedas"[16]HeisOne,sagescallHimbydifferentnames,e.g.,Agni,Yama,
Maarishvan."[17]Nodoubt,afewversesofthisnaturecanbefoundintheVedas;butthe
consensusofscholarsisthatmonotheisticversesareaproductofthelaterVedicperiodandthat
theydontexpressthedominantstrainoftheVedicthought.ShriKrishnaSaksenainhischapter
"IndianPhilosophy"inAHistoryofPhilosophicalSystemseditedbyV.Fermsaysthattheearly
mantrascontainareligionofnatureworshipinwhichpowersofnaturelikefire(agni)andwind
(vayu)arepersonified.InlaterhymnsandtheBrahmanas,monotheistictendenciesbegantocrop
upalittle.SwamiDayanandawasaproductofHinduMuslimcultureandhisinsistenceon
monotheismshowstheextenttowhichMuslimthoughthasinfluencedIndianreligiousbeliefs.
VedicEschatology TheRgVedamakesnodistinctreferencetoafuturelifeexceptinitsninthand
tenthbooks.Yama,thegodofdeath,wasthefirstofthemortalstodie.Hediscoversthewayto
theotherworld;guidesothermenthere,assemblestheminahome,whichissecuredforthem
forever.Hegrantsluminousabodestothepiousandisanobjectofterrorforthewicked.Yamais
saidtohavetwoinsatiabledogswithfoureyesandwidenostrilswhoactashismessengersand
conveythespiritsofmentotheabodeoftheirforefathers.Afteraperson'sdeadbodyhasbeen
burnt,hisspiritsoarstotherealmofeternallightinacaroronwingsandentersuponamore
perfectlifewhichfulfilsallofhisdesiresandgrantshimunendinghappiness.SincetheVedicgods
didnothavepurelyspiritualpleasuresbutwereoftensubjecttosensualappetites,itcanbesaid
thatthepleasurespromisedtothepiousintheworldtocomewerenotaltogetherspiritual.Yama
isdescribedascarousingwiththegods,[18]Gandharvas,aclassofgodswhoaredescribedas
hairylikedogsandmonkeys,oftenassumehandsomeappearancetoseducetheearthlyfemales.
[19]Indraissaidtohavehadahappymarriedlife.
Brahmanas EachofthefourVedashasthreesubdivisions:theSamhitas(sacredtexts),the
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Brahmanas(commentaries),andtheAranyakas(forestbooks):TheBrahmanasare,therefore,an
integralpartoftheVedas.Sayana,agreatscholaroftheVedas,says,"Vedaisthedenomination
oftheMantrasandtheBrahmanas."[20](SwamiDayanandadiffersonthispoint.)BytheMantras
aremeanthymnsandprayers;andtheBrahmanasareintendedtoelucidateobjectswhichare
onlygenerallyadvertedtointhehymns.TheBrahmanascomprisepreceptswhichinculcate
religiousduties,
maxims
which
explain
those
precepts,
and
arguments
which
relate
to
theology.
ConsideringthefactthattheBrahmanasoftenquotefromtheVedasanddevotethemselvesto
theclarificationoftheritualisticandthephilosophicalportionsoftheVedas,itmaybeconcluded
thattheSamhitasmusthaveexistedintheirpresentformbeforethecompilationofthe
Brahmanaswasundertaken.InfactintheBrahmanass,wefindfullydevelopedthewhole
Brahmanicalsystem,ofwhichwehavebutfaintindicationsintheVedas.Wehavethewholebody
ofreligiousandsocialinstitutionsfarmorecomplicatedthanthesimpleritualoftheSamhitas;
fourcasteswiththeBrahminsatthetopandtheSudrasatthebottomhavebeenrecognizedboth
intheoryandinpracticeallthisshowsthattheBrahmanasmusthavebeencomposedalongtime
aftertheVedas.Itis,however,obviousthattheBrahmanaswereakindofascripturalauthority
fortheBrahmanicalformofworshipandsocialinstitutions.
Upanisads ThethirdintegralpartoftheVedas,namely,theAranayakas,intendedforthestudy
oftheanchoritesintheforestsinthethirdstageoftheirlife,ledultimatelytotheUpanisadsor
VedantasastheconcludingportionoftheVedas.Theseweremeantfortheasceticsinthefourth
stageoftheirlivescalledtheSannyasaAsrama.Literally,thewordUpanisadmeans"asitting
besides."i.e.,alessontaughtbytheteachertothepupilssittingbyhisside.Thesediscourses
expoundedinenigmaticformulaeaseriesofesotericdoctrinestotheselectedfewstudents,
mainlyBrahmins,whoweredeemedfittoreceivesuchacourseofinstruction.
ConsideringtheagewhichgavebirthtotheUpanisadsforunderstandingsomeofthemajor
problemsoflife,onemarvelsatthedepthandinsightoftheearlyHinduseers.Theirattitude
towardstheVedaswasnotoneofveneration;itwasonthecontraryanattitudeofdoubtand
disrespect.WhiletheyconsideredVedastobeofdivineorigin,theyfeltatthesametimethatthe
Vedicknowledgewasinferiortothetruedivineinsightandcouldnotliberatethem.[21]They
werenotconcernedwiththeworldofphenomenaanddenouncedwithalltheforceattheir
disposaltherichandelaborateritualismthenprevalent.Sacrifice,anintegralpartoftheVedic
faith,hadnosignificanceforthen.Theirinterestlaynotintheouterworldbutintheinnerand,
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withinthat,inthemysteryoftheself.TheintrovertedBrahminswereaccordinglycarriedfar
beyondtherealmoftheanthropomorphicdeitiesoftheearlyVedicperiodanddevotedattention
tothatalltranscendingprinciplefromwhichallnaturalforcesandeventsweresupposedto
proceed.TheUpanisads,however,fallshortofofferingacoherentpresentationoftheBrahmanic
doctrineoftheUniversalSoulinallthings."Thisisonlyfoundintheminfragments,somesmall,
somelarge.
And
in
addition
these
fragments
are
the
work
of
various
schools
and
various
ages.
ThosewhohavedescribedtheUpanisadsaschaoticarenotaltogetherwrong.[22]Itwouldbe
hardtosaywhatphilosophicalopinionsmightnotbesupportedontheirauthority,forthemost
partcontradictorystatementsfindaplaceinthem,yetthetendencyisonthewholetowards
pantheism.TheUpanisadsteachtheidentityofthesoulofallbeingsbothanimateandinanimate
withtheUniversalSoul.SincetheUniversalSouldwellsinall,onefindsone'sownselfinallthings,
bothlivingandnonliving.Inthislightalonecanthemeaningofthefamoustattvamasi(Thatart
thou)oftheUpanisadsbeunderstood.ThehumanselfisnotapartoftheDivineSelf,butisthe
BrahmanAtmanwholeandundivided.TheSelfisconsequentlyasingleprinciple,which,
philosophicallyspeaking,canofferanexplanationfortheentirespectacleofnature.
ItisoftensaidthatthepillarsonwhichtheedificeofIndianphilosophyrestsareAtmanand
Brahman.ThesetermshavenofixedconnotationintheUpanisads.Generallyspeaking,Atmanis
usedtodesignateselforsoul,whileBrahmanisusedtodenotetheprimarycauseofthings.What
isremarkableaboutthesetermsisthatthoughtheirsignificanceisdifferent,onedenotingan
innerworldofsubjectivityandtheotheranobjectiveprincipleofexplanation,yetincourseof
timethetwocametobeusedinterchangeablybothsignifyinganeternalprincipleoftheuniverse.
ThenotionoftheselfwasarrivedatthroughintrospectionanditwasthoughtbytheUpanisads
thinkersthattheouterrealityshouldcorrespondexactlywiththepsychicalrealitywithin.Inthis
waywhatwassimplyapsychicalprinciplecametoberecognizedasaworldprinciple.Thisstrain
ofthoughtwassupportedbyanotherwhichobjectivelytracedthevisibleuniversetoasingle
source,namely,Brahman,andBrahmanwasidentifiedwiththeAtman.Thus,twoindependent
currentsofthoughtmettogetherandpavedthewaytomonismofanidealistictypewhichhas
remainedtillnowthehallmarkofIndianphilosophy.Bycombiningsubjectiveandobjective
principlesintoone,theultimateprinciplepartookofthecharacteristicsofbothitbecameinfinite
aswellasspiritual.AllthisisverywellexpressedinChandogyaUpanisadinadialoguebetweena
fatherandason.Thesumandsubstanceofthestoryisthattheprimalspiritualprincipleisall
comprehensiveandthattheprincipleisnootherthantheselfofthepersonthenengagedinthe
discussion.WithregardtothenatureofBrahman(theAbsolute)thereisagreatdivergenceof
opinion.AtsomeplacesHeisconceivedascosmic,i.e.,allcomprehensive,atothersacosmic,i.e.,
allexclusive.Further,atsomeplacesBrahmanisimaginedastheimpersonalAbsolutewithout
attributes;atotherplacesheisrecognizedasthehighestspiritualBeingthatunitesallformsof
perfectioninHimself.HenceitwouldbenoexaggerationtosaythatthoughtheUpanisads
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containflashesofinsight,yettheyarenotaselfcontainedhomogeneoussystemandthatthey
alsolackcompleteness.ItisforthisreasonthatSamkarabelievesthattherearetwotypesof
doctrinesintheUpanisads:esoteric,understandingGodastheimpersonal,unknowableAbsolute
withoutattributes,andtheotherexoteric,regardingGodasaPersonwhomanifestsHimselfin
thevariousdivinities.
ThesecondinterpretationoftheAbsoluteasaPersonledtothedevelopmentofatheology
largelytheisticinspirityetpolytheisticinpractice,sinceitsanctionedsymbolworshipwhich
expresseditselfinvariousformsofidolworship.TheUpanisadsarenot,however,responsiblefor
theexcessesoflatertheology.Inthembreathesaspiritofmonism.Theypreachacultofmystical
unionwiththeAbsolute,andsuggestpracticalmethodsforitsrealization.Inthemainthestressis
laiduponcompletedetachmentfromallthatismundaneandbelongstotheworldof
phenomena.Accordingly,onefindsintheUpanisadsawholeseriesofsayingsinwhichcomplete
renunciationisrecommended."Whenalldesireswhichareinhisheartdisappear,thenmanbe
comesimmortal.HerehehasalreadyreachedBrahman.Astheoldsloughofasnakeliesonan
anthill,sonowdoesthebodyliethere."[23]AccordingtotheUpanisads,thehighestmeritcalled
Preryas,whichconsistsintherealizationofone'strueself,canbereachedthroughknowledge
alone.Thepurposeofethics,ontheotherhand,isquitedistinct,namely,mundanegoodcalled
Preyaswhichisreachedbymoralactions.Thetwoendsareconsequentlypolesapart,one
concernedwiththetimelessgoodandtheotherwiththetemporalandevanescentgood.Itissaid
inKathaUpanisad[24]thattheethicalandthespiritualgoalsareopposedtoeachotheraslight
anddarknessandcannotcoexist.Amanhastorenounceallactivityforworldlygoodsifhewants
toachievespiritualunitywiththeSupremeBeing.Onecannot,therefore,selectbothknowledge
andactionastwoendsoflife,sincethehighestendmustbeoneandnotmany.
TheidealofdetachmentwasemphasizedbytheIndianthinkersnotonlyforthereasonthatitwas
necessitatedbytheirtheoryofhumandeliverance,butalsobecausetheyregardedthewhole
phenomenalworldofnames,forms,andpluralityasmayaoramereunreality,anillusionhaving
onlyatemporaryrealitywhichistranscendedultimatelyinthebeingoftheSupremeSelf.The
UpanisadsdemandthevotariesofBrahmatoponderovertheillusorinessandunrealityofthe
worldofsensesandtoextricatethemselvesfromitstemptationsandenchantmentsby
contemplationofatranscendentalrealitywithinthesoulofeachperson.Thuscanapersongetto
spiritualheightsandachievemuktiorsalvation.Hencealongwiththerenunciationofthe
phenomenalworldanotherthingrequiredistheconcentrationofthespiritonthesupersensible
reality.TheUpanisadscontaindetailedinstructionsonthissubject.
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Theaimistoreachastageofecstasyinwhichapersonhasthepsychicalexperienceoffeeling
onewiththeUltimateReality.
Theethicsnegatingtendencies,however,couldnotbemaintainedconsistentlyinfaceofthe
demandsandconcreterealitiesoflife.TheidealofhumansalvationasoutlinedbytheUpanisads
cannotbeachievedeasilyandsomanyaredestinedtofail.ThisisrealizedbytheIndiansages.
"Whatishardformanyeventohear,whatmanyfailtounderstandeventhoughtheyhear:a
marvelistheonethatcanteachitandluckyisitsobtainer;amarvelishethatknowsitwhen
taughtbythewise.[25]Themajorityarebornagainafterdeathandcanwinreleasefromthe
cycleofbirthsanddeathsthroughtheperformanceofgooddeeds.Thusethicsrejectedby
BrahmanicmysticismentersthroughthedoctrineoftheTransmigrationofSoulsadoctrineun
knowntotheVedas.
Thedoctrinereferredtoaboveappearsinconnectionwithamyth."Allwhodepartfromthis
worldgotothemoon.Thewaxinghalffillsitselfwiththeirlives;inthewaninghalfitiseffecting
theirrebirth.Themoonisthegateoftheheaven.Hewhoknowshowtoreplytoit,himitallows
topassby.Hewhocannotreply,itsendshimasraindowntotheearth;heisrebornhereand
thereaccordingtohisdeedsandknowledgeasworm,moth,fish,bird,lion,wildbear,jackal,tiger,
man,orwhateveritmaybe.Forwhenamancomestothemoon,themoonasks:`Whoartthou?
'Thenheoughttoanswer:Iamthou....'Ifhespeaksthus,thenthemoonletshimgetaway,out
aboveitself."[26]OnefindsnoreferencetothemythintheVedas.Fromthisitisconcludedthatit
isnotAryaninoriginbutbelongedtothereligiousworldof
theaboriginalinhabitantsofIndia.
Thelawwhichgovernsthekindofbirthasoulisdestinedtohaveaftereachdeathisthelawof
karma,whichsignifiesthatnothingcanhappeninthemoralworldwithoutacause.Butthe
recognitionofthefactthatmoraleventsarecausedbyantecedentfactorscannotexplainthe
palpablyindemonstrableandpoeticwayinwhichthemoralcausesarebelievedtooperate.That
moralcausescanworkinsmsara,thatistosay,inaseriesofbirthsanddeaths,allofwhichdonot
necessarilypertaintohumanbeings,isahypothesisofaverydoubtfulnatureandutility.Thatthe
doctrineofreincarnationisinconsistentwiththeBrahmanicmysticismoftheidentityofthe
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individualwiththeUniversalSoulgoeswithoutsaying.Insteadofthedoctrinethatevery
individualsoulreturnstotheUniversalSoulafterinhabitingthebodyonce,wearerequiredto
believeinatheorywhichstartsfromnewpremisesaltogether.Thistheoryisbasedonthe
suppositionthatsoulsareprisonersintheworldofsenseandcanreturntotheirPrimalSource
notatonceaftertheirfirstdeath,asrequiredbythetheoryofmysticalabsorptionofthe
Brahmins,but
after
undergoing
along
process
of
reincarnation
necessitating
aseries
of
births
in
theanimateandinanimaterealms.Schweitzerthinks[27]thattheacceptanceofthisdoctrine
createdinsuperabledifficultiesforHinduthought.Ontheolderhypothesisofmysticalreunion
withtheDivineSourceitwaseasytoexplainworldredemptionontheassumptionthatallsouls
returnedtotheirSourceaftertheirdeath.Butifthetheoryofreincarnationisaccepted,world
redemptionbecomespossibleonlyifallsoulsreachthelevelofhumanexistenceandbecome
capableofacquiringthatknowledgeandconductwhichisrequiredforliberationandofwhich
humanbeingsalonearecapable.
TheEpicPeriod Twogreateventsbelongtothisperiod.ThefirstistheexpeditionofRamafrom
OudhtoCeylontorecoverhiswifeSitawhohadbeencarriedoffbyRavana,thekingofthat
island,andthesecondisthestruggleforsupremacybetweentworivalKsatriyagroups,the
PandavasandtheKauravas,inwhichLordKrsnaplayedasignificantpart.
Ramaisanavatar,i.e.,adivineincarnationofVisnu,whobeingthepreserveroftheuniversehad
toleavehiscelestialabodeveryoftenandtoassumedifferentformsinordertodestroyeviland
establishtruth.ThepurposeofthisavatarwastokillthetenheadedRavana,whohadpleasedthe
mightygodsthroughhisausteritiesandasaresulthadreceivedaboonfromthemwhichwasthat
hecouldnotbekilledbyanygod.Feelingsecure,hestartedacampaignofterroragainstboth
godsandmen.ThegodsapproachedBrahmawhohadgrantedimmunitytoRavana.Heremarked
thatRavanacouldbekilledbyagodassumingtheformofamansinceRavanahadnotbeen
grantedimmunityfrommankind.Visnuundertooktobebornasamantoridtheworldofevil.He
wasaccordinglyborninthehouseofaking,Dasarathabyname,whoruledoverAyodhyaand
borethenameofRama.AshecameofagehemarriedSita,who"wasanincarnationofLaksmi,
Visnu'swife,andwasbornofnowomanbutofmotherearthherself,andwaspickedupbyJanaka
fromapaddyfield."[28]
Ramabecamethevictimofcourtintrigues,andforfourteenyearshadtosufferexileinjungles
fromwhereSitawascarriedoffbyRavana.TorescueSitafromtheclutchesofRavana,Rama
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contractedmilitaryalliancewithganuman,thekingofmonkeys,withwhoseactivesupporthe
reachedCeylonandlearntthesecretsofRavana'spowerfromabrotherofRavana.Thenensueda
fiercebattleinwhichthearmiessufferedlosses.AtlastRavanacameoutandmetRamaina
singlecombat."Eachlikeaflaminglionfoughttheother;headafterheadofthetenneckedone
didRamacutawaywithhisdeadlyarrows,butnewheadseverroseinplaceofthosecutoff,and
Ravana'sdeath
seemed
no
wise
nearer
than
before.
The
arrows
that
had
slain
Maricha
and
Khara
andBalicouldnottakethekingofLanka'slifeaway.ThenRamatookuptheBrahmaweapon
giventohimbyAgastya,theWindlayinits(weapon's)wings,theSunandFireinitshead,inits
masstheweightofMeruandMandara.BlessingthatshaftwithVedicMantras,Ramasetitwith
hismightybowandlooseditanditspedtoitsappointedplaceandcleftthebreastofRavanaand,
bathedinblood,returnedandenteredRama'squiver."[29]
ThemostpopularavatarofVisnuisLordKrsna,whosemainobjectwastokillKansa,ademon
bornofawoman,andwhowaswellknownforhischildishtricksandmanypracticaljokesonmilk
maids.Hewas,however,agreatwarriorandastrategist.Hekilledmanydemonsandkings.
BhagavadGita ItwasLordKrsnawhosangtheBhagavadGita(thesongcelestial)toArjuna,
givingthemostwidelyacceptedviewoflifeamongtheHindus.SaysMahatmaGandhi,"Ifinda
solaceintheBhagavadGitathatImissevenintheSermonontheMount.Whendisappointment
staresmeinthefaceandallaloneIseenotarayoflight,IgobacktotheBhagavadGita.Ifeela
versehereandthereandIimmediatelybegintosmileinthemidstofoverwhelmingtragedies,
andiftheyhaveleftnoscaronmeIoweitalltotheteachingsoftheBhagavadGita."
Supplement
AccordingtoSankaracharya,agreatscholiast,themainfunctionoftheGitaistoepitomizethe
essentialsof
the
whole
Vedic
teachings.
A
knowledge
of
its
teachings
leads
to
the
realization
of
all
aspirations.Therealpurposeofthisgreatsong,asZimmerthinks,[30]istoharmonizethenon
BrahmanicalpreAryanthoughtofaboriginalIndiawiththeVedicideasoftheAryaninvaders.The
Gita,therefore,"displaysakaleidoscopicinterworkingofthetwotraditionsthatforsometen
centurieshadbeencontendingforthecontrolandmasteryoftheIndianmind.Itsteachingsare
foundedupontheUpanisadicprincipleofanallunifying,transcendentalreality,buttheyalso
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accommodatenotonlythegodsoftheearlierVedicpantheonbutalsothephilosophicand
devotionalformulaeofthenonAryanandaboriginaltradition.Itwasnotaneasytask.TheGita
hadtopickupscatteredandheterogeneousmaterialtoreconciletheirreconcilabletendenciesof
thatageandtopresentaunifiedviewoflife.Littlewonderthattheattempthasappearedtothe
Westernscholarsasnobetterthanan`illassortedcabinetofprimitivephilosophicalopinions.'
[31]There
were
the
Vedas
with
their
belief
in
multiple
divinities;
there
were
the
Upanisads
with
theirrevoltagainsttheritualismoftheVedasandtheiranthropomorphicconceptionofgods;
therewasthedoctrineofrenunciation;andfinallythereweretheSanikhyaandtheYoga
principles.Andifweaddtothemthehereticaltendencies,particularlythoserepresentedby
Buddhism,werealizehowconfusingthesituationwasandwhatanuphilltaskLordKrsnahad
beforehim.
ItwouldbefutiletolookforaconsistentandneatmetaphysicalsystemintheGita,fortheGitais
notprimarilyabookofreconditeandabstrusethinking,writtenwiththeobjectofpresentinga
worldview.Ithasamuchloftierpurpose,whichistorelatethebroadprinciplesofmetaphysical
realitytothefundamentalaspirationsofmankind.Thisisnotaccomplishedthroughabstract
reasoningwhichonlyafewcanunderstandbutbyselectingaspecificsituationinvolvingamoral
dilemmaandpointingouthowitisovercome.
TheoccasionwasabattlebetweentheKauravasandthePandavas.ThelatterwereledbyArjuna
whosespiritswereunmannedandwhofeltreluctanttostartthebattleseeingonbothsideshis
friends,relations,andteacherswhowerelikelytobekilledintheeventofawar.Atthisjuncture
hischarioteerwhowasnoneotherthanLordKrsnahimselfaddressedtohimtheSongCelestial,
propoundingtohimaswellastothewholeofmankindtheYogaofselflessaction(karmayoga).
Thesignificanceofthisteachingwillbecomeobviousifwerefertothetwoidealswhichwere
prevalentthen:one,thenegativeoneofrenunciationandtheother,thepositiveone,ofactive
life.Thefirstrecommendedcompletewithdrawalfromtheworkadayworldandthesecond
encouragedlivinginsocietyundertakingalltheobligationsimpliedthereby.TheobjectoftheGita
istodiscoveragoldenmean,toreconcileasitweretheclaimsofrenunciationandactive
participationintheaffairsofsociety.Thisisdonethroughthedoctrineofkarmayogawhich
meansdoingone'sdutywithoutthethoughtofconsequences.
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"Givinguporcarryingonone'swork,bothleadtosalvation;butofthetwo,carryingonone's
workisthemoreexcellent,"saysLordKrsnaintheBhagavadGita.Healsosays,"Neitherdoes
manattainto(thestateof)beingwithoutworkbyundertakingnowork,nordoeshereach
perfectionbysimplyshunningtheworld."Whatisrequiredisaspiritofdetachmentwherethe
heartof
aperson
is
free
from
the
outward
motives
to
action.
"Thy
interest
shall
only
be
directed
tothedeed,nevertothefruitsthereof,"saysLordKrsna.
Anaturalconsequenceofthistheoryisthatevenwhatisjudgedasevilfromhumanstandardscan
beapprovedof,iftheagentfeelsthatthetaskselectedbyhimisonewhichmustbefulfilled.
"Evenifathoroughscoundrellovesmeandnothingelse,hemustbedeemedgood;forhehas
wellresolved."[32]"Evenifthouwertthemostsinfulofallsinners,yetthouwouldstpassoverall
guiltwiththeboatofknowledgealone."[33]WiththesewordsArjunaisurgedtofightagainsthis
relations,forhiskillingwouldnotbeanevil:itwouldbeanecessaryconsequenceofthedutyhe
hastodischarge.
TheethicsofdetachmentaspreachedbytheGitaislaudablenodoubt,but,asSchweitzersays,"It
grantsrecognitiontoactivity,onlyafteractivityhasrenouncednaturalmotivesanditsnatural
meaning."[34]Anactionlosesitssignificancewhenitceasestobepurposive.TheGitaraisesa
voiceofprotestagainstthesoulkillingandlifenegatingcultofrenunciation,butithasnotgone
farenough.Renunciationremainswhentheendofanactivityisnoconcernofaperson."The
BhagavadGitahasasphinxlikecharacter.Itcontainssuchmarvellousphrasesaboutinner
detachmentfromtheworld,abouttheattitudeofthemindwhichknowsnohatredandiskind,
andaboutlovingselfdevotiontoGod,thatwearewonttooverlookitsnonethicalcontents."
[35]
TheHeterodoxSystems AmongthesystemswhichdefiedtheauthorityoftheVedasmaybe
mentionedtheCarvaka,Jainism,andBuddhism:
1.TheCarvaka Thissystemseemstobefairlyold.ItismentionedintheRgVeda,theEpics,and
theBhagavadGita.Themainworkonthesystem,theBrhaspatiSutra(600B.C.),islostandits
teachingshavetobereconstructedfromcriticismofitinotherworks.
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TheCarvakaisanonVedic,materialistic,andantisupernaturalisticdoctrinewhichholdsthatonly
thisworldexistsandthereisnothingbeyond.Thereisnofuturelife.MadhavaAcharyasaysin
Sarvadarsanasangrgha,"The
efforts
of
Carvaka
are
indeed
hard
to
be
eradicated,
for
the
majority
oflivingbeingsholdbytherefrain:
Whilelifeisyours,livejoyously;
NonecanescapeDeath'ssearchingeye:
Whenoncethisframeofourstheyburn,
Howshallite'eragainreturn?"[36]
"Themassofmen,inaccordancewiththeSastrasofpolicyandenjoymentarefoundtofollow
onlythedoctrineofCarvaka.HenceanothernameforthatschoolisLokayata anamewell
accordantwiththethingsignified."[37]
Thefourelementsalonearetheultimateprinciplesandtheseareearth,water,fire,andair.Only
theperceivedexists;theunperceivabledoesnotexist,simplyforthereasonofitsneverhaving
beenperceived.Theonlysourceofknowledgeandthecriterionofvalidityisperception.Every
othersourceincludingthatofinferenceisrejected.Inferentialknowledgeinvolvesinductive
relationsandcanneverbedemonstrablycertain.Empiricalgeneralizationsmaypossessahigh
degreeofprobability,buttheiroperationinunknowncasescanneverbeguaranteed.Toavoid
thisdifficulty,ifitismaintainedthattheempiricallawsconnectthecommonfeaturesofthe
particularinstancesobservedbyaperson,theCarvakaobjectstoitbysayingthatsuchacourse
wouldleavetheparticularsunrelatedandthatitistheparticularsalonewhichmatter.
AsagainsttheUpanisadswhichpostulatedfiveelements,theCarvakaadmitsofonlyfour
discardingthefifthone,viz.,space.Thewholeuniverseincludingsoulsisinterpretedstrictlyin
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termsoftheseelements.Theselfisnothingbutthephysicalbodyascharacterizedbysentience.
"Thesoulisbutthebodycharacterizedbytheattributessignifiedintheexpressions,Iamstout,I
amyouthful,Iamgrownup,Iamold,etc.Itisnotsomethingotherthanthatbody)."[38]
TheCarvakarejectsoutrightalltypesofspiritualvaluesandhasfaithinthepresentworldonly.
"Thereisnoworldotherthanthis;thereisnoheavenandnohell;therealmofSivaandlike
regionsareinventedbystupidimpostorsofotherschoolsofthought....Thewiseshouldenjoythe
pleasuresofthisworldthroughthepropervisiblemeansofagriculture,keepingcattle,trade,
politicaladministration,etc."[39]TheauthorityoftheVedasisrepudiatednotonlyontheground
thattheirteachingsareirrational,butalsobecauseoftheinconsistencieswhichrenderit
impossibletoknowwhattheyreallyteach.
TheCarvakaisaprotestagainsttheexcessivespiritualityoftheearlyBrahmanicthought.It
recognizesneithergodnorconscience.Itcaresnotforabeliefinthelifetocome.Hencethe
ethicalidealispleasureinthislifeandthattoooftheindividual.
SincethemaintrendofHinduthought:hasbeenidealistic,theCarvakasystemhascontributed
verylittletothesumofIndianthought,[40]andthisisratherunfortunate.Inviewofthefactthat
theVedas,theUpanisads,andtheGitarejecttheevidenceofthesensesasillusory,theCarvaka
contentionmighthaveservedasacorrective.
2.Jainism Jainism,accordingtoTomlin,[41]isthemostperplexingofallreligions,foritisnot
onlyincrediblebutalsoimpracticable.Itdenieslifetotheextentofrecommendingsuicideasthe
mostsacredactofwhichmaniscapable,andyetithassurvivedfortwothousandyears.
ThefounderofJainism,Mahavira,wasborninaKsatriyafamily.Hisfatherwasawealthyperson
belongingtoareligioussectwhichwasopposedtotheVedas.Thisschoolofthoughthad
materialistictendenciesandscepticalattitudeverymuchakintothatofCarvaka.Butitwasnota
thoroughgoingmaterialism.Itsharedwiththemassesthehorrorofrebirthandadvocatedslow
suicidethroughstarvationasaremedyagainsttransmigration.Mahavira'sfathergothiswife
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convertedtohisviewpointandinduecoursesharedwithherthemartyrdomtheydesired.
Beforefollowingtheexampleofhisparents,Mahaviraembarkeduponaquestofwisdomand
adoptedan
ascetic
life.
After
two
years
of
abstinence
and
self
denial
he
withdrew
himself
from
civilizedlifeanddispensedwithalltheamenitiesoflifeincludingthoseofclothing.Duringthefirst
sixyearsofhisperegrination,heobservedfrequentfastsofseveralmonthsduration.He
voluntarilyexposedhimselftobemaltreatedbytheMlechchatribesofVajrabhumiandLatwho
abusedandbeathim,andshotarrowsathim,andbaitedhimwithdogs,toallofwhichheoffered
noresistance.Attheendoftheninthyear,Mahavirarelinquishedhissilence,butcontinuedthe
practiceofselfmortification.Thewholeofthetimespentbyhiminthesepreparatoryexercises
wastwelveyearsacidsixmonths,andofthishefastednearlyelevenyears.
TheJainshaveatraditionthatsavioursaresenttotheworldwhenevermankindisplungedin
corruptionandsin.Mahavirawastwentyfourthintheline.
MahaviradeniedthedivineoriginandinfallibleauthorityoftheVedas.Hisreligionis,therefore,
reckonedasaheterodoxreligion.ItscosmologyandanthropologyisnonAryan.While
BrahmanismistherepresentativeofVedicAryanthoughtandbeliefs,Buddhism;Jainism,anda
hostofotherdoctrinesrelatethemselvestothenativegeniusandexposethepessimisticdualism
whichunderliessomuchofIndianphilosophy.Jainismisaphilosophyoftheprofoundest
pessimism.Itvisualizestheworldasaroundofendlessrebirths,fullofsufferingsandentirely
useless.Oneshallhavetopassthroughperiodsofinconsequentialpleasuresandunbearable
painsunlessoneobtainsareleasethroughausteritiesandselfabnegation.IntheJainaSutras,
suicideiscalled"theincomparablereligiousdeath,"requiringinsomecasesawholelifetimeto
cultivateaproperframeofmindforitsperformance.Itisessentialthatalltypesoflongings
includingthoseofdeathbecompletelyeradicatedfromone'sconsciousness.Henceonehasto
bringaboutone'sextinctioninamoodbeyondbothdesireandaversion.
AsregardsthephilosophyofJainism,itmaybesaidthataneternalandpresidingFirstCause
formsnopartofthissystem,nordotheJainsadmitofsoulorspiritasdistinctfromtheliving
principle.Theydobelieveintheindependentandeternalexistenceofspiritandmatter,butby
spirittheydonotmeanuniversalspiritastheyhavenofaithintheSupremeSoul.
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