A Guide to Developing Physical Qualities in Young Athletes

by Kelvin B. Giles, Lachlan Penfold and Anthony Giorgi

Copyright © 2005

Printed in Australia for Movement Dynamics Pty. Ltd.

All rights reserved. No part of this manual may be reproduced in any manner whatsoever except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews.

For information address Movement Dynamics, PO Box 458, The Gap, Queensland 4061, Australia or via www.movementdynamics.com

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Table of Contents

Disclaimer……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 3

Copyright ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 4 Acknowledgements

Tables …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 5

Glossary………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 9

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………… 11 Using the Manual

SECTION ONE Overview of Long Term Athlete Development ………………………………………….. 15

Philosophy ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 16

Long Term Athlete Development .................................................................. 17 Limitations in Athletic, Functional and Technical Development Training Stages

Developmental Characteristics ………………………………………………………………….. 21 Physical development Mental / Cognitive Development Emotional Development General Motor Abilities

Key Coaching Strategies ……………………………………………………………………………. 33 Key Coaching Strategies for 6­10 years, 10­14 years and 15­20 years

Training Age v Chronological Age ……………………………………………………………… 36

Reasons for Faults in Progress ………………………………………………………………….. 38

The Destination of Exercise Selection ……………………………………………………….. 39 Total Structural Strength Total Structural Stability Total Structural Range of Motion Total Body Awareness

The Injury Prevention Question …………………………………………………………….….. 43 Injury / Biomechanical Screening Functional Screening

SECTION TWO ­ Practical Issues …………………………………………………………….… 47 Introduction

The Impact of Developing Physical Qualities ……………………………………………. 48

Key Issues in the Planning of Strength and Conditioning.………………………... 49

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Suggested Age Based Model for Progression ………………………………………………. 51

Suggested Strength and Conditioning Training Phases…..………………………….. 52

SECTION THREE – Training ………………………………………………………………………….. 55 Introduction to Training

Assembling the Annual Program – The Early Years of High School…………….. 60 The Training Phases The Training Week

Assembling the Training Session …………………………………………………………………. 67 The Exercise Streams Exercise Selection Other Program Variables

The Complexity of Exercise Streams……………………………………………………………. 75 Multiple Influences

Example Training Programs…………………………………………………………………………. 79

Progression…………………………………………………………………………..………………………. 83

Running Fundamentals ………………………………………………………..……………………… 89 The Fundamentals Technical Development The Drills

Physical Competence Tests …………………………………………………………………………. 95 Required Competence Levels Physical Competence Standards (Fundamental) Physical Competence Standards (Boys 14­15 years) Physical Competence Standards (Girls 14­15 years)

The Tests ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 101 Fundamental Tests ­ Coaching Issues and Test Criteria Training to Train Tests ­ Coaching Issues and Test Criteria Evaluating the Tests

Guide to Video Clips ……………………………………………………………………………………. 109 Program Checklist Balancing the Choices Examples of Clip Progression Example of Clip Progression ­ Fundamental Stage Example of Clip Progression ­ Training to Train Stage

Practical Exercise Streams …………………………………………………………………………. 113 The Exercise Stream Tables

The Next Step: The Training to Compete Stage…………….…………………………… 159

References ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 165

Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 167

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Disclaimer

This manual and the accompanying visual aids have been developed by Movement Dynamics. Together they form a guide to Long Term Athlete Development (LTAD) prepared in accordance with professional standards and guidelines set out by the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA).

The Resources are not a substitute for your own judgement or individual professional advice you may receive from other reputable sources. The authors disclaim all responsibility and all liability (including without limitation, liability in negligence) for all expenses, losses, damages and costs you might incur as a result of reading, interpreting or implementing this guide.

When rendering strength and conditioning services to third parties, you should not adopt any of the information contained in the Resources without exercising independent judgement and decision making based upon your own training, education and experience.

It is imperative that the greatest degree of care is taken in all aspects of physical training and athlete development. When reading, interpreting or implementing any of the information contained in the Resources, you are fully responsible for the following:

1. Pre­participation screening and clearance 2. Personal qualifications 3. Program supervision and instruction 4. Facility & equipment setup, inspection, maintenance, repair and signage 5. Emergency planning & response 6. Records and record keeping 7. Equal opportunity access 8. Participation in strength & conditioning activities by children 9. Supplements, ergogenic aids & drugs

Details of these issues are outlined in:

NSCA Strength and Conditioning Professional Standards and Guidelines. Executive Summary: A supplement to the S&C Journal November 2001.

The complete standards and guidelines can be downloaded from the NSCA website at www.nsca­lift.org/publications/standards.htm

Medical, Biomechanical and Competence Screening

Before any physical activity is carried out in the context of the information contained in these resources, participants should ensure that they have a complete and satisfactory medical, biomechanical and physical competence screening by qualified and experienced professionals.

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Copyright

Copyright of all materials presented in this manual and on the Movement Dynamics: Athlete Development CD­Rom series including source codes, content and artwork, except for material produced by others and reproduced with permission, is vested in Movement Dynamics Pty. Ltd. Apart from fair dealing for the purposes of private study, research, criticism or review as permitted under international copyright legislation no part may be reproduced, modified, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted, broadcasted, published or re­used for any commercial purposes whatsoever without the written permission of Movement Dynamics Pty. Ltd. first being obtained.

Acknowledgements

The authors express their gratitude to Directors of Global Performance Dynamics Ltd. and Optimus Sports Conditioning Pty. Ltd. for their permission to investigate, adapt and implement their concepts of an exercise curriculum for young athlete development.

Special thanks go to Tudor Bompa and Istvan Balyi for giving us their personal permission to utilise information they have developed and presented over many years in the area of long term athlete development. These individuals are credited with presenting the clearest relationship between maturation and athletic performance. As a consequence the early sections of this manual present a summary of much of their extensive work and they are rightly credited for this contribution.

Further thanks go to Dean Benton from Australian Rugby Union’s Elite Player Development Program for his authorship of early presentations pertaining to this subject.

The authors wish to acknowledge and thank the following people who have contributed over many years, both directly and indirectly, to the reservoir of knowledge illustrated in this resource ­ Vern Gambetta, Bill Knowles, Jimmy Radcliffe and all those countless athletes who were willing to allow us to learn.

We are indebted to Les Roberts for his counsel and commitment to the development of the multi­media aspects of the Movement Dynamics resource.

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Tables

Page

1. The Stages of Training………………………………………………………………………… 18

2. Periodization of Young Athlete Development……………………………..………….. 18

3. Physical Development through the Training Ages: The Fundamental Stage (6­10 years)……………………………………………………. 22

4. Physical Development through the Training Ages: The Training to Train Stage (10­14 years)…………………………………………….. 23

5. Physical Development through the Training Ages: The Training to Compete Stage (15­20 years)…………………....................... 24

6. Mental / Cognitive Development through the Training Ages: The Fundamental Stage (6­10 years)………………..………………………………….. 25

7. Mental / Cognitive Development through the Training Ages: The Training to Train Stage (10­14 years)……………………………………………. 26

8. Mental / Cognitive Development through the Training Ages: The Training to Compete Stage (15­20 years)………….……………………………. 27

9. Emotional Development through the Training Ages: The Fundamental Stage (6­10 years)………….………………………………………… 28

10. Emotional Development through the Training Ages: The Training to Train Stage (10­14 years)…………………………………………….. 29

11. Emotional Development through the Training Ages: The Training to Compete Stage (15­20 years)……………………………………….. 30

12. Fundamental / Training to Train (10­14 years): General Considerations of Bio­Motor Abilities…………………………………..…....................................... 31

13. The Distribution of General (G), Specific (S) and Competition (C) Training: The Training to Train and Early Training to Compete Stage……………………… 34

14. Graph Illustrating Peak Height Velocity for Girls……………………………………... 37

15. Graph Illustrating Peak Height Velocity for Boys……………………………………… 37

16. Example of the Basic Exercise Continuum Model………………………………….…. 39

17. Example Physiotherapy Screening Report………………………………………………. 44

18. An Example Primary School Physical Activity Program (UK System)………….. 56

19. A Typical Single Periodised Annual Plan ­ Australian State Soccer League... 57

20. Winter and Summer Competition Plans ­ Australian Schools Sport…………... 58

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21. Competition Profile of 15­16 year old Soccer Players ­ Australian State Soccer League……………………………………………………………………………………….. 58

22. A Typical Australian Little Athletics Annual Calendar………….………………………. 59

23. Example of Major Exam / Study Periods for 15­16 year old students: Australian Schools System………………………………………………….………..………... 60

24. The Competition Phases of the Year: Australian Schools Example.……………... 60

25. The Competition and Exam / Study Periods of the Year…………………………..… 60

26. Combining Academic, Competition and Training Commitments…………………... 61

27. Training Content: The Main Issue ­ Using General and Specific Training Ratios…………………………………………………………………………………………………... 62

28. Suggested Model for Introductory Strength Training ­ Years 1&2: The Training to Train Stage……………………………………………………………………. 62

29. Suggested Model for Introductory Strength Training ­ Years 3&4: The Training to Train Stage…………………………………………………………………….. 63

30. Low Intensity Training Week – Early Training to Train Stage……………………… 63

31. Higher Intensity Training Week – Late Training to Train Stage…………………… 64

32. Planning the Week: Balancing the Intensity of Training ­ The Late Training to Train / Early Training to Compete Stage.………………………………………….….. 65

33. Check­List for Exercise Selection……………………………………………………….…….. 70

34. The Repetition, Sets, Intensity and Rest Components: The Training to Train Stage…………………………………………………………….……... 71

35. Example Warm­Up Themes……………………………………………………………….……. 73

36. Earning The Physical Right to Progress: Shoulder, Stability, Push Up and Bench Press Sequences……………………………………………………………………..….. 75

37. The Influence of Multiple Streams on a Physical Competence………………..….. 76

38. The Transfer of Exercise Characteristics……………………………………………..…... 77

39. Giving the Athlete the Physical Tools to Develop Agility……………………….……. 78

40. Example Training Program: Field / Court Sports for the Early Training to Train Stage (11­12 years). Early Preparation Phase………………………………….. 80

41. Example Training Program: The Integrated Training Session for Field and Court Sports for the Early Training to Train Stage (11­12 years). Early Preparation Phase…………………………………………………………………………….…... 81

42. Example Training Program: Field / Court Sports for the Late Training to Train Stage (14­15 years). Early Preparation Phase.…………………………….…... 82

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43. Progression Sequence: Warm­Up Exercises (Running Theme) from Table 40: Example Training Program: Field/Court Sports for the Early Training to Train Stage (11­12 years): Early Preparation Phase…….………………….. 85

44. Progression Sequence: Main Exercises from Table 40: Example Training Program: Field/Court Sports for the Early Training to Train Stage (11­12 years): Early Preparation Phase…………………………………………………………..…. 86

45. Progression Sequence: Supplementary Exercises from Table 40: Example Training Program: Field/Court Sports for the Early Training to Train Stage (11­12 years): Early Preparation Phase………….……………………………………….. 87

46. Progression Sequence: Core Exercises from Table 40: Example Training Program: Field/Court Sports for the Early Training to Train Stage (11­12 years): Early Preparation Phase…….……………………………………………………….. 88

47. Required Flexibility Competence for Running Mechanics…………………………… 90

48. Speed Drills ­ The Key Drills….………………………………………………………………. 92

49. Speed Drills ­ Progression…………………………………………………………………….. 93

50. Speed and Agility Development Stream ­ An Integrated Program……………... 94

51. Physical Competence Standards: End of the Fundamental Stage ­ Boys and Girls (10­11 years)…………………………………………………………….…... 98

52. Physical Competence Standards: End of Training to Train Stage ­ Boys (14­15 years)………………………………………………………………………………….…… 99

53. Physical Competence Standards: End of Training to Train Stage ­ Girls (14­15) years…………………………………………………………………………………..….. 100

54. A Typical Test Scoring System……………………………………………………..……….. 108

55. Integrating the Jumping Streams…………………………………………….…………….. 110

56. Integrating the Stability Streams……………………………………………….…………… 110 .

57. Front, Back and Side Bridge Series………………………………..………….…………… 110

58. Example Clip Progression ­ Fundamental Stage………………….……….…….……. 111

59. Example Clip Progression ­ Training to Train Stage……….…………….…….……. 112

60. Stability Stream ­ Horizontal Stability….……………………………………….…………. 114

61. Vertical Stability…………………………………………………………………………….……... 118

62. Dynamic Vertical Stability…………………………………………………………………….… 120

63. Squats……………………………………………………………………………………………….… 121

64. Cleans (Training to Train)……………………………………………………………………... 123

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65. Lunge………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 124

66. Step Ups……………………………………..………………………………………………………. 126

67. Jumping Fundamentals…………………………..…………………………………………….. 128

68. Horizontal Jumping………………………………..…………………………………………….. 130

69. Vertical Jumping…………………………………………………………………………………… 132

70. Running Fundamentals .……………………………………………………………………….. 135

71. Acceleration Fundamentals……………………………………………………………………. 137

72. Agility Fundamentals…………………………………………………………………………….. 138

73. Shoulder Stability and Control..……………………………………………………………… 139

74. Pushing ­ Vertical……………………………………………………………………………….... 141

75. Pushing ­ Horizontal……………………………………………………………………………… 142

76. Pulling ­ Vertical………………………………………………………………………………...... 144

77. Pulling ­ Horizontal…………………………………………………………………………….... 145

78. General Movement Development 1..…………………………………………………….... 146

79. General Movement Development 2………………………………………………………… 147

80. Trunk 1 ­ Special Bracing and Extension………………………..…………………….... 148

81. Trunk 2 ­ Flexion and Lateral / Rotation..……………………………………………….. 149

82. Medicine Ball Exercises……………………………………………………………………….... 151

83. Flexibility…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 153

84. Example Training Program 1 ­ Early Training to Train Stage : 11­12 years... 154

85. Example Training Program 2 ­ An Integrated Session………………………………. 155

86. Example Training Program 3 ­ Late training to Train Stage : 13­14 years….. 156

87. Physical Competence Tests 1 ­ Fundamental Stage……………………………….... 157

88. Physical Competence Tests 2 ­ Training to Train Stage………………………….... 158

89. Example Periodisation: Double Periodised Year ­ Late Training to Compete Stage……………………………………………………………………………….. 160

90. Example of a Medium Intensity Training Week: Early to Mid Training to Compete Stage……………………………………………………………………………..…. 161

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91. Example of a High Intensity Training Week: Mid to Late Training to Compete Stage………………………………………………………………………………… 161

92. The Repetitions, Sets, Intensity and Rest Components for the Training to Compete Stage…………………………………………………………………………………. 162

93. Example of Load Variations: Training to Compete Stage ­ General Strength Development Phase………………………………………………………………………………. 162

94. Example of Back Squat ­ Jump Squat Contrast Training : Late Training to Compete Stage………………………………………………………………………………....... 162

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Glossary

Anatomical Adaptation. The body’s reaction to general training where muscle, tendons and ligaments positively adapt in terms of strength, flexibility and overall function. Described as being the training of all joint actions, in all directions.

Competition Specific Training. This type of training is where technique is fully rehearsed alongside the exact physiological requirements of the sport.

General Training. Training that stimulates all aspects of movement. It is non sports specific and develops the all­round athlete in terms of: multi–direction, multi­plane, multi­speed activities; speed, strength and endurance; balance, coordination and agility.

LTAD. Long Term Athlete Development

PHV. Peak Height Velocity

S&C. Strength and Conditioning

Specific Training. This type of training is where the physical components required for the sport are isolated and trained. The individual sport techniques, specific sport muscle groups / actions and special sport fitness characteristics predominate in this type of training.

TSS. Total Structural Strength. A description of the need to develop and maintain the strength capability of the whole body (Giles, 1999­2001).

TSSTab. Total Structural Stability. A description of the need to develop and maintain the structural integrity and posture of the body during activity (Giles, 1999­2001).

TSROM. Total Structural Range of Motion. A description of the need to develop and maintain the required range of movement in all the joints of the body (Giles, 1999­2001).

TBA. Total Body Awareness. A description of the competence the athlete requires to achieve balance and coordination in all directions and all planes of movement (Giles, 1999­2001).

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in the text:

BB ­ Barbell DB ­ Dumbbell Diag ­ Diagonal Ext ­ External Int ­ Internal L ­ Left L&R ­ Left and Right m ­ metre MB ­ Medicine Ball min ­ minutes R ­ Right SB ­ Swiss Ball Sec ­ seconds wb ­ walk back wk ­ week

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Introduction

“The National and Olympic teams for 2012 and beyond are in our hands now.”

For over 30 years the sporting community has expressed both concern and a need for a strategy for the developing athlete. Much has been written about the growth and maturation of the developing athlete and for many decades significant guidance in this vital area has been available to parents, teachers, coaches and athletes.

Why is it then that we consistently meet athletes with limitations in their physical and technical qualities? Perhaps the answer lies in the sub­culture of looking for ‘winners’ in the early and mid­teenage years. This pervading issue is more often than not driven by adults and in some cases encouraged by sporting organisations. Without demeaning the structures that encourage ‘age­group’ champions and records, it is vital that some consideration is given to the long term process of development and not the ‘fast­tracking’, ‘short­cutting’ episodes that frequent our environment. We must also consider that cultural and sociological change is having a detrimental effect on the physical development of today’s youth. The lack of spontaneous play coupled with the advent of multi­media recreation has produced a generation of young people with a sedentary lifestyle.

Adding to these issues are those competition specific rhythms determined by certain sports and individuals that are clearly in conflict with the maturation process of the developing athlete. These are especially evident when the coach fails to individualise the training program. It is an easy mistake for the coach to succumb to the forces of ‘short­cutting’ by failing to carefully adapt training to the ever changing physical, cognitive and emotional development of the young athlete. The overriding strategy must be to develop the all­round athlete before focusing solely on sport specific development.

It is the experience of the authors that many athletes experience the negative effects of shortcomings brought with them from their introductory training stages. As technique is put under scrutiny, increased power outputs sought and fatigue tolerance demanded, limitations in Total Structural Strength (TSS), Total Structural Stability (TSStab) and Total Structural Range of Motion (TSROM) create difficulties for both coach and athlete (Giles, 1999­2001). Unfortunately, the older the athlete becomes the more difficult it is to ‘right’ the ‘wrongs’ of the past.

The longer we can keep the athlete in the performance loop, carefully encouraging them towards the next layer of adaptation, the more equipped they will be to sustain and survive the rigours of training at the elite level. This continuity will also help in conquering the ‘retention’ problem that substantially reduces the number of athletes who make the transition from the junior to senior ranks of sport.

This resource centres much of its initial foundation on the work of Balyi and Hamilton (1998 & 2001) and Bompa (1993a & 1993b) who have perhaps given us the clearest understanding of the relationship between maturation and the development of physical qualities in young athletes. Movement Dynamics, having recognised the ever increasing physical limitations of young athletes across a wide range of sports, have directed their initial efforts at the introductory level of athlete development.

The need for an exercise syllabus that transports the developing athlete along a stable, precise pathway of development forms the cornerstone of this resource. Stimulated by the frustration of seeing identified talent falter at the crossroads between having potential and reaching this potential, the authors have reacted to the strategic inefficiencies of modern day sport. Such a reaction will help those teachers and coaches who come into contact with our future champions during their developmental years.

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The huge array of theory available to the coach is appreciated and has been used to establish the basic principles contained in this resource. What is offered in addition to the theory is a systematic set of functional guidelines to support the coach in their decision making inside the training environment. What is the current ‘Physical Competence’ of the athlete in my charge? What are their physical limitations? How do I overcome these physical limitations? What exercises do I choose? How do I develop them? How do I fit them into a program? Where do these exercises lead to in respect of sport specific needs?

It is hoped that this resource will help the coach in answering these questions.

The practical content of this resource is drawn from the experiences of the authors as they have pursued ‘repeatable excellence’ in a variety of sports. Decisions made for world championship football teams, Olympic and World Championship medallists and dozens of Olympic athletes in both individual and team sports across the last two decades, form the reservoir from which the system has evolved. The authors have achieved substantial success with the principles outlined in this resource with:

• Australian Olympic Softball Team • Australian Women’s Olympic Water Polo Team • Olympic Games, Commonwealth Games and World Cup Track and Field

finalists in Sprints, Middle Distance, Jumps and Throws events • Olympic, World Championship and World Cup medallists • Commonwealth Games medallists • Brisbane Broncos Rugby League Club • London Broncos Rugby League Club Academy

This resource, the first of its kind to guide the coach through the required exercise continuum, is designed to be a major coach education package for the discerning teacher and coach. Through this initiative senior coaches in leading clubs and schools will receive a systematic program for young athlete development.

The main intention of this resource is to arm the coach with a long term exercise syllabus that will enhance an athlete’s performance from the early introductory stages of development through to the cusp of the international arena. Professional coaches will see the resource as a major benefit to client recruitment and client satisfaction. National federations will have the opportunity of embracing a national syllabus for the long term development of their athletes. It is to this end that this long term strategy is presented. It is a systematic process that starts at the origins of training TSS, TSStab and TSROM (Giles, 1999­2001) and progresses through to the High Performance stage of the athlete’s development.

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Using the Manual

Section One

The manual introduces the reader to an overview of the theories and philosophies surrounding the principles of athlete development. Exploring sequential training ages, the manual illustrates the maturation processes that must be considered as the developing athlete travels along the performance highway. The coach is encouraged to develop the all­round athlete first before concentrating solely on competition specific activities. It is strongly suggested that any limitations established in this general development stage will re­surface in a later stage, just when the athlete attempts to intensify both physical and emotional resources towards elite performance.

Key coaching strategies are outlined for the respective training ages along with classifications of certain chronological age groups. A series of Major Physical Development Characteristics and Bio­motor Abilities of the growing athlete are related as a guide to the coach in recognising the change that the athlete undergoes.

A framework illustrating the required destination of exercise selection determines the focus of the program and will assist the coach in balancing out the fundamental issues of program development.

The injury prevention question is raised and a plan of action outlined for the coach. This is particularly important in a time when many teachers and coaches are expressing a deep concern for the health and safety of the children in their charge.

Section Two

This section presents an interpretation of the specifics of section one as they are applied to the program that develops physical qualities for future athletic use. The role of strength and conditioning and the key issues surrounding the planning of the program are presented. An age based training model is suggested detailing the four layers of development.

Section Three

Guidance is offered in program planning and periodisation techniques including illustrations of example training programs.

The reader is introduced to the ‘Exercise Streams’ (Giles & Penfold, 1993­97) that form the cornerstone of an integrated strength training system and the individual exercises are presented as sequenced video clips on CD. Each exercise is progressed in both load and complexity through each ‘training age’ with competence levels being suggested.

Physical Competence standards are suggested for the early training stages along with tests and test protocols detailed. These tests can be used as a form of quality control for the program.

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SECTION ONE

OVERVIEW OF LONG TERM ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT

“We worry about what a child will be tomorrow, yet we forget that he or she is someone today.” (Stacia Tauscher)

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Philosophy

Responsible coaches must structure their training models on the ever­changing qualities of the young athlete and not on the scoreboard or trophy cabinet. Issuing a watered down adult training program to young athletes so that local school / club championships can be won can only be described as negligence. Coaches in schools and clubs must also be aware that although due care and attention may be being paid to the athletes in front of them, there may be other agencies also demanding much of the athlete at the same time. Schools and clubs must come together to evaluate the total commitment being asked of the athlete. Much energy is required for both learning and growth between the ages of 11 and 14 and the athlete should only be asked to do moderate levels of exercise. It is interesting to note that questions are arising from certain well informed sources regarding the effect of sustained, intensive training on the maturation process of young gymnasts.

“The sooner professionals in the field accept that participation in competitive gymnastics puts some children at risk of reduced growth and reduced maturation, the sooner appropriate screening and monitoring of gymnastics in elite programs can be undertaken.” (Caine, Bass and Daly, 2003)

Of course there may well be an opposite view circulating (Baxter­Jones et al, 2003) but, nonetheless, there is sufficient ‘circumstantial’ evidence to suggest that we need to question our assumptions. Duty of care is a principal issue when dealing with the type, intensity, frequency and duration of training for the young athlete. Erring on the side of caution may well be a sound initiative for all coaches to consider. Enhancing this judgment with a long term, patient approach to athletic development forms the cornerstone of the information contained in this resource.

We are all aware of the ever growing problem of obesity and the general lack of fitness of our younger generations. The reduction of regular exercise programs previously seen in physical education classes and general play activities in our primary and secondary schools, coupled with the ‘internet’ phenomena, has accelerated this decline in fitness and movement education.

Governments are theoretically addressing the problem and have encouraged schools to include regular periods of activity throughout the school week. This resource is directed at providing guidance on what to do during these periods as well as guidance to those teachers already involved in sports performance development.

If we have a concern for increased participation and retention, and a responsibility to the community for healthier generations, we must show considerable intent to make a difference by instilling long range systems and strategies.

This resource intends to put into practice such a strategy by highlighting the ‘must do’ issues of exercise selection and training development.

“Short­term success has ruined promising careers of young athletes. Having athletic talent does not necessarily mean having to deliver the performance NOW. It is much safer to consider talent as the ability to produce great performances LATER.” (unknown)

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Long Term Athlete Development

It is suggested that, for an athlete to be able to compete with distinction in the international arena, 10 years of accurate, balanced, adaptive training across a variety of physical qualities must be pursued.

Put into a simple equation, the young athlete must be encouraged to develop a high level of all­ round physical competence from which sport specific skills can be developed. All sporting techniques require defined physical qualities for them to take place correctly. In addition the ability to express speed, strength and endurance is heavily dependent upon the young athlete having a high level of physical qualities.

This resource has been designed to support all those athletes, parents, teachers and coaches who are involved in the development stages of sporting instruction. Primarily the resource is aimed at the late primary school and secondary school environment of athlete development in an attempt to solve the problems facing participants and coaches working in this environment.

The mission statement of many organisations including schools, clubs and academies is to offer a pathway to improved performance through participation and recreation. Many organisations also convene human, physical and financial resources towards assisting athletes to compete with distinction in the representative and international arena. With this in mind it becomes apparent that to be able to successfully enter into the elite layers of sporting achievement an athlete requires a long term plan of learning and adaptation.

In scores of cases we, the elite stage coaches, see athletes selected for teams, squads and scholarships arriving at training with limitations in the three main areas listed below:

Athletic Development

This describes the athletic qualities required by all athletes in the context of their maturation level and the sport involved. Specifically this includes:

• Speed, including running mechanics, acceleration and agility. • Strength, including general strength, elastic strength and strength endurance. • Endurance, including aerobic and anaerobic functions.

Functional Development

This is a description of an athlete’s ability to operate their musculoskeletal system (body), especially in relation to the sport / position played. It relates to the posture, mobility, motor efficiency and body awareness of the athlete (adapted and modified from Benton, 2002). ‘Functional stability during motion’ is an apt description of this requirement.

Training Development

This describes an athlete’s ability to perform exercises and training routines of increased complexity as training age increases.

This difficult state of affairs has many ramifications in sporting development. The key issue is to develop a strategy that allows these limitations to be overcome. Benefits will be apparent if a plan can be evolved that supports the areas of athlete progression and retention, injury prevention and the general well­being of the individual.

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With such an extensive pathway being mandatory it is recommended that the plan is divided into manageable training stages. Both Balyi & Hamilton (2001) and Bompa (1993a & 1993b) have expressed this requirement and they are illustrated in Table 1.

Table 1 ~ The Stages of Training

Stage Year FUNdamental (Balyi & Hamilton, 2001) Initiation Stage (Bompa, 1993b)

6­10 years

Training to Train (Balyi & Hamilton, 2001) Athletic Formation Stage (Bompa, 1993b)

11­14 years

Training to Compete (Balyi & Hamilton, 2001) Specialization Stage (Bompa, 1993b)

15­20 years

Training to Win (Balyi & Hamilton, 2001) High Performance Stage (Bompa, 1993b)

21+ years

This training age ‘layering’ is concisely illustrated in Table 2 (Bompa, 1993b) and clearly supports the concept of developing the young athlete through a systematic process.

Table 2 ~ Periodization of Young Athlete Development (adapted from Bompa, 1993b)

Regardless of the terminology being used, it is clear that an athlete must start at the beginning of the developmental pathway before attempting to achieve progression in more advanced training environments. The cornerstone to this resource is the recommendation to eliminate “short­cutting” in Long Term Athlete Development (LTAD) by ensuring that all athletes are introduced to the formative exercises before advancing the training prescription.

Generalized

6­14 years

Specialized

>14 years

Initiation

6­10 years

Athletic Formation 11­14 years

Specialization

15­20 years

High Performance 20+ years

2­6 Hours/wk

6­8 Hours/wk

10­12 Hours/wk

12­20 Hours/wk

Specialized Swimming & Gymnastics 6­14 years

Periodization of Young Athlete Development

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These training age layers are created by reacting sensibly to the many stages of physical, cognitive and emotional development that the growing athlete passes through. One cannot ignore these maturation cycles and the smart coach consistently refers to them as training programs are developed.

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Developmental Characteristics

Physical, Mental / Cognitive, Emotional and Bio­Motor Ability Development through the Training Ages

The following tables (3­12) are adapted from the work of Balyi and Hamilton (2001). They are reproduced (with permission from Istvan Balyi) as a guide to the coach as they ponder the ever changing maturation of the athlete in their charge.

This outline suggests the high degree of competency, knowledge and understanding that the coach of the developing athlete must aspire to.

It is suggested that prior to developing and delivering strength and conditioning programs to the developing athlete the coach should gain a functional understanding of these maturation processes as they form the cornerstone for understanding:

1. The reasons for faults in progress.

2. Limitations in athletic, functional and technical development.

3. Key coaching strategies for each training age.

4. Training versus chronological age.

5. Exercise selection issues.

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Table 3 ~ Physical Development through the Training Ages: The FUNdamental™ Stage 6­10 Years (reproduced with permission, Balyi & Hamilton, 2001)

Basic Characteristics

General Consequences: Performance Capabilities and Limitations

Implications for the Coach

Larger muscle groups are more developed than smaller ones.

The child is more skilful in gross movements involving large muscle groups than in precise coordinated movements involving the interaction of many smaller muscles.

General basic skill should be developed during this phase.

The size of the heart is increasing in relation to the rest of the body. The cardiovascular system is still developing.

Endurance capacity of young participants is more than adequate for most activities. When they are tired, they will stop.

Short duration anaerobic activities (alactic) must be planned; endurance must be developed through play and games. (lack of attention span for continuous work)

Ligamentous structures are becoming stronger; both ends of the long bones are still cartilaginous and continue to ossify.

The body is very susceptible to injury through excessive stress or heavy pressure.

Slow progression in hopping, jumping, own bodyweight and medicine ball exercises. Volumes and intensity kept low.

Basic motor patterns become more refined towards the end of this stage. The balance mechanism of the inner ear gradually matures.

There is great improvement in speed, agility, balance, coordination and flexibility towards the end of the phase.

Specific activities and games should emphasise coordination. Kinaesthetic sense emphasised in gymnastics, diving, athletics field events.

During this stage girls develop coordination skills faster than boys but generally there is little difference between the two sexes.

Sex differences are not of any great consequence at this stage.

Training and playing together should be emphasised at this stage.

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Table 4 ~ Physical Development through the Training Ages: The Training to Train™ Stage (10­14 years) (reproduced with permission, Balyi & Hamilton, 2001)

Basic Characteristics General Consequences: Performance Capabilities and Limitations

Implications for the Coach

Significant proportional changes occur in bone, muscle and fat tissue.

During growth spurts adaptation is influenced by sudden changes of body proportions.

Monitor training carefully and individualise the content of training to ensure adaptation.

Girls begin their growth spurt between 12.5­14 years, boys between 12.5­ 15 years. Girls achieve a maximum rate of growth at an average age of 11, boys at an average of 14 years.

Early in this phase girls may be faster and stronger than boys; later in the phase boys begin to get the upper hand in these qualities.

Chronological age may not be the most appropriate way to group young athletes.

Primary and secondary sex characteristics manifest themselves during this period. The normal range for the onset of menarche for girls is from 10­16 years.

After the onset of menarche the iron levels of girls should be monitored regularly.

Situations where fear, guilt or anxiety brought about by sexual development should be avoided.

Smaller muscle groups are becoming more developed.

Speed, agility and coordination are still improving rapidly at this stage.

With the improvement of fine motor movement all basic technical skills should be mastered. Athletes must learn HOW to train during this period including physical, technical, tactical and ancillary capacities.

During this stage the various parts of the body do not grow at the same rate. The growth rate of the legs and arms will reach a peak prior to that of the trunk.

A change in the centre of gravity, length of limbs and core strength will determine the content of training.

Some of the already learned skills and movements will have to be refined (re­learned) again since the asynchronous rate of limb growth will affect technique.

A significant increase in red blood cells occurs during this stage, especially in boys due to testosterone.

The oxygen transport system is still developing and aerobic endurance continues to increase.

The increase in body mass requires more structured aerobic training. Only short duration of anaerobic activities are recommended.

The central nervous system is almost fully developed.

Agility, balance and coordination are fully trainable.

Use the warm­up to further develop CNS activities.

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Table 5 ~ Physical Development through the Training Ages: The Training to Compete™ Stage (15­20 years) (reproduced with permission, Balyi & Hamilton, 2001)

Basic Characteristics General Consequences: Performance Capabilities and Limitations

Implications for the Coach

The circulatory and respiratory systems reach maturity.

These systems are generally able to deliver maximum output.

Aerobic and anaerobic systems can be trained for maximum output. Full sports specific energy system training can be implemented.

Increase in height and weight gradually lessens. Stabilisation occurs in the muscular system.

Muscles have grown to their mature size but muscular strength continues to increase reaching its peak in the late twenties.

Strength training can be maximised to improve overall strength development. Neuromuscular training should be optimised during this stage.

Skeletal maturation continues in males and females.

Connective tissues are still strengthening.

Progressive overload in training should be continued.

By age 17 girls have generally reached adult proportions whereas boys may reach these proportions several years later.

Proportionally girls gain more weight than boys during this stage.

Aerobic training for girls should be optimised. Coaches must be aware of how to deal with weight gain and the personal and social effects. Athletes must learn how to compete under differing circumstances.

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Table 6 ~ Mental / Cognitive Development through the Training Ages: The FUNdamental Stage™ (6­10 years) (reproduced with permission, Balyi & Hamilton, 2001)

Basic Characteristics General Consequences: Performance Capabilities and Limitations

Implications for the Coach

Attention span is short and children are very much action­oriented. Memory is developing in a progressive way.

Young athletes cannot sit and listen for long periods of time.

Use short, clear and simple instructions. Children want to move and participate in action. They will spontaneously practice new skills.

Very little reasoning ability at this stage. Later in this stage there is a growing capacity for abstract thought.

Children are generally leader oriented. They love to be led.

Coaches should adapt a ‘follow me’ or ‘follow the leader’ approach so that activities are well planned, safe and fun.

The repetition of activities is greatly enjoyed. Young athletes improve their abilities through physical experience.

Children do not learn skills correctly by trial and error alone.

Coaches must be able to provide correct demonstration of the required skill.

Imagination is blossoming. Experimentation and creativity should be encouraged.

While playing and practising, encourage ‘input’ from the athletes. They are usually fearless, skill hungry and will try almost anything.

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Table 7 ~ Mental / Cognitive Development through the Training Ages: The Training to Train™ Stage (10­14 years) (reproduced with permission, Balyi & Hamilton, 2001)

Basic Characteristics General Consequences: Performance Capabilities and Limitations

Implications for the Coach

Abstract thinking becomes more firmly established.

Decision making through more complex technical training should be introduced.

Decision making on tactical and strategic solution level must be done relative to the skill level of the athlete.

Young athletes develop a new form of egocentric thought. Much emphasis is placed upon self­identity.

May result in a stronger fear of failure.

Create an optimum learning environment for the individual. Match skill and drill levels. Introduce simple coping strategies, concentration skills and mental imagery.

Young players are eager to perfect their skills.

Individualisation of training is required. A variety of methods to measure success are important to maintain motivation.

Positive reinforcement is imperative. The difference between physical and mental development will vary to a great extent. The coach must be able to recognise the early and late developer and deliver an accurate coaching style to both. Coach must be able to accurately demonstrate specific skills. Audio­visual feedback will assist in the learning process.

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Table 8 ~ Mental / Cognitive Development through the Training Ages: The Training to Compete™ Stage (15­20 years) (reproduced with permission, Balyi & Hamilton, 2001)

Basic Characteristics General Consequences: Performance Capabilities and Limitations

Implications for the Coach

Generally by 16 the brain has reached its adult size but continues to develop neurologically for several more years.

Athletes can cope with multiple strategies and tactics, particularly towards the end of the stage.

Coaches must ensure the refinement of all technical and tactical skills.

Critical thinking is developing well during this stage.

Capacity for self­analysis and correction is developing.

Decision making should be developed further through technical and tactical development.

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Table 9 ~ Emotional Development through the Training Ages: The FUNdamental Stage™ (6­10 years) (reproduced with permission, Balyi & Hamilton, 2001)

Basic Characteristics General Consequences: Performance Capabilities and Limitations

Implications for the Coach

The child’s concept of self is developing through experiences and comments from others.

Youngsters perceive these experiences as a form of self­evaluation. “I am a good person if I do well, a bad person if I do poorly.”

Positive reinforcement is vital on a regular basis. This will create a positive motivation for continuing the activity.

Children like to be the centre of focus and attention.

When a situation becomes threatening they quickly lose confidence.

Select technical and tactical activities that are guaranteed to succeed. Gradually move from simple to complex, slow to fast.

The influence of peers becomes a very strong driving force behind all activities.

They can understand and play simple games with simple rules. They may question things and expect thoughtful answers.

Participation and FUN, rather than winning is the emphasis. Focus on the process and not the outcome.

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Table 10 ~ Emotional Development through the Training Ages: The Training to Train™ Stage (10­14 years) (reproduced with permission, Balyi & Hamilton, 2001)

Basic Characteristics General Consequences: Performance Capabilities and Limitations

Implications for the Coach

There is a tremendous influence on behaviour from peer groups.

Values and attitudes are being created and reinforced by the group.

The coach should exercise strong direction and supervision. A role model for these young athletes is vital at this stage.

During this stage athletes are capable of cooperating and accepting some responsibility.

Some players may be less responsible mainly due to a fear of failure.

Coach must have an open communication with athletes.

Tension generally exists between adolescents and adults.

Communication channels must be kept open by the adult. Adolescent athletes may not recognise the need for help or seem grateful for that help.

The coach can find themselves in a strong and influential position compared with other adults – use it wisely. Two­way communication should be encouraged so that the athlete understands and plays a part in the decision making process.

Young athletes must be able to display tenderness, admiration and appreciation.

Deprivation of these qualities often leads to exaggerated or excessive / unacceptable behaviour.

Those who mature early can become leaders and excel in physical performance. Coaches must not display any favouritism by giving special treatment to the early developer.

Physical, mental and emotional maturity does not develop at the same rate.

Feelings of confusion or anxiety may exist as a result.

The coach’s communication skills and understanding are important in these regards.

There is a desire to have friends of the opposite sex.

Social activities are important events for this age group.

Co­educational activities are recommended.

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Table 11 ~ Emotional Development through the Training Ages: The Training to Compete™ Stage (15­20 years) (reproduced with permission, Balyi & Hamilton, 2001)

Basic Characteristics General Consequences: Performance Capabilities and Limitations

Implications for the Coach

Peer group influences are still a powerful force.

Independent decision making and leadership skills are becoming more developed.

Athletes should be given the opportunity to develop through participation in an appropriate leadership or responsibility role. Strong direction and discipline must be maintained.

Athletes are searching for a stable, balanced self image.

Self is very susceptible to successes and failures. Coping techniques are useful.

Positive and truthful evaluation of performances and positive reinforcement are crucial.

Activities and interaction with the opposite sex play strong roles during this stage.

Female athletes may now face a problem of femininity versus sport development. Male players may face the problem of relating performance to masculinity. Both sexes must be aware of the others interpretation of this phenomena.

Education programs for individuals, squads and clubs should be implemented.

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Table 12 illustrates the general and bio­motor changes most important to the coach during the early secondary school age. These parameters form the cornerstone of decision making across the athletic development continuum. They are illustrated here as an example of how to interpret the information gathered from Tables 3 to 11.

Table 12 ~ Fundamental / Training to Train™ (10­14yrs): General Considerations of Biomotor Abilities (Table derived from Balyi & Hamilton, 2001, and reproduced with permission)

Speed

• Systematic speed/agility training with sufficient recoveries. Emphasizing correct technique.

• Speed endurance training should be avoided (â La production/â La Tolerance).

• Females: 6–8 years and 11–13 years – critical periods. • Males: 7–9 years and 13–16 years – critical periods.

Strength

• Shoulder, knee, ankle and hip stability must be emphasized.

• Body weight exercises (dips, chins, push ups, squats, lunges etc.)

• Look for improvements in relative not absolute strength.

á Neural adaptations vs. â hypertrophy. • Inter/intra muscular coordination contributes to á

strength. • Frequency should be 2 – 3 times per week (30 min

minimum)

Endurance

• Use non­weight bearing activities when possible. Weight­bearing through technical and strength sessions.

• Peak aerobic periods: 12–15 years for females: 14­16 years for males.

• Train together for technical sessions – ‘training age’ for fitness sessions.

Skill

• Establish basic motor coordination skills BEFORE ages 11/12 years.

• Chronological age unsuitable compared with ‘training age’ (muscular skeletal / cognitive / emotional).

• Use ‘peak height velocity’ (PHV) to ascertain training age.

• Re­visit skill, balance, and proprioception after PHV.

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Where to Next?

With the development and maturation of each individual being so complex it is wise to take the time to see the ‘big picture’. The young person standing in front of the teacher or coach, waiting for opportunity and instruction, is dependent upon the adult for their next steps along the sporting pathway. They simply bring their interest and enthusiasm, clearly defined in a picture in their minds assembled from their first glimpses of the sport. These first impressions are usually garnered from the adult world through, more often than not, the television.

The adult now has a choice. Either treat them as adults and rush headlong into direct and outcome based competition and competition specific exercise or treat them as an ever­changing individual who requires nurturing.

They are anxious to take part in the sport and so the aim must be to give them the ‘tools’ to do just that. Technical development will require certain physical qualities to carry them out. Give them these qualities, make them efficient.

All this will require a plan. It’s time to think!

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Key Coaching Strategies

It is clearly important to understand the difference between general and specific training as these training variables form the cornerstone of ‘how’ to balance training for the developing athlete. The key for the coach is to ensure that the formative years contain a high percentage of general training upon which the later, specific work can be built.

General Training

From a muscular­skeletal point of view this aspect of training deals with the general development and efficiency of all muscle groups, ligaments and tendons. The end result must see the athlete produce total structural strength, total structural stability and total structural range of movement in all directions and all planes of movement. In addition, general training illustrates the range of physiological fitness components that must be trained e.g. sound aerobic fitness, basic speed development, etc. As an illustration, a bystander observing a strength / fitness training session from the Fundamental or Training to Train Stage may not be able to identify the sport being trained for. In other words the activities will be generic in nature.

Specific Training

This type of training is where the physical components required for the sport are isolated and trained. The individual sport techniques, specific sport muscle groups / actions and special sport fitness characteristics predominate in this type of training.

One can clearly see the potential hazard of only presenting specific activity to a developing athlete. For example a 12 year­old, right handed Softball pitcher who is only ever asked to develop the right­handed pitching action will inevitably develop a muscular system that is unbalanced and prone to injury.

Specific training is also epitomised by ‘Competition Specific’ training where technique is fully rehearsed alongside the exact physiological requirements of the sport. This aspect of training trains technique and sport specific fitness in a competitive environment conducted in training as well as in official competition.

It is not good enough to simply recommend that in the Fundamental and Training to Train stages the athlete should experience a high proportion of general training. It is a mandatory requirement if there is to be any hope for a long term, injury free pathway to repeatable excellence.

In practical terms all three of these training variables (General, Specific and Competition Specific) are trained throughout the annual program. The important skill for the coach is to balance out their individual contribution as the training year unfolds so as to ensure a high proportion of general training.

Table 13 indicates some suggested percentages of these variables as they are manipulated through the year.

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Table 13 ~ The Distribution of General (G), Specific (S) and Competition (C) Training: The Training to Train and Early Training to Compete Stage (adapted and modified from Dick, 1980).

Preparation Phase

Pre­Competition Phase

Competition Phase

Age G S C G S C G S C 10­14 80 15 5 70 20 10 60 25 15 15­17 70 20 10 60 25 15 50 30 20

The primary issue for the coach is to decipher and translate the theoretical information of maturation into a concise series of plans and strategies that will form the template for all future decisions. By completing this process the coach will have a set of guidelines to refer to when considering program planning and will be in a position to react to the ‘windows’ of opportunity that will arise.

The following strategies contain the significant issues of each training stage.

Fundamental Stage (6­10yrs) (adapted and modified from Balyi & Hamilton, 2001) • A positive set of experiences with a deal of enjoyment and fun

­informal and without regimentation ­no discomfort, no pain

• Agility, Balance, Coordination, Speed and General Strength & Stability through simple bodyweight exercises (movement education, basic gymnastics), games and relays ­early speed and agility windows: ­females 6­8 years ­males 7­9 years

• Include non­weight bearing activities for aerobic development (Osgood­Schlatter’s, overuse injuries)

• Running, jumping and throwing skills • Catching, passing, kicking and striking skills • Volumes kept low • Intensity kept very low • All athletes must be carefully monitored throughout this period.

Training to Train Stage (11­14yrs) (adapted and modified from Balyi & Hamilton, 2001) • Single periodisation

­ long training period (6­9 months) ­ short competition period (2­3 months)

• Introduction to sport specific skills (emphasis still on fun/games). Skill trainability gradually declines after 11 and 12 years of age

­ main female window 8 ­ 11 years. ­ main male window 9 ­ 12 years

• Second ‘window’ for speed & agility development • Strength training & endurance improvement are introduced • Team sport position specific skills are introduced without specialisation • Emphasis should be on learning how to train

– on the process, not on the outcome! • A sound screening of the athlete can now take place to ensure accuracy in exercise

selection.

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Training to Compete Stage (15­20yrs) (adapted and modified from Balyi & Hamilton, 2001)

• Double periodisation can be more effective for the very experienced athlete. However, it is recommended that the athlete remain in a ‘general’ training environment until the required physical qualities are consolidated. The race towards competition specific training must be tempered with a commitment towards long term development.

• Towards the end of this stage, training approaches consistently high intensity and specificity all year round.

• Strength is developed through the introduction of external loading and more complex exercises.

• Training the lactic energy system can be introduced. • More sports specific and individual specific work.

­ check Peak Height Velocity. • Simulation of all competition conditions including competition specific training can

slowly be introduced over several years. • Tapering techniques are more sophisticated. • Competition selection continues to be accurate and well balanced. • Regular screening to continue, particularly at the end of each major training block.

It has been stated over many decades that the young athlete, particularly in the first two stages of the plan, should be involved in a ‘fun’ environment. The importance of this concept has been recognised by those sporting organisations that have developed modified games and practices for the young. This must be encouraged to an even greater extent when the athlete enters their secondary education years. Unfortunately there is still the propensity to direct the young athlete into a scheme of direct, outcome based competition during the secondary school years. ‘Fun’ tends to take a back seat to the results gained in formal competition. The point is that direct, formal competition rules seldom take into account the developmental status of the individual athlete. Continuing modified competition and training structures deep into secondary school years may well deliver the benefits available from a longer development strategy.

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Training Age v Chronological Age

“Do not risk future hope of achieving long­term objectives by causing irreversible damage to your growing athlete in pursuit of short­term success.” (unknown)

Proof that each individual athlete develops physiologically, psychologically and structurally at a different rate is irrefutable (Balyi & Hamilton, 2001; Bompa, 1993a and 1993b; Dick, 1980). Our responsibility in coaching is to recognise these growth and development factors and incorporate them in a plan of development for the individual. An understanding of training, biological and chronological age is paramount to the coach if he or she is to keep control on training selection and progression for the individual athlete. In brief terms the descriptions of ‘age’ are as follows:

• Training age is the number of years that an athlete has been involved in progressive training.

• Biological age is developmental stage of the athlete’s muscular­skeletal and hormonal systems.

• Chronological age is the number of years since birth.

For example most experts agree that the period of 8­12 years of age (chronological) are the ‘acute learning’ years and that if this period is not maximised it is likely that an athlete will never reach their optimal or genetic potential in overall performance. Early ‘speed development’ windows and ‘agility development’ windows also occur during this time and the opportunity for their development must not be missed. In this age range it is possible for there to be a two to four year difference between the individual athletes maturation age in the same squad. Having all squad members following the same schedule is therefore inappropriate.

The Female Athlete

The Training to Train stage is arguably the most important period regarding the development of power to weight efficiency in the female athlete. Adapting to effectively moving their body weight during this period will assist the female athlete in their power to weight ratio in later stages. Attempting to start this type of strength aspect after puberty will see the female athlete struggle to make inroads. This is mainly due to changes in body composition by the female during puberty where they experience greater fat gains than males. The pre­pubescent male and female typically have equal amounts of lean body mass (LBM) giving them somewhat equal power to weight ratios. Throughout puberty males significantly increase their LBM allowing power to weight ratios to either remain the same or improve. The opposite can occur with the female where an increase in body fat can prevail, leading to decreases in power to weight effectiveness.

The young female athlete involved in endurance based sports (swimming, rowing, triathlon, cross country etc.) can be very vulnerable to this shift in body fat composition. It takes little imagination to understand the large amount of energy required for both personal physical growth and the training demands of the pre­adolescent ‘endurance’ athlete. It is not unusual for the young female athlete, under these growth and training conditions, to have a large appetite as they seek to assemble sufficient energy. Unfortunately when the peak growing period passes the athlete continues to take in large amounts of food at a time when energy requirements would have decreased. It only takes a short time for the body fat to climb to proportions that create both performance and emotional problems. Keeping a watchful eye on PHV may allow the coach and athlete to stay out of this trap.

Recognising biological age is somewhat difficult but it is suggested that parents, teachers and coaches use PHV as a measure. Peak Height Velocity is simply determined by keeping a

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watchful eye on the athletes growth function. The training principles of the Fundamental stage should be broadly continued until one recognises, through measurement, when the athletes height is at peak acceleration (females 12.5­13 years, males 12.5­15 years) (Balyi & Hamilton, 2001). This is the PHV period and forms the point at which training is adjusted to accommodate re­learning of certain movement patterns.

Table 14 ~ Graph Illustrating Peak Height Velocity for Girls (Graph developed from data presented by Ross & Marfell­Jones, 1991)

Girls PHV

0 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Age in Years

Heigh

t (cm

/Yea

r)

Table 15 ~ Graph Illustrating Peak Height Velocity for Boys (Graph developed from data presented by Ross & Marfell­Jones, 1991)

Boys PHV

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Age in Years

Heigh

t (cm

/Yea

r)

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Reasons for Faults in Progress

The following circumstances are known to contribute to the stalling of athlete development. Each one of them falls directly into the coach’s realm of influence.

• Poor physical qualities

• Technique is in advance of athlete’s growth and maturation stage

• Premature introduction of speed and / or loading in technique

• Misinterpretation / misunderstanding

• Insufficient previous experience

• Poor demonstration

• Poor planning

• Premature introduction of inappropriate competition

• Injury / fear of injury creating compensatory movements

(adapted and modified from Dick, 1980)

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The Destination of Exercise Selection

“The aim of the strength training program for the developing athlete is to attain movement efficiency rather than solely targeting force attainment.” (Giles, 1999­2001)

When asked, “Why do we choose squats and single leg squats as primary exercises?” most coaches reply, “To improve leg strength.” An accurate enough answer, but it is more important to see the exercise choice as being part of a road or ‘thread’ towards function.

Every exercise, satisfactorily negotiated, will open the door to the next exercise on the continuum. Progressing in this way will allow the athlete to consolidate their efficiency at each level before moving on. At each exercise level they will acquire certain qualities that they can take forward into the learning and execution of the next exercise. In this way the athlete will progress with an ever increasing reservoir of physical qualities to use in the development of sports specific actions. These sport specific actions include the development and refinement of technique, the acquisition of the required physiological fitness and the ability to survive the complexities of advanced training models.

Advancing the athlete carefully and accurately along this continuum is a test of the coach’s ability to assess, modify, adjust and re­asses the program. In other words, a test of the coach’s ability to ‘coach’.

For example, squats and single leg squats introduce the athlete to the function of sequenced flexion / extension of the ankle, knee and hip joints (triple flexion / extension), in essence a pre­requisite to movement. Acquisition of this sequence can then lead to a further application through the jump squat / jumping matrix. Together this leads to the development of the strength and posture required for sport specific actions. As a consequence coaches must understand the importance of passing through this continuum. As part of creating a long term strategy it is wise for the coach to ask, “What performance credentials does the athlete need to excel at this sport in their senior years?” In the case of field and court sports the answer may well be those qualities that are the ‘holy grail’ of team sports – acceleration and agility. The coach simply assembles the building blocks required to achieve these qualities – structural strength, structural stability and structural flexibility. Without these fundamentals there is little chance of progress.

Table 16 ~ Example of the Basic Exercise Continuum Model

Squats

Jump Squats / Jumping

Acceleration / Agility

Strength Development

Elastic Strength

Reactive Strength

General Strength

Functional Strength

Sport Specific Strength

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At the outset it must be clearly understood that exercises must be chosen for a reason and have a logical and measurable outcome relative to the needs of the individual athlete. When considering the area of strength training one can accept that there are three main classifications of strength ­ maximum strength, elastic strength and strength endurance (Dick, 1980).

Although any sport specific movement being trained will draw upon these three classifications it may be more valuable for the coach of school age athletes to understand that ‘Total Structural Strength’ (TSS), ‘Total Structural Stability’ (TSStab) and ‘Total Structural Range of Motion’ (TSROM) (Giles, 1999­2001) are all cohesively working in partnership. The aim of the strength training program for the developing athlete is to attain movement efficiency rather than specifically targeting force attainment. This improved efficiency can then be directed at improving skill acquisition as well as the other performance units such as speed and endurance. When a sports specific action takes place the body operates itself as a series of connected levers, all dependent upon each other. This inter­dependence produces the resulting forces required for running, jumping, throwing etc.

While the coach may be concerned with increasing this force it must be clearly understood that the efficiency of the body’s levers in working together in a coordinated rhythm is paramount. For example, as the athlete expresses force through the arm in a throwing action (elastic strength) so the shoulder, trunk and legs play their part in shaping and stabilising the body to allow the action to take place. The legs, trunk and shoulder therefore, must also produce, reduce and stabilise force during the throwing action.

The coach should become conversant with the interplay of force production, force stabilisation and force reduction in the exercise continuum as this integration indicates and confirms that the physical quality of strength exists in a state of movement (Gambetta, 1998).

Total Structural Strength and Total Structural Stability can therefore be better served by training the movement rather than the individual muscles (Gambetta, 1997) so as to create the kinetic chain required. Strength and stability must be viewed as a training continuum beginning with simple, slow movements and progressing to faster and more complex patterns as the training age of the athlete develops. The athlete should begin in an environment of general training in the early years and progress through the Training to Train stage and beyond where they experience more advanced multi­joint, multi­directional and multi­plane strengthening and stabilising activities.

Total Structural Range of Motion plays its part in this continuum and forms a strong alliance with the other two factors. A longer and stronger muscle action will always produce more force than one where the range is limited. A muscle or joint action that possesses the optimum range and strength will be able to play a major role in the required efficiency of movement.

In summary:

• TSStab can be viewed as an extension of the combination of TSS and TSROM. • TSS must be experienced in partnership with TSStab and TSROM. • TSROM must have a ‘strength through length’ liaison.

1. Total Structural Strength (TSS) (Giles, 1999­2001) (a.k.a. functional strength)

• Not the amount of weight you can lift, but the amount of strength you can use in the context of your sport.

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• The need to train movements not individual muscles (Gambetta, 1997). Multi­joint and multi­plane exercises far outweigh isolating one particular muscle in terms of strengthening a required movement.

• Be aware of the interplay of force production vs. force reduction in certain sport specific actions. Both eccentric and concentric actions should be strengthened.

• Gravity is the basis of all resistance training, learn to use it to your advantage.

2. Total Structural Stability (TSStab) (Giles, 1999­2001) (a.k.a. postural integrity)

• Allows us to move our bodies efficiently as a series of levers.

• Force production and direction are optimised in the required movement.

• Compensatory movements are reduced when the body is stable during motion. This creates an injury prevention pattern in training.

• No parts of the body work in complete isolation as they are all part of a kinetic chain of events. Strength and stability should be trained in a state of reaction to movement.

• Move from Static to Dynamic ­ Slow to Fast ­ Simple to Complex ­ Unloaded to Loaded.

3. Total Structural Range of Motion (Giles, 1999­2001) (TSROM)

• The ability to functionally take advantage of the required range of motion. A longer / stronger muscle will always produce more force and will aid movement efficiency.

4. Total Body Awareness (Giles, 1999­2001)

• Developing athletes will adapt far more quickly if they have a movement vocabulary to call upon when learning new training skills. A reservoir of muscle memory pertaining to movement in all planes, at a variety of speeds and with strong control elements in proprioception should be established in the fundamental stage of training.

“Broad and varied motor learning provides a sound base for later specialization and complex learning and that the more numerous the skills acquired, the greater the capacity to learn new skills.” (Peter Coe ­ father / coach of Sebastian Coe, dual Olympic 1500m Champion)

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43

The Injury Prevention Question

There are two major scenarios that contribute to the injury of the young athlete. Firstly there is the unfortunate circumstance where the athlete is placed in a position where they are not physically equipped to carry out the task ahead of them.

This is probably explained by the fact that with much of a young person’s time devoted to a sedentary lifestyle (watching television, surfing the internet etc.), it is possible that they are ill­ prepared to face the rigors of sports competition and training. This is further complicated by the rush towards results in school competitions during very brief ‘seasons’ during the year. The young athlete can find themselves rapidly wrenched from zero activity to competition specific activity in a short period of time which is a recipe for injury. Recent research supports this premise and explains that injuries in training are highest when the athlete returns to competition after a break from activity (Price, Hawkins, Hulse and Hodson, 2004).

Secondly, and directly linked to the former environment, is the circumstance where the athlete is asked to train with an emphasis on sports specific activity, often continuously throughout the year, leading to ‘overuse’ injuries.

“Overuse injury occurs when a tissue is injured due to repetitive sub maximal loading. The process starts when repetitive activity fatigues a specific structure such as tendon or bone. With sufficient recovery…the tissue is able to undergo further loading without injury. Without adequate recovery, micro trauma occurs…that damages local tissue.” (DiFiori, 1999)

There are many reasons for the increase in injury frequency in the 9­19 year age group especially with regard to the lower limbs in field and court sports and the shoulder in Swimming and Tennis. The advent of the ‘growth spurt’ can offer greater risk particularly at the ankle, knee, shoulder and elbow joints. Reasons include incomplete development of muscle in adolescents, the limited shock absorption of developing muscle and the massive forces needed for many actions in acceleration, jumping, kicking and throwing (Price, Hawkins, Hulse and Hodson, 2004).

Other risk factors include joint instability, particularly in a dynamic setting, and the level of conditioning of the athlete. Unfit children may well lack the required proprioceptive skills and weak and/or inflexible joint structures may not be able to withstand the forces (DiFiori, 1999).

Long term conditioning programs that include some form of resistance training may better prepare young athletes for sports participation by developing general athleticism and enhancing self confidence (Mediate, 1999). We are aware that programs that include the development of all physical qualities significantly reduce the incidence of acute injuries as well as those caused by overuse during games and practice (Wedeerkop et al, 1999).

It is worth considering that many injuries in young athletes are certain to be reduced by some intervention strategy. One can expect an improvement in retention if young people are provided with an environment that significantly reduces both the incidence and the trauma of injury. In this respect the decisions made regarding specialisation are critical. Early sports specialisation is not recommended. Young athletes should be exposed to different sports throughout the year to allow them not only the opportunity of developing a broad range of fitness and motor skills, but also the chance to choose the sport(s) they prefer. The decisions made on the periodisation of training also play a vital part in this strategy. Critically balancing training and recovery is a skill required by the coach and must reflect gradual progression of loading and intensity and not a ‘fast track’ to ‘overuse’.

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The evolution of Sports Medicine and Strength and Conditioning in the last two decades has seen an abundance of practitioners who are skilled and experienced in ascertaining the status of the young athlete relative to both their performance and injury potential. In an age where Health and Safety issues predominate it is vital that the teacher / coach avail themselves of the best information about the individual athlete prior to commencing a training program.

Injury / Bio­Mechanical Screening

“Injury is due to inefficient and unbalanced movement, which gets much worse when he runs; he has very poor pelvic control/lower limb control in single leg stance, and extremely poor hip dissociation in swing. Appears less stable in single leg stance (LHS).” (Excerpt from a physiotherapy screening, London Broncos, 1999)

Before commencing a training program it is advised that some form of screening take place. It is recommended that a medical and bio­mechanical screening is conducted by a qualified and experienced physiotherapist. This screening is directed at assessing the current functional ability of the athlete and the results should be presented as a clear set of recommendations. These recommendations should focus on the efficiency of the muscular­skeletal system and should highlight the prime concern of strength in the stabilising muscles in order to prevent injury and to maximise performance.

For those teachers who cannot call upon these professionals for guidance it is recommended that, as part of the general activity program, the young students participate in exercises that give some feedback to the teacher. The Physical Competence Test standards (Tables 51, 52 and 53) provide the teacher with opportunity to see the students performing simple bodyweight exercises and will help give some indication of their movement efficiency. This knowledge can then be used to establish the movement training age of the student and from this, ability groups can then be formed for more accurate exercise selection.

Table 17 shows an example of functional issues documented from the scores of medical / biomechanical screenings performed on junior athletes when presenting with chronic injury. The physiotherapist should ensure that the language and vocabulary used is not intimidating and certainly not confusing. Often, functional issues that arise, as illustrated below, are an indication of limitations in Athletic, Functional and Technical Development.

Table 17 ~ Example Physiotherapy Screening Report

Identified Risks Action High Priorities Supinated (high arch) Rigid feet (L&R)

Stress fractures. Tightness in calf, Achilles & plantar fascia. Reduced shock absorbing.

Mobilize feet, calf stretches. Practice landing efficiency. Avoid stiff shoes.

Poor endurance in single leg balance & squat tasks. Increased sway on (R).

Indicator of dynamic balance & postural inefficiency.

Single leg matrix.

Lower Priorities Tighter (L) achilles & soleus on knee test to wall by 1.5cm.

Alters foot mechanics in stance phase. Increases overuse leg injury risk.

Stretch (L) achilles & soleus in knee to wall position.

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Functional Screening Tests

As well as exploring clinical testing by a physiotherapist it is important to ascertain the physical competence of the athlete. Some experienced practitioners are skilled at weaving both clinical and functional screening into the required service and these practitioners should be sought out to work with the teacher / coach in this screening process. In recent times some experienced physiotherapists have started their screening with an insight gained from the Physical Competence Tests battery outlined in Tables 51, 52 and 53. Results from these tests allow the physiotherapist to focus on limitations found in the test results and this allows the overall screening to be more precise.

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SECTION TWO

PRACTICAL ISSUES

“They must be physically competent to do the technical stuff and technically competent to do the tactical stuff.” (Kelvin Giles upon joining the Brisbane Broncos, 1989)

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Introduction

The phrase ‘Strength and Conditioning’ can conjure up a picture of the fitness zealot, who has little time for the intricacies of technical development, blindly pursuing muscle mass and strength at the expense of the athlete. It can also, and more sensibly, epitomise the relationship between technical development and performance production.

For every skill we ask the developing athlete to learn (running, jumping, throwing, kicking, catching and hitting) there is a set of physical pre­requisites that will allow these actions to occur efficiently. Later in the manual it will be recommended that ‘physical’ development stay one step ahead of technical development so that the athlete can have certain resources to put towards the learning of the skill in front of them. The coach should view the skill being taught as being a skill / coordination exercise and a series of physical actions taking place. For example, as the young athlete encounters running drills in the shape of the ‘Mach’ series they will have to provide certain physical qualities to execute the drills correctly. Their ankle, hamstring and hip flexibility will be placed under scrutiny as they attempt to copy the demonstration given by the coach. Their ability to ‘hold’ the ‘Tall Hips’ position will demand that they have the required hip extension capability, some degree of single leg strength and gluteus activation to call upon. Their upper body posture will demand a high degree of trunk stability if they are to remain in the correct stance.

The ‘physical qualities’ must be developed if the athlete is to fully adapt to the skill learning component of their training.

The Central Impact of Developing Physical Qualities

Improvements in Total Structural Strength, Total Structural Stability and Total Structural Mobility will assist in the following key areas:

• Injury Prevention:

o Reduction in the incidence of injury caused by unstable joints or repetitive joint and muscular actions.

o When the structures around joints are strengthened they are more capable of withstanding the physical stress that training and competition will place on them.

• Improvements in Technique:

o By developing the strength and stability to get into and then hold the required positions for technical development.

o By improving movement mechanics which leads to greater speed of movement. o By increasing the power components of the required movement. o By providing a consistency in movement. o By reducing compensatory movements.

• Speed Attainment and Endurance Maintenance:

o Higher levels of strength and stability result in either less maximal force being used during sub maximal efforts or higher force levels maintained at sub­ maximal efforts.

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• Variety in the Mental Stimulus:

o Although the development of physical qualities is mandatory for long term development it is also a vehicle of activity that adds variety to the training cycle.

The Key Issues in the Planning of Strength and Conditioning

• Athletic Qualities

One of the major aims of the training program is to improve the athletic qualities of the athlete thereby ensuring that the coach has a reservoir of abilities with which to work. Increased range, strength and stability give the athlete the physical resources to:

o Implement technical changes. o Establish the correct positions, especially in technique and when under the

stress of a game situation. o Maintain these positions in an endurance setting.

• Strength through Length

The development of strength should be done through the full range of motion. There is very little value in developing strength and power through a limited range of motion as this may impact negatively on technical development i.e. poor hip mobility reduces the ability to accelerate efficiently due to a lack of hip extension.

• Quality

It’s not the amount of weight you can lift, but the amount of strength you can use in a functional capacity that is the key. This is an extremely important issue especially in the early training stages. Absolute strength development can be enhanced at a later stage once the qualities of flexibility, stability and movement efficiency have been consolidated in the early training stages.

• General then Specific

“The athlete must earn the physical right to move the program forward” (Giles, 1999­2001)

Success in Long Term Athlete Strength Development is dependent upon the athlete maturing through a sound, all­round development of their physical qualities before sport specific activities reach the advanced stage of intensity and duration. Athletes should be placed in a training environment that ensures the development of the basic characteristics of efficient movement and control of their bodyweight prior to the slow build up of sport specific qualities.

Any limitation in general, all­round athleticism that is allowed to develop in the formative years of training may well stay with the athlete into their crucial adult years of elite competition.

o Too often programs show an impulsive desire to move straight into the specific performance exercises before one has established general strength levels in the muscle groups of focus.

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o Narrowing focus too early can compromise the potential performance transfer benefits. One cannot mould specific strength if the general strength is not there. In fact you may find that it requires a number of preparations over a few years before you move on to the more specific and complex exercises.

o By following a progressive plan you will ensure that the more functional and speed­strength exercises can be performed with technical proficiency, allowing for maximum skill transference and the reduction of injuries.

• ‘Good’ does not necessarily mean ‘physically competent’.

“Never assume that a representative standard athlete is subsequently advanced in their physical qualities.”

There are numerous examples of elite athletes who would fit into the Training to Train stage for several of their training activities.

o Always keep in mind that athletes come in different shapes, sizes and abilities. o It is essential to remember that strength and conditioning for athletes

encompasses a number of areas e.g. Total structural strength, total structural stability, total structural flexibility, balance and coordination.

• Integration

It is always important to remember that athletes are there to participate in their chosen sport and that exercises and training plans are aimed at improving this participation.

o Always question the choice of exercises, they must be chosen for a distinct purpose.

o Avoid the scenario where an athlete’s strength training session is done with no liaison with the coach.

o An important point to remember is that there will be times when doing foundation strength work will impact on the quality of technical and tactical development.

o The duration, extent and timing of these aspects need to be assessed and discussed between the coach and individual delivering the strength and conditioning.

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A Suggested Age Based Model for Progression

The following guideline for developing physical qualities has been developed to provide a structured framework for the development of functional strength in developing athletes.

General Considerations

• As an initial starting point the individual responsible for the strength and conditioning components of an athletes program should be suitability qualified and experienced to work with young athletes. They will need to understand the maturation or ‘training’ age of the athlete, the demands of the chosen sport, the science behind the sport and the complete training plan for the athletes.

• It is essential that the person responsible for developing the strength and conditioning component of an athlete’s program pays full attention to the technical development of exercise technique and the mastery of movement patterns. This development phase is essential in terms of the long term development of the athlete and presents the greatest opportunity to train the neural pathways and master the required movement patterns.

• It will be important that the coach realise that the physical preparation component may not be a stand­alone training unit, it may need to be integrated into the skill program to maximise the athlete’s potential performance.

• It is important that movement patterns are trained rather than specific, isolated muscle groups. An example would be the performance of a Squat (teaching the ‘triple flexion / extension’ of the ankle, knee and hip joints and recruiting the gluteus, hamstring, quadriceps and core stabilising muscle groups of the abdominals and lower back) rather than a Leg Extension (teaching only the isolated extension at the knee joint and recruiting only the quadriceps muscle group to complete the movement).

• In order for the athlete to maximise the acquisition of the skill­related components of the sport, it is essential that they pass through the basic building blocks of athletic performance and mastery of basic movement patterns. Without fully accomplishing this (i.e. ‘shortcutting’) the athlete will never fully develop their athletic potential and the physical limitation of the athlete will be uncovered under the demands of increased training and competition loads.

• Physical preparation in the early training stages should not be seen as a time to overwhelm the athlete with hard ‘circuit’ type training. Working through dozens of exercises at a frantic pace does little to encourage the learning of the proper exercise technique nor will it convey to the young athlete the importance of exercise technique.

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Suggested Strength and Conditioning Training Phases for the Physical Preparation of Athletes

Fundamental (Balyi & Hamilton, 2001) or Initiation Stage Phase (Bompa, 1993b): 6­10 years

• The focal point of the training program during this introductory phase should be based on positive sets of experiences with a deal of enjoyment and fun (Balyi & Hamilton, 2001).

• Sessions should be informal and without regimentation (no periodisation), no discomfort and no pain (Balyi & Hamilton, 2001). All progression should be gradual. When intensity of training is controlled, there are fewer injuries.

• As skill trainability gradually declines after age 11­12 years (Balyi & Hamilton, 2001), wide ranging motor skill development during this period will assist in the forming of a movement vocabulary for later use.

• This is an excellent time to introduce the development of overall physical capacities such as skill acquisition, balance, speed, stability, general strength and co­ordination (Balyi & Hamilton 2001).

• Using small, modified games and activities lasting 15­30 min can be an excellent way to introduce young athletes to more structured S&C work at a later stage.

• Competition should be informal and be presented as a personal test rather than a ‘winning / losing’ contest.

• Example Exercises: Stability exercises (i.e. Special Bracing, Bridging). General Movement type exercises (i.e. Tumbling, Vaulting, Rolling, Cartwheels, and Balancing. Simple bodyweight exercises (i.e. skipping, jumping, hopping, throwing, pushing, pulling, squatting, lunging). Trunk exercises (i.e. flexion, extension, lateral and rotation).

Training to Train (Balyi & Hamilton, 2001) or Athletic Formation Phase (Bompa, 1993b): 11­14 years

• The training year should see the emphasis on the development of physical qualities. For this training stage the ratio of general preparation to specific / competition training should be at least 75:25.

“Athletes who undertake this kind of training balance will be better prepared for competition, in both the short and long term, than those who concentrate solely on winning.” (Balyi & Hamilton, 2001)

• Typical plans will see a fairly long initial General Preparation phase followed by a short, slightly more sport specific phase before entering into a short competition cycle of work. Training balance moves from low intensity / high volume to higher intensity / low volume over the training year. For every ‘work’ period there must be an equal ‘rest’ period

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• During this crucial phase the program should become more structured with a focus on developing relative body weight strength, stability capabilities and correct exercise technique aimed at maximising long­term results.

• Due to differences in sex, biological development, technique development and overall athletic ability, strength and lean body mass development rates can vary significantly. Consequently, athletes may progress at different rates. It is important to never progress developmental athletes to a higher stage if technique is compromised.

• The Training to Train phase is where the athletes are exposed to fundamental exercises that will target the required muscle groups in a general aspect. Multi­joint exercises are both time effective and target muscle groups in a more comprehensive fashion.

• The exercises chosen should provide learning opportunities for the athletes. Structure these learning opportunities on a seasonal or weekly basis.

• Avoid working through dozens of exercises at a frantic pace (circuit training types of sessions) which do not encourage good technique. At this developmental stage athletes must understand and embrace the key aspects and importance of each exercise being performed.

• Crucial to the athlete’s technical development will be the development of body awareness skills (posture, balance and coordination), mobility and stability.

• Keep in mind that the athletes will be undergoing dramatic body structural changes, which can significantly affect balance and coordination ability. Check the advent of PHV and re­visit learning sequences.

• Typical phases will last between 6­8 weeks involving 2­3 times a week for 30­60 min periods.

• Example Exercises: Strengthening exercises (i.e. Dips, Push­ups, Chin ups, Bwt Squats, Lunges, Step Ups). Trunk exercises (i.e. flexion, extension, lateral and rotation). Jumping exercises (i.e. tuck, squat, concentric, eccentric, including multi­directional). General movement exercises (i.e. more complex gymnastics routines). Medicine Ball stability and power exercises, Flexibility (i.e. static + dynamic). The primary issue is to establish the correct exercise technique before adding any external load.

Training to Compete (Balyi & Hamilton, 2001) or Specialisation Phase (Bompa, 1993b): 15­20 years

• For the athlete who has adapted to all issues pertaining to the Fundamental and Training to Train stages the ratio between general training and competition specific / competition training can reach 60:40 after several years of training. The early phases of this stage, however, should still see an emphasis on the development of physical qualities.

• At this stage the S&C program can commence with the introduction of increased external loading to maximise strength.

• The body awareness (postural) skills and flexibility ranges established during the developmental phase need to be maintained. This may require the use of assisted stretching.

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• Compromising on range of movement and body awareness will reduce the effectiveness of additional strength loading.

• During this stage the emphasis moves from body weight and light resistance exercises to more traditional loaded exercises that can or are slightly modified to suit the individual needs of the sport / position played.

• At this stage the fundamental exercises used to target the required muscle groups should have been mastered. Therefore there can be a shift from one of technical development (i.e. learning basic lifts) to that of increased loading.

• Strength is developed using progressively increasing external loads. Power is improved in contrast or complex settings. Contrast or complex training is where the athlete works against varying loads in the same exercise selection (e.g. heavy squats followed by lighter jump squats). It must however, be remembered that increases in loading should never take place at the sacrifice of technique.

• Typical phases will last 4­6 weeks involving 2­3 sessions a week of 60­90 mins a session.

• Example Exercises: Strengthening exercises (i.e. Loaded Squats, Cleans, Snatch, Deadlift, Lunges). Power production exercises (i.e. hybrids of strengthening exercises such as Jump Squats, Clean Pulls, Dumbbell Snatch etc). More complex Jumping exercises (i.e. Multi­plane and multi­directional exercises). The primary issue is to maintain the correct exercise technique as the load, speed and complexity of the exercise increases.

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SECTION THREE

TRAINING

“100% right, is 100% right. 99% right is 100% wrong.” (Bill Sweetenham, Head Coach UK Swimming)

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Introduction to Training

“Simply repeating a skill will never develop the strength or flexibility to carry it out effectively over the long term.” (Giles, 1999­2001)

The Fundamental Stage

Research indicates that early participation in quality physical activity not only increases health and wellbeing in the short term, it increases the likelihood of children leading active lifestyles and reaching their sporting potential as they grow into adulthood. With much being said about the catastrophic effects of child obesity and general lack of fitness in the young, it is heartening to hear that the adults in our community are asking for a greater commitment to physical activity in the Fundamental stage (6–10 years).

It is during this stage that ‘general training’ forms the cornerstone of all plans and strategies conceived to assist the young person in moving towards a healthier lifestyle. As previously stated this is not a period for presenting competition specific exercises nor is it the time to look for ‘winners’. It is mandatory that the adult in charge see this time as the one and only opportunity to build a reservoir of movement competence and enthusiasm for involvement in regular and enjoyable physical activity.

For the Primary School age child the word ‘training’ must be viewed in a completely different light to the training seen in the later stages. Although coaches and teachers have been brought up with this terminology it must not be used in the wrong context. Training at the Fundamental stage is categorised as an opportunity for activity. Although the overall coaching strategy at this age emphasises ‘fun’ and ‘play’ in an unregimented environment, it is still vitally important that the coach work from a program that achieves stated objectives. The child may experience a relaxed, ‘fun’ based activity schedule but the ‘coach’ must develop a plan of campaign and follow some form of structured syllabus.

Table 18 illustrates a planned syllabus of work providing the opportunity to develop the ‘physical qualities’ of the developing child. It indicates the breadth of commitment and utilises the qualities of Dance, Gymnastics and Games.

Table 18 ~ An Example Primary School Physical Activity Program (UK System)

Term 1 2 3 4 5 6 Year 1 Games ­

Throwing, Gymnastics (Traveling and Body Shape)

Games ­ Catching, Dance

Games ­ Rolling, Gymnastics (Balance & Transferring Bodyweight

Games ­ Kicking, Dance

Games ­ Striking, Gymnastics (Balancing)

Games ­ Skipping, Dance

Year 5 Games ­ Net & Wall

Gymnastics (Balance and Body Shape)

Games ­ Passing and Catching

Gymnastics (Weight Transfer)

Games ­ Kicking and Striking

Gymnastics ­ Partner Activities

With such a comprehensive syllabus to work from there would appear to be ample scope to consider that the destination of the program can be directed at some form of physical competence format as outlined in Table 51. Not only are skills developed during this period but there is the opportunity for the young athlete to take control of their bodies and by doing so, explore the vast number of challenges awaiting them as they develop physical qualities across a number of exercise streams.

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Using the recommended exercise streams, the adult in charge of physical activity in the school or club can use the vehicles of Dance, Gymnastics and Games to carefully and slowly achieve physical competence. In the example illustrated in Table 18, Year 1 indicates an ideal time to explore the General Movement Development, Stability, Squat, Lunge and Jumping streams as ‘Traveling’ (motion) and ‘Body Shape’ form the syllabus in Gymnastics. These skills, coupled with those of the Shoulder, Pushing and Pulling streams can be woven into the games of ‘Throwing’. There are endless opportunities to embark on a pathway towards physical competence in this type of syllabus.

Regardless of the age group being trained the format of the program can take on the framework that will be used in later stages. An appropriate screening of the athlete, an appropriate warm up and a high level of ‘coaching’ must take place. There should be no question of the amount of general training undertaken. It is all general even though specific activity vehicles may be chosen. The main aim must be to have some level of consistency and continuity in the program. Daily periods of activity are recommended and the coach must observe the cumulative effect of this rhythm and ensure that the young person involved not only remains active but also has sufficient rest from the work involved.

The year can follow the rhythms of winter and summer sporting emphasis where appropriate, but any overzealous emphasis on competition and winning must be eradicated.

As the young athlete leaves the Fundamental stage, armed with a substantial vocabulary of movement efficiency and other physical qualities, the activity program can begin to formalise into a well planned and structured environment. The program takes on a less informal outlook and the coach can begin to periodise the commitment into more conventional ‘training’ systems. With the young athlete having spent several years in a ‘fun’ based, unregimented activity environment, it is less than acceptable to think that they will be able to cope with a system that suddenly and ruthlessly directs all energies to ‘winning’.

The Training to Train stage will see this more formal setting illustrated by Winter and Summer seasons. Sporting organisations have their ‘seasons’ which also add to the more formal approach to activity selection and experience.

The Training to Train Stage

Regardless of the guidance offered by the world’s leading experts on the development of young athletes we still exist in an environment of compromise. It is clearly stated (Balyi & Hamilton, 2001) that in the formative years of an athlete’s development the ratio of general preparation to competition or competition specific training should be in the order of 75% to 25%.

Table 19 ~ A Typical Single Periodised Annual Plan ­ Australian State Soccer League

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Phase

As simply illustrated in Table 19, the athlete can prepare for the 12 week (25%) competition period by training over the remaining 40 weeks (75%) of the year. However, this is far too simplistic for the school age athlete as the aim must be to give them a variety of sporting experiences through the year.

Offering a winter and summer sport participation model will be beneficial to the athlete as they will have the opportunity to experience the learning process of many different skills. Carefully

COMPETITION

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placing the competition periods so as to allow for the development of the required physical and technical qualities is the main responsibility of the adults in charge of the sport. Table 20 is an example of such a plan and illustrates the amount of time available for preparation for the long term.

Table 20 ~ Winter and Summer Competition Plans ­ Australian Schools Sport

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Phase

In this example (Table 20) the athlete can encounter two 6­week competition phases and at the same time have 40 weeks of preparation and regeneration.

In reality we experience an opposite trend where the craving for competition results predominates and developing athletes are presented with long or frequent competition cycles. This problem increases as athletes who display talent are often selected for representative squads thus adding to the competition frequency. The authors express the concern that competition schedules are not based upon the athlete’s maturation or training age but on the misguided notion that competition is the vehicle for athlete development and retention. Many organisations express the fact that they have a development strategy that evolves from ‘Talent Identification’ through a ‘Recruitment’ process and on to the final stages of ‘Development’ and ‘Performance’. In fact there is little evidence to show that the Development stage is anything other than a repetitive competition schedule.

Athletes should compete and should try to win but the emphasis engendered by the adult must be towards basic skill and the development of the required physical qualities. The developing athlete will look for the ‘end result’ of sport specific activities during their training. After all, it is the specifics of the sport that attracted them in the first instance. The coach must manipulate the activities at his or her disposal to satisfy the competitive desires of the athlete and at the same time fulfil the requirements of long term development. Attempting to enforce complex skills or tactical development before skill and physical development is not recommended.

The following table is an example of the competition commitment experienced by a group of 15/16 year old soccer players.

Table 21 ~ Competition Profile 15­16 year­old Soccer Players ­ Australian State Soccer League

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Phase

Competition 1 is the weekly league program. Competition 2 (C2) is for the better players who come together as a squad for a national championship tournament. Competition 3 (C3) is the overseas tour for the final group selected for representative duty. An investigation of the content of the program indicates that little, if any, physical development takes place. Endurance qualities are trained as are speed development units but there is little evidence that TSS, TSStab and TSROM are trained. Nearly eight months are allocated to tactical and competition specific tasks which is a 75% commitment.

COMPETITION 1 C2 C3

Comp Comp Preparation Preparation

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An examination of the typical Little Athletics annual competition calendar (Table 22) indicates a six­month competition campaign starting in September and ending in late March. There is also a winter championship sited in mid­July. With over 50% of the year available for competition, there is the temptation for coaches to concentrate solely on a ‘competition specific’ environment for the young athlete. The key to avoiding this temptation is for the coach to thoroughly examine the content of the training program and ensure that the correct balance is delivered.

Table 22 ~ A Typical Australian Little Athletics Annual Calendar

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Phase

Training the physical qualities of the developing athlete must be consistent and continuous throughout their development. Determining when to train is the responsibility of all adults who are connected to the athlete. In too many cases there are conflicts of time management as several agencies compete for the athlete’s contribution to events, competitions and teams all at the same time.

“Ongoing communication must take place between all these agencies to determine the cumulative load being placed on the young athlete. An integrated approach must be concluded so that a well balanced program is delivered to the athlete.” (Giles, 1995­2001)

It may not be possible for the athlete to have a ‘stand alone’ strength and conditioning program due to the restraint of time, particularly when issues such as academic commitments play their role. Consequently, coaches need to be competent at weaving the physical component into the skill component of the training session as well as designing the ‘stand alone’ system. It must also be understood that not all schools or clubs will be able to provide the facility for sophisticated exercise development and the coach in these circumstances may have to provide guidance to home based training sessions and / or use their initiative to create an effective program. If an athlete is encouraged to ‘go to the local gym’ the coach must ensure that the correct program is undertaken and fully supervised. Developing a relationship with a local gym where interested personnel can exchange ideas on LTAD can be effective. The coach must put the gym under scrutiny before letting the athlete attend.

Competition > > Competition

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Assembling the Annual Program ­ The Early Years of High School

STAGE ONE

The coach must ensure a full evaluation of the athlete’s training history and maturation stage prior to designing the long term training program. This exercise is enhanced by medical and biomechanical screening conducted by qualified and experienced physiotherapists. As an additional control the coach should conduct a series of physical competency tests to determine the movement vocabulary of the athlete.

Once the athlete’s maturation status and ‘training age’ is established the coach must then weave the training requirements into the academic commitments for the year (Table 23). At this point the coach must have a clear understanding of both the developmental and academic structures involved so that it will be an easier task to determine an appropriate competition schedule for the individual. Our responsibility as adults is to coordinate these competing demands into a training system that satisfies all the needs of the developing athlete.

Table 23 ~ Example of Major Exam / Study Periods for 15­16 year old students: Australian Schools System.

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Study

STAGE TWO

With this basic academic information in place the coach can make the decision on the major competition structure of the year bearing in mind that 75% of the athletes year should be spent in preparation and 25% spent in competition specific training or competition itself (Table 24). In this example Competition 1 indicates a weekly league structure. Competition 2 indicates a Championship tournament and Competition 3 indicates the most advanced competition of the year for the representative athlete.

Table 24 ~ The Competition Phases of the Year: Australian Schools Example

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Phase

This first round of investigation should give the coach a clear overview of the available training year (Table 25).

Table 25 ~ The Competition and Exam / Study Periods of the Year

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Study

Phase

Comp 1 2 3

Comp 1 2 3

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The scheduling of training units and training phases must be flexible enough to allow for the academic structures to remain attainable for the athlete. Where preparation and competition cycles coincide with academic study and examination periods there must be a careful integration. A less regimented period of training during the academic periods is recommended in which the young athlete will be asked to maintain the physical qualities already gained rather than commit to advancing the training.

STAGE THREE

The coach can now consider the training phases for the development of physical qualities in light of the overall needs of the athlete both physically and academically (Table 26).

The January to late March period sees the emphasis on general training (Anatomical Adaptation and General Strength) concentrating on Total Structural Strength, Total Structural Stability and Total Structural Flexibility. The pre­competitive phase in late March and through the early weeks of the league competition sees the emphasis shifting to sport specific activities. Throughout most of the competition schedule training gains are maintained. Following a rest / transition break in early June a similar cycle of work is repeated in the second part of the year leading up to the short championship period in October. Again the championship period is used as a specific strength cycle for those going on to the major overseas competition in late November / early December. A rest / transition phase follows the main championship period before the general training recommences in January.

Table 26 ~ Combining Academic, Competition and Training Commitments

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Study

Phase

Training Phase

TSS / TSStab TSROM / TBA

Pre Comp toEarly Comp

Maintain T TSS / TSStab TSROM / TBA

Pre Comp toEarly Comp

Maintain T

Key: Comp ­ Competition; Pre­Comp ­ Pre Competition; T = Transition; TBA ­ Total Body Awareness; TSROM ­ Total Structural Range of Motion; TSS ­ Total Structural Strength; TSStab ­ Total Structural Stability

In this way the players identified as having the potential to make the major competition phase of late November to early December will have spent up to 32 weeks (61%) in Preparation, 5 weeks in Transition / Regeneration (10%) and 15 weeks in Competition (28%). This rhythm will give some chance to developing the physical qualities for later advancement. With this selection of phases and training content the players can look forward to a profitable Training to Compete stage of their careers.

Regardless of how one manipulates the competition period the coach has one primary decision to make. How much ‘general’ training should the athlete be exposed to, compared to ‘specific’ training? (see Table 27) The coach must make the conscious decision to consolidate all aspects of general training before moving the emphasis to specific work. The longer the athlete spends on permanently developing a reservoir of skilled movement, structural strength, stability and flexibility the more effective will be the adaptation to specific work later in their training life.

Comp 1 2 3

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Table 27 ~ Training Content: The Main Issue ­ Using General and Specific Training Ratios

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Study

Phase

In the January to March period the emphasis is on general training aspects at a ratio of at least 8:1. In other words the coach will allocate general sessions and exercises eight times more frequently than specific ones. This ratio alters to 4:1 during the competition period but the emphasis is still on general adaptation.

STAGE FOUR

The coach can now begin to rationalise all the information on strength training and complete a detailed overview of the design of the program. The training / maturation age of the athlete forms the reference point for this decision­making as described below.

Table 28 ~ Suggested Model for Introductory Strength Training ­ Years 1 & 2: The Training to Train Stage (adapted and modified from Bompa, 1993a)

Phase Preparation Competition Type of Strength Anatomical Adaptation TSS/TSStab/TSROM

TBA Maintenance

Muscle Groups Primarily Multi­Joint Multi­joint continued

Load Technical Development Early load levels

Rep Range 10­15 10­12

Set Range 2­3 2

Tempo Slow­Medium Medium­Fast

Rest 30 sec­2 min 30 sec­2 min

Sessions/Wk 2­3 2­3 2

Key: TSROM ­ Total Structural Range of Motion; TSS ­ Total Structural Strength; TSStab ­ Total Structural Stability

Note: Load in this case refers to the height of boxes, weight of medicine balls, distance traveled, speed of movement and complexity of the exercise.

Comp 1 3 2

General to Specific 8:1

General to Specific 4:1

General to Specific 8:1

General to Specific 4:1

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Table 29 ~ Suggested Model for Introductory Strength Training ­ Years 3 & 4: The Training to Train Stage (adapted and modified from Bompa, 1993a)

Phase Preparation Competition Type of Strength Anatomical

Adaptation TSS/TSStab/TSROM TBA

Power Maintenance

Muscle Groups

Multi­Joint Multi­joint continued

Load (% RM)

25­50 To 50­60% of bodyweight

30­50

Rep Range 10­15 10­12 6­8

Set Range 2­3 3­4 3­4

Tempo Slow–Medium Slow Fast

Rest 30 sec­2 min 1­2 2­5

Sessions/Wk 2­3 2­3 2 2

Key: TSROM ­ Total Structural Range of Motion; TSS ­ Total Structural Strength; TSStab ­ Total Structural Stability

Note: Loading in Table 29 encompasses all variables outlined previously in Table 28 and also includes exposure to external loading up to the levels one must seek to achieve in the Competency Tables (Tables 52 and 53).

STAGE FIVE

The coach can now divide the training phases into individual weeks of activity making sure that all aspects of the athlete’s life are incorporated into the final training system. With consultation taking place between all agencies concerned (parents, team coaches, school teachers) a low intensity cycle of work should be organised incorporating all sporting commitments (Table 30). A higher intensity training week can be considered for those athletes with several years training experience (Table 31).

Table 30 ~ Low Intensity Training Week ­ Early Training to Train Stage (adapted from Bompa, 1993b)

Load Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun

High

Medium

Light

Low

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Table 31 ~ Higher Intensity Training Week ­ Late Training to Train Stage (adapted from Bompa, 1993b)

Load Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun

High

Medium

Light

Low

STAGE SIX

With the annual program now structured into designated phases and each phase organised into training weeks the individual training sessions can be determined. Each low intensity week can be organised with the individual training sessions detailed with reference to exercise selection and load development. The suggested exercise streams now come into their own as they are scrutinised and woven into the fabric of the program.

The important task now for the coach is to carefully balance the intensities found in the different exercise streams. As a rule it is likely that the young athlete will recover quite quickly (within 12­24 hours) after general training activities e.g. bodyweight exercise, general games and endurance activities. The same cannot be said of activities of a speed and power nature. Recovery after activities such as intensive speed, agility, fast jumping and explosive strength exercises can take significantly more than 24 hours, often in excess of 48 hours.

This differing recovery rate for certain exercise choices must be woven into the program and will play a significant part in the design of the weekly program. In addition to the strong recommendation that the young athlete not be placed under any unreasonable intensity of training, it is still worthwhile to ensure that an adequate period of time elapses between certain physical activities.

Table 32 illustrates a well balanced weekly program where the more explosive, ‘fast strength’ exercises (speed, fast jumping, etc.) are given 48 hours recovery before repeating. The example is based upon sessions incorporating two or three components with the coach weaving technical and tactical training with physical training, typical of most field / court training models. This is suitable for the late Training to Train stage.

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Table 32 ~ Planning the Week: Balancing the Intensity of Training ­ The Late Training to Train Stage / Early Training to Compete Stage (adapted from Bompa, 1993a)

Day Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun

Training Type

Technique

General Speed

Fast Jumping / Throwing

Tactical

General Strength

General Endurance

Technique

General Speed

Fast Jumping / Throwing

General Strength

Technique

General Endurance

General Strength

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Assembling the Training Sessions

(1) The Exercise Streams (Giles & Penfold, 1993­97)

With the early training stages directed at developing all­round athleticism the coach must draw the selected exercises from a variety of ‘streams’. These exercise continuums not only progress from simple to complex and unloaded to loaded throughout the entire development pathway, but they are integrated with each other for optimum effect.

The streams recommended here cover the entire spectrum of movement and form the progressive building blocks needed for future sport specific motion. The compact disks accompanying this manual contain the progressive development of:

• Stability (Special Bracing, Horizontal, Vertical and Dynamic) • Flexibility (Upper Body, Lower Body) • Squat (Double Leg and Single Leg) • Clean • Lunge (Simple Lunge, Walking Lunge and 360 Lunge) • Step Up (Alternate Leg, Same Leg, High Knee and Lateral) • Jumping (Fundamentals, Horizontal and Vertical) • Running Fundamentals (Flexibility and Drills) • Acceleration Fundamentals (Posture Exercises, Starting

Positions) • Agility Fundamentals (Short Distance and Long Distance Drills) • Pushing (Horizontal and Vertical) • Pulling (Horizontal and Vertical) • Trunk (Special Bracing, Flexion, Extension and Rotation) • Shoulder Stability and Control • Medicine Ball Exercises (Upper Body, Lower Body and Trunk) • General Movement Development (Hip, Trunk and Shoulder

Strength; Tumbling and Vaulting)

Stability (Tables 60­62)

One can consider that the Stability stream is the DNA of all athletic movement. It allows the body to efficiently give and receive force in all required forms and directions without negative distortion of the body shape or function. The stream starts with exercises that activate the deep spinal muscles. Although it is only possible to accurately evaluate the activation of these muscles by using ultra­sound techniques it is vitally important that the athlete be made aware of their existence and attempt to activate them. The Transversus Abdominis is the deepest of these muscles and activation is often described as ‘stopping yourself going to the toilet’. A gentle ‘pulling in’ of the lower abdomen coupled with flattening the back against the floor can activate this muscle group.

The Stability stream offers the opportunity to experience adaptation in horizontal and vertical planes as well as dynamic activities. The intention must be to introduce the physical concept of stability through the horizontal exercises and then to transfer these qualities to the vertical plane.

Examples:

• The athlete can train the body to tolerate static positions such as Front, Back and Side Bridges. Holding these positions for over two minutes with the correct posture can be achieved after consistent exposure over several training phases. The athlete can make this exercise more dynamic by moving certain limbs while holding the correct posture.

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• Vertical Stability can be accomplished statically e.g. gymnastic balance exercises, and dynamically e.g. jump and stick.

Squat (Table 63)

This stream sees the athlete encountering the concept of ankle, knee and hip strength through the use of ‘triple flexion / extension’ exercises. Here the athlete is encouraged to use the ankle joint, knee joint and hip joint in a sequenced action and at the same time ensure that the trunk remains involved and functional. In the formative stages the athlete should become efficient at a basic squat before introducing single leg squats or introducing the Lunge matrix.

Clean (Table 64)

This stream sees the athlete continuing the ‘triple flexion / triple extension’ movement theme. This unique movement can be incorporated in both maximum strength and power development activities in later training stages.

Lunge and Step Up (Tables 65 and 66)

Continuing the ‘triple flexion / extension’ theme, the Lunge and Step Up streams begin the process of transferring weight from one foot to the other in various directions and continues the learning of ‘force reduction’.

Jumping (Tables 67­69)

So many physical activities include the derivatives of a simple jump whether this is from one or two feet. All jumping involves some form of competence in all the other streams as well as the learned ability to both take off and land. Starting with stability and both concentric and eccentric muscle action, jumping develops through to the ‘plyometric’ actions of elastic and reactive strength allowing such qualities as acceleration and agility to be optimised. The important issue is to ensure that the jumping stream starts with low intensity exercises and moves slowly and carefully towards higher intensity over a considerable period of time.

Low intensity jumping activities such as skipping can be used quite frequently in the training week as they act as an ideal warm up activity. Other jumping activities, including those from the Fundamental Jumping stream, must be treated with caution. One should look at keeping the number of landings low in the early stages of the program (60–80 landings) and only increase the number when strength and stability have been improved through other streams. In addition it is vital that the height of boxes does not exceed 20cm in the formative periods of jumping development.

Running Fundamentals (Table 70)

This stream introduces the coach to the physical and structural qualities required to efficiently develop a running technique. It is this basic running model that will allow for the development of acceleration, maximum velocity, endurance and agility qualities. Acceleration and Agility (Tables 71 and 72) have their own streams and require fundamental competence in running as well as competencies gained from many other streams. Acceleration fundamentals include an exposure to the required posture and early drills to apply these skills. Agility fundamentals introduce the athlete to ‘first step’ practices as well as both short and long drills.

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Fig 1

Shoulder Stability and Control (Table 73)

This stream allows the athlete to develop and maintain the force production, force reduction and force stabilisation required to execute all sport specific movements of the shoulder and surrounding muscle groups.

Push / Pull (Tables 74­77)

These streams involve an introduction to shoulder stability and proprioception prior to involving the trunk and arms in pushing and pulling exercises. Both horizontal and vertical body positions are encountered in this stream.

General Movement Development (Tables 78 and 79)

This stream is included as means of filling the gap formed by the collapse of movement education at primary and secondary school level. Included in this thread are exercises pertaining to ‘loosening­up’ and general gymnastic movements, both allowing for general athletic development.

To accurately select, place and implement each exercise into the daily session demands that the coach has an understanding of the principles behind exercise selection, and other training variables.

The Trunk (Tables 80 and 81)

This stream provides exercises designed to strengthen the muscles of the abdomen and back in all planes.

Medicine Ball Exercises (Table 82)

The medicine ball can be used in a variety of modes. It can act as an external resistance in the early stages of certain Exercise streams. In addition, if correctly used, it can assist in introducing additional difficulty to the balance and coordination of certain movements. As a more advanced activity it can be used to promote power at an early stage, particularly in throwing actions.

Flexibility (Table 83)

Strength through a full range of motion couples the qualities of movement with force. Flexibility will allow the athlete to learn the correct technique which is imperative during the athletes ‘skill hungry’ years. If the quality of a required movement is reduced it is likely that the athlete will not be able to adapt to a more complex movement required at a later stage of learning. With a lack of flexibility the athlete may be encouraged to import a compensatory movement to overcome the physical challenge facing them. This will inevitably lead to an increased chance of injury. The coach should consider including active, passive and dynamic stretching in the program.

Active Flexibility is where the athlete uses the body’s own muscle contraction to move a joint. (Fig 1 ­ hamstring stretched by hip flexors contracting to raise the leg vertically).

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Passive Flexibility is where an external force (apparatus, bodyweight, a partner) stretches the muscle group. (Fig 2 ­ hamstring stretched by the athlete pulling on a towel).

Dynamic Flexibility is where the muscle group is stretched by an elastic movement or ‘swinging’ action. (Fig 3 ­ hamstring is stretched by the force of the leg swinging forward). This type of flexibility training has some risk to it as much control is needed to stabilise the body while the swinging action is taking place. The intensity of the movement must be kept low so that the muscles involved do not trigger the ‘overstretch reflex’ and cause damage.

(2) Exercise Selection

Exercises are initially selected based upon the needs of the athlete and their developmental age. In the early training stages the quest will be for a general, all­round development of the athlete and as such the exercises will be non­sport specific. The selection of exercises is also based upon the weekly structure of training and the stages of the individual session e.g. warm­ up, main section or supplementary.

Table 33 ~ Check­List for Exercise Selection

Training Stage (Fundamental, Training to Train) Training Phase (Preparation, Competition) Training Week (High Intensity, Low Intensity) Exercise Intensity (Speed v’s Endurance type) Warm­Up Theme Main Exercise Core Exercise Supplementary (From Screening) Warm­Down

The criteria for the selection of secondary or supplementary exercises are predominantly gathered from the initial screenings. With guidance from screening and competence testing, supplementary exercises should be selected on the basis that they:

§ Prevent muscle imbalances § Prevent injury § Provide variety § Suit the training age of the athlete

(3) Other Program Variables

The number of repeats of an exercise (repetitions) and the number of sets of that exercise are variables that can be manipulated for positive effect. The emphasis in the early years of training is on the anatomical adaptation to certain exercise stimulus. For this to take place the number of repetitions is high (15­50). When the athlete progresses to a general strength adaptation phase the repetitions reduce to between 10 and 15. As the pre­competition period unfolds the athlete with several years of training will be in a position to experience the power aspects of the exercise. Here the repetitions will lower even further to between 6 and 8.

Fig 2

Fig 3

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All these variables are linked to the maximum intensity of the given exercise. The closer to the highest intensity of performance the less volume of work is attempted. For example if a young athlete can execute 20 parallel bodyweight squats before losing technique then 20 parallel squats is their maximum (100%). The training load for their training age can therefore be worked out at a percentage of that load as illustrated in Table 34.

Example: Maximum parallel bodyweight squats = 20 (100%) Suggested training load for General Strength phase= 3 sets of 10 repetitions (50%)

Table 34 ~ The Repetitions, Sets, Intensity and Rest Components: Training to Train Stage

QUALITY REPS SETS INTENSITY REST

Power Early T­T: N/A Late T­T: 6­8

3­4 30­40% 2­5 min

General Strength Early T­T:10­15 Late T­T: 10­12 3­4 50­60% 1­2 min

Strength Endurance / Anatomical Adaptation

Early T­T: 15­50 Late T­T: 15­50 2­3 0­50% 30 sec – 2 min

Key: N/A – Not Applicable; T­T ­ Training to Train

(a) Number of Exercises

The number of exercises selected will have a direct effect on the overload placed on the body

§ General training should focus on one or two exercises from each stream. § Hypertrophy or endurance training may require more exercises.

(b) Order of Exercises

Fatigue, training intensity, energy demands and training systems influence exercise sequence. There are many methods of organising the training session including:

• exercise from large to small muscle groups, • alternate upper and lower body exercises, • complex before simple exercises.

(c) Speed of Exercises

During the early stages of training it is mandatory to ensure that technique is mastered and permanently cemented in the young athlete’s movement vocabulary. To assist in this learning function, exercises should be done, where possible, at a slow pace. This control in the speed of

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the exercise will allow accuracy in technique and give the coach a better chance of seeing and correcting faults.

The tempo or speed of the exercise is the speed that the exercise is executed for the different stages of the movement. To assist in the learning phase of the exercise it is wise to have a slow tempo in both the eccentric and concentric phases of the movement.

Example: 3 x 10 Swiss Ball Wall Squat (Tempo 323) This means that the athlete lowers for 3 seconds, pauses at the low point for 2 seconds and takes 3 seconds to stand back up.

(d) Session Management

Perhaps one of the most important issues is the organisation and management of the training session. With the safe development of the athlete being paramount it is important to ensure that the coach can actually ‘coach’ the individual during the session.

“Faults must be discovered and corrected early. If there is no immediate feedback for the athlete, there is considerable risk of stabilization of faults.” (Dick, 1980)

Assembling large numbers of athletes in unsupervised training environments is not appropriate to either quality progression or safety. Training progress can be more easily monitored if the group numbers are kept small. Every athlete has the right to receive some individual coaching.

(e) Developing the Stand­Alone Strength Session

The following information is essential when planning and designing the training session. The process described below is an illustration of how the example training programs (Tables 40­42) were assembled.

The session should be organised to include:

(a) Warm Up (b) Main Exercises (c) Supplementary Exercises (Individual Prescription) (d) Core Exercises (e) Warm Down

(f) Warm Up (see Table 40)

The aim of the warm up is to increase muscle temperature and at the same time stimulate neural activity. This will go a long way to reducing the risk of injury.

The warm up also offers the athlete additional adaptation to selected exercise streams and at the same time prepares the body for the rest of the session. To effect this, the coach can consider organising the warm up into ‘themes’ where the collective warm up delivers practice and progression towards important adaptation. These ‘themes’ can be coupled together to form more comprehensive routines (see Table 35).

The warm up should be organised into at least five sections:

• Low level aerobic activity to raise muscle temperature • General Loosening • Stretching

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• Chosen Theme (Movement, Running, Activation etc.) • Sports Specific Drills

Table 35 ~ Example Warm­Up Themes

General Movement Theme

Running Theme Activation Theme

Aim: to develop a movement vocabulary including balance, coordination, proprioception and control. Improves dynamic mobility and body awareness. Acts as a series of loosening and stability exercises.

Aim: to develop reactive strength alongside the development of running mechanics. Improves dynamic mobility and body awareness.

Aim: to activate certain primary muscles or muscle groups prior to main exercise routines. Ensures correct sequence of muscle recruitment.

Exercises: multi­ directional rolls, balancing, cartwheels, connected movement sequences, crawling combinations.

Exercises: skipping, jumping, mini­band walking, walk­lunge, dynamic flexibility, Mach drills, hip mobility, acceleration runs.

Exercises: Hips & gluteus: gluteus activation, mini­band walks, single leg bridging, overhead squats with broomstick, single leg box squats Shoulders & back: scapula retraction / protraction, wall angels, reverse flys, partial chins.

(g) The Stretching Process

As a general rule, you may wish to use the following process when putting together a stretching routine (Appleton, 1999):

• Stretch your back (upper and lower) first • Stretch your sides after stretching your back • Stretch your buttocks before stretching your groin or your hamstrings • Stretch your calves before stretching your hamstrings • Stretch your shins before stretching your quadriceps (if you do shin stretches) • Stretch your arms before stretching your chest

(h) Main Exercises (see Table 40)

These are the exercises chosen for their primary benefit to Total Structural and Functional Strength requirements and usually include upper and lower body selections.

Example: 2 x 12 Squats ­ Back Barbell (Broomstick) (Technique only) 2 x 1 Lunge 360 2 x 12 Push Ups ­ One Leg Up 2 x 12 Pull­Ups ­ Lying Full Range

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(i) Supplementary Exercises (Individual Prescription) (see Table 40)

These exercises are a reflection of the information gleaned from the screening process and are chosen to strengthen, lengthen or stabilise selected muscle groups. In these examples one can assume that the athlete has a right leg weakness (Single Leg Box Squats), and a lack of scapula control (Scapula Retraction / Protraction).

Example: 2 x 10 Swiss Ball Single Leg Wall Squat (R­Leg) 2 x 10 Back Reverse Flys ­ Lying static hold

(j) Core Exercises (see Table 40)

These exercises are primarily designed to train the muscle groups of the trunk, hips, gluteus, shoulder and back as they work to stabilise the body in a complete kinetic chain.

Example: 2 x 60 sec Front Bridge ­ 3P Hands Leg Up 2 x 60 sec Side Bridge ­ Forearm Star (L&R) 2 x 15 Medicine Ball Rotations ­Standing Long ­ Slow

(k) Warm Down (see Table 40)

The warm­down is the start of the recovery that will be essential to ensure higher quality levels for the next training session. It involves removing the waste products of exercise and the re­ fuelling of the body’s fuel stores.

One object of the warm­down is to raise the metabolic rate and encourage the removal of waste products from the system. In this way the athlete may reduce the amount of muscular soreness that may occur. Some light jogging, fast walking or stationary cycling can be effective.

Young athletes should re­hydrate with water following the session and consider the replacement of glycogen. The athletes personalised flexibility program is re­visited to allow further adaptation in flexibility. The working muscle will need to be lengthened again after training, especially after moderate to heavy intensity.

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The Complexity of the Exercise Streams

In the early stages of program construction it is advised that teachers and coaches carefully consider the relationship between the individual exercise streams. Although it is recommended that individual streams are viewed in their entirety before making any decisions on the starting point, the coach must have a long term aim to see ALL streams as being inter­dependent.

Experience over a number of years of coaching will arm the coach with a reservoir of knowledge that allows them to predict the influence of one stream on another. Indeed, some streams are constructed in such a way that they contain certain exercises that act as catalysts for the introduction of others.

For example, as the athlete progresses along the Pushing stream, using the Push Up matrix, they will arrive at a competence that will allow the Bench Press to be considered. In many cases today we see athletes encouraged to Bench Press as an immediate pushing exercise, in some cases the only pushing exercise. Making this poor exercise choice takes away the opportunity of the athlete obtaining competence in shoulder stability, horizontal stability and basic arm strength through the Push Up matrix BEFORE attempting the Bench Press.

In this example sequence (Table 36) the athlete first assembles some competence and awareness of shoulder function and control before beginning the Push Up process. The Horizontal Stability stream makes a contribution to the posture required in the Push Up. As competence progresses it may offer the opportunity to use the Bench Press or other pushing exercises in the program

Table 36 ~ Earning the ‘Physical Right’ to Progress ­ Shoulder to Stability to Push Up to Bench Press Sequences (from Tables 60­83)

01 Protraction – Retraction

02 Wall Angel

03 DB Internal – External Rotation

04 Chair Press

05 Push Up Press

06 Reverse Flys

01 Standing Wall Push Ups

02 Incline Push Ups

03 Modified Push Up – Knees

04 Push Up – Standard

05 Push Up – Wide

06 Push Up – Close

07 Push Up – Multi­ Position

08 Push Up MB Uneven

15 Bench Press Standard

16 Bench Press Wide Grip

17 Bench Press Close Grip

01 Front Bridge – 4 Point Forearms

02 Front Bridge – 4 Point Hands

Stability Shoulder

Push Up

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Multiple influences

As the program progresses it is likely that the answers to problems encountered in one stream can be found in other streams.

The Vertical Stability stream, along with certain aspects of the Trunk stream, has a very close affinity to the Fundamental section of the Jumping stream. The Horizontal Stability stream offers a simple way to allow the athlete to ‘feel’ stable along the entire kinetic chain from toes to shoulders. This ‘learning’ allows the Vertical Stability stream to be accomplished with some degree of competence as the athlete brings the previously learned ‘control’ skills into the new stream.

The same can be said of the middle stages of the Lunge stream where the athlete learns the fundamentals of transferring weight from one foot to the other. Competence learned from the Fundamentals of Jumping again arm the athlete with movement skills that support the learning of the Lunge. These exercises add support to the development of Dynamic Vertical Stability – a prerequisite to all field and court sports.

And so the integration goes on. Experienced coaches are those individuals who have given considerable thought to the long term development of their athlete. By gaining experience in all the exercise streams and not focussing solely on ‘getting a result’, the coach is more able to see solutions to problems. Sometimes an answer to a slow adaptation in one stream is found in another stream and vice­versa.

Table 37 ~ The Influence of Multiple Streams on a Physical Competence

Some exercise streams complete their role and then other exercises take over the maintenance of their characteristics. Table 38 illustrates the evolution of the Stability stream through to competence in Vertical Stability. This competence assists the adaptation to the skills of the

Dynamic Vertical Stability

Horizontal Stability

Vertical Stability

Squat

Jumping

Step Up

Lunge Trunk

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Squat and Lunge streams. The Squat and Lunge streams, particularly the Overhead Squat and Overhead Lunge matrices, continue the development of Vertical Stability in a new setting.

Table 38 ~ The Transfer of Exercise Characteristics

Developing the ‘Physical Qualities to do the Technical Stuff’ is illustrated in Table 39 where the development of all­round physical competence, from a variety of integrated exercise regimes, arms the athlete with the ‘tools’ to commit to improving agility. In this long term strategy the athlete can arrive at the point where they have the required physical qualities to embark upon training speed, agility and quickness. Contemplating any improvement in these traits without the physical competence to execute them is a short term and often pointless exercise.

Horizontal Stability

Vertical Stability

Squat

Double Leg

Single Leg

Lunge

Simple

Walking

360º

Continuation of Vertical Stability

Competence

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Table 39 ~ Giving the Athlete the Physical Tools to Develop Agility

Structural Strength Structural Stability Structural Flexibility

• Hip Multi­directional Strength

• Leg Multi­directional Strength

• Multi­plane stability • Multi­plane force

production • Multi­plane force

reduction • Double Leg efficiency • Single Leg efficiency • Transfer of weight

efficiency • Trunk stability • Trunk force production • Trunk force reduction • Range of motion

efficiency

Field & Court

AGILITY

Stability Stream

Jumping Stream

Squat Stream

Lunge Stream

Clean Stream

Flexibility Stream

Step Up Stream

Trunk Stream

Running Mechanics

Acceleration Fundamentals

Agility Fundamentals

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Example Training Programs

On the following pages are three examples (Tables 40­42) of how programs can be constructed using the variables available to the coach.

To facilitate movement learning it is recommended that in the early stages of training the athlete moves at a slow speed for certain exercises. In the Squat, Lunge, Pushing, Pulling and Stability streams the emphasis should be on slow movements. In exercises such as those in the Jumping streams the movements, although dynamic, will be conducted in a controlled manner with a focus on landing competence in the first instance. Establishing the speed of the exercise will focus the young athlete on the sequenced technique of the required movement.

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Table 40 ~ Example Training Program: Field / Court Sports for the Early Training to Train Stage (11­12 years). Early Preparation Phase. (Giles & Penfold, 1993­1997)

Exercise Tempo Rest Sets Reps Notes Selected Stream Warm Up

Movement Theme Skipping ­ Standard and Lateral Moderate 30 sec 2 60 sec Warm up muscles Jumping (Vertical) Flexibility Active 2 30 sec Upper Body, Lower Body Flexibility Pike Walk Controlled wb 2 10 m Body awareness, flexibility, coordination, loosening General Movement Forward Roll to Jump Controlled wb 2 10 m Body awareness, flexibility, coordination, loosening General Movement Cartwheels ­ Standard Controlled wb 2L 2R 10 m Body awareness, flexibility, coordination, loosening General Movement

Running Theme Mini­Band Walks ­ Fwd & Back Controlled wb 3 10 m Gluteus activation Stability (Dynamic) Tuck Jumps ­ Pause Controlled wb 3 10 Gluteus activation Jumping (Vertical) Hurdle Mobility Walks ­ Level 2 Controlled wb 3 10 m Hip function, hip flexibility, Running Fundamentals Running Fundamentals Main Squat ­ Back Barbell 323 1 min 2 12 Technique Development ­ Leg / Hip / Trunk

strength Squat

Lunge 360 ­ Bodyweight 131 1 min 2 1 Leg / Hip strength, balance Lunge Push Up ­ Leg Up 212 1 min 2 12 Arm / Chest strength, trunk strength, stability Pushing (Horizontal) Pull Ups ­ Lying Full Range 121 1 min 2 12 Shoulder strength, trunk stability Pulling (Horizontal) Supplementary – based upon screening results from Physiotherapy Swiss Ball SL Wall Squat 323 1 min 2 10 Leg strength, flexibility, balance, gluteus activation Squat Back Reverse Flys ­ Lying Static Hold 323 1 min 2 10 Shoulder function Shoulder Core Front Bridge ­ 3P Hands Leg Up Static 1 min 2 60 sec Horizontal stability Stability (Horizontal) Side Bridge ­ Forearm Star Static 1 min 2 60 sec Horizontal stability Stability (Horizontal) Medicine Ball Rotation ­ Standing Long ­ Slow

Slow 1 min 2 15 Trunk strength, Vertical Stability Trunk (Rotation)

Warm Down Flexibility routine Passive 1 ­ 2 60 sec Upper and Lower Body Flexibility

Note: The exercises selected in this program can be found in their specific streams (Tables 60­83)

Key: 3P ­ 3 Point; Fwd ­ Forward; L ­ Left; m ­ metre; R ­ Right; SL­ Single Leg; wb ­ Walk Back

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Table 41 ~ Example Training Program: The Integrated Training Session for Field / Court Sports for the Early Training to Train Stage (11­12 years). Early Preparation Phase (Giles & Penfold, 1993­1997)

Exercise Tempo Rest Sets Reps Notes Selected Stream Warm Up

Movement Theme Skipping ­ Alternate High Knees and Double Leg Square

Fast Skip 30 sec 2 60 sec Warm up muscles Jumping (Vertical)

Flexibility Active 2 30 sec Upper Body, Lower Body Flexibility Spiderman Walk Controlled wb 2 10 m Body awareness, flexibility, coordination, loosening General Movement Backward Roll ­ Continuous Controlled wb 2 10 m Body awareness, flexibility, coordination, loosening General Movement Cartwheels ­ Standard Controlled wb 2L 2R 10 m Body awareness, flexibility, coordination, loosening General Movement

Running Theme Hurdle Mobility Walk ­ Level 3 Controlled wb 3 10 m Hip function, hip flexibility, Running Fundamentals Running Fundamental Ankling Drill ­ Level 1 Slow wb 3 10 m Ankle function, Running Fundamentals Running Fundamental Mach A Drill ­ Level 1 Slow wb 2 20 m Hip function, hip flexibility, Running Fundamentals Running Fundamental Main Session

Sport Specific Unit 15­20min Acceleration Runs ­ Rollover Start 100% 3­6 min 2 3 Running technique Acceleration Fundamentals

Sport Specific Unit 10­15min Squat ­ Hands Behind Head 323 1 min 3 10 Leg / Hip / Trunk strength Squat Push Up ­ Leg Up 212 1 min 2 10 Arm / Chest strength, trunk strength, stability Pushing (Horizontal) Pull Ups ­ Lying Full Range Controlled 1 min 2 12 Arm / Chest strength, trunk strength, stability Pulling (Horizontal)

Sport Specific Unit 5­10min. 4 v 4 small sided games Core Front Bridge 3P Hands ­ Leg Up Static 1 min 2 60 sec Horizontal stability Stability (Horizontal) Side Bridge ­ Forearm Star Static 1 min 2 60 sec Horizontal stability Stability (Horizontal) Medicine Ball Rotation ­ Standing Long ­ Slow

Slow 1 min 2 15 Trunk strength, Vertical Stability Trunk (Rotation)

Warm Down Flexibility Passive 1­2 30 sec Upper Body, Lower Body Flexibility

Note: The exercises selected in this program can be found in their specific streams (Tables 60­83)

Key: 3P ­ 3 Point; L ­ Left; m ­ metre; R ­ Right; wb ­ Walk Back;

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Table 42 ~ Example Training Program: Field / Court Sports for the Late Training to Train Stage (14­15 years). Early Preparation Phase. (Giles & Penfold, 1993­1997)

This example illustrates the continued commitment to bodyweight exercises and the introduction of the teaching of some primary lifts.

Exercise Tempo Rest Sets Reps Notes Selected Stream Warm Up

Movement Theme Skipping ­ Single Leg Standard and Lateral

Fast Skip 30 sec 2 45 sec Warm up muscles Jumping (Vertical)

Flexibility Active 1 30 sec Upper Body, Lower Body Flexibility Backward Roll to 180º Jump Controlled wb 2 5 Body awareness, flexibility, coordination, loosening General Movement Bench Vault ­ Continuous Controlled wb 2 10 Body awareness, flexibility, coordination, loosening General Movement Commando Rolls Controlled wb 2 10 m Body awareness, flexibility, coordination, loosening General Movement

Running Theme Hurdle Mobility Walk ­ Level 4 Controlled 1 min 2 10 m Hip function, hip flexibility, Running Fundamentals Running Fundamentals Wall Sprint ­ Level 3 Fast 1 min 2 10 Running posture / action Running Fundamentals Ankling Drill ­ Level 2 Fast 1 min 2 20 m Running posture / action Running Fundamentals Mach A Drill ­ Level 3 Fast 1 min 2 20 m Running posture / action Running Fundamentals Main Squat ­ Back Barbell 323 2 min 2 10 50­60% Bwt, Leg / hip strength Squat Hurdle Hops ­ Continuous Fast 1 min 2 10 Leg / hip eccentric ­ concentric fast strength Jumping (Vertical) Push Up ­ MB Cross Over Slow 2 min 2 10 Arm / Chest strength, trunk strength, stability Pushing (Horizontal) Chin Ups ­ Medium Grip 022 2 min 3 5 Arm / Shoulder strength, trunk stability Pulling (Vertical) Supplementary Two Way Band Routine Controlled 30 sec 2 10 Shoulder function Shoulder Stability Core Side Bridge ­ Forearm Star MB Catch and Pass

Controlled 1 min 2 60 sec Horizontal stability Stability (Horizontal)

SL Squat ­ MB Pass Controlled 1 min 2 10 Leg strength, flexibility, balance, gluteus activation Stability (Vertical) Barbell Rotation ­ Standing Long Controlled 1 min 2 10 Trunk strength, Vertical Stability Trunk (Rotation) Warm Down Flexibility Passive 1­2 30 sec Upper Body, Lower Body Flexibility

Note: The exercises selected in this program can be found in their specific streams (Tables 60­83)

Key: m ­ metre; MB ­ Medicine Ball; SL ­ Single Leg; wb ­ Walk Back;

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Progression

“Let them adapt before moving them forward.” (Giles, 1997­2001)

It is intended that by the end of the Fundamental and Training to Train stages the athlete should have developed a level of competence across all streams. Progress must be measured in both skill and physical development. Any athlete progressing quickly along the pathway of these streams should be encouraged to spend more time on consolidating this stage and / or concentrating on more skill development rather than advancing too quickly into the ‘Training to Compete’ stage.

It is inherent in this scheme that all athletes pass through the Fundamental stage of development, regardless of their chronological age, before attempting the routines and systems of the Training to Train stage. A gradual and broad introduction and progression during the early training stages will enable a more rapid progression in the later training years. Coaches must ensure that they are not responsible for limiting a young athlete’s long term development.

It is recommended therefore that coaches do not choose the chronological age of the athlete as a measure of which stage they are at. Coaches are encouraged to allow the developing athlete to experience an adaptation to the Fundamental exercise system to establish their competence level.

Progress through this series of exercises is achieved by the athlete having a permanent adaptation to each exercise before moving it forward to more complex, faster or more loaded situations. The vital issue is that each exercise has a foundation of technique that MUST BE MASTERED FIRST AND FOREMOST. It is of no use advancing an exercise without guaranteeing technical competence. For example there are many young athletes who can do many conventional push ups but they often do them with poor trunk and shoulder stability. Simply doing more and more of these poor push ups will do little to aid long term development. Any errors conceived at a young age will be carried forward into exercises with much more loading later on. This can result in injury, inefficient skill execution and limitations to future maximum strength development.

This foundation period of technique development is essential for the athlete to develop the appropriate ‘body awareness’ that allows them to feel ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ movement patterns. This is a learned motor ability and as such it is of no value to rush the young athlete through the technical development stage. Arriving at a later training stage without securing body awareness will negatively influence technical development. The later training stages, where more complex and sports specific adaptations are required, demand the mastery of body awareness.

Exercises should progress carefully through the following platforms:

The Guide to Progression: ‘Earn the right!’ (Giles, 1999­2001)

• Static to Dynamic • Slow to Fast • Simple to Complex • Unloaded to Loaded • Long Contacts to Short Contacts

Each exercise stream is introduced from a teaching / learning point of view where the athlete is given the Main Coaching Issues in a closed environment. The exercise is usually introduced statically or certainly at a slow pace. As the athlete becomes more competent the coach has the

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ability to develop the exercise using a variety of techniques. For example, in the case of learning a squat, the exercise begins with a double leg static wall squat and progresses as follows:

o Double Leg Swiss Ball wall squat to 90º ­ static hold o Double Leg Swiss Ball wall squat to 90º ­ dynamic o Increase repetitions o Add external load (medicine ball) o Double Leg Swiss Ball wall squat to full range o Increase repetitions o Add external load (medicine ball) o Free standing double leg squat to 90º o Increase repetitions o Add external load (medicine ball) o Free standing double leg squat full range o Increase repetitions o Add external load (medicine ball) o Increase repetitions o Add barbell o Increase repetitions o Increase speed of movement

The development of physical qualities must be seen as a task equal in importance to the development of technique and tactics. It is recommended that physical development stays one step ahead of skill development so as to allow the athlete the strength and stability to maximise the learning of the correct technique. To do this requires a commitment of time which is often at a premium. Coaches must consider the integration of the development of physical qualities into the normal skill training session.

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Table 43 ~ Progression Sequence: Warm­Up Exercises (Running Theme) from Table 40: Example Training Program: Field / Court Sports for the Early Training to Train Stage (11­12 years). Early Preparation Phase.

Exercise Mini­Band Walks

(Forward and Backward) Hurdle Mobility Walks ­

Level 2 Tuck Jumps ­ Pause

Gluteus Activation Vertical Stability

From General Development Stream

Initial Gains:

From Lunge and Running Stream Initial Gains:

Hip, Gluteus, Quad & Hamstring Strength

Hip, Adductor & Hamstring Flexibility Gluteus Activation

Dynamic Vertical Stability Running Mechanics

From Jumping Stream Initial Gains:

Elastic Leg Strength Dynamic Vertical Stability Triple Flexion/Extension

Over Several Years Supports the Development of:

All aspects of Controlled Motion Greater Dynamic Stability

Over Several Years Supports the Development of:

All Aspects of Running and Agility Greater Functional Strength & Dynamic

Stability

Over Several Years Supports the Development of:

All Aspects of Running and Agility Explosive Bounding

Plyometrics

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Table 44 ~ Progression Sequence: Main Exercises from Table 40: Example Training Program: Field / Court Sports for the Early Training to Train Stage (11­12 years). Early Preparation Phase.

Exercise Squats ­ Back Barbell Push Up ­ Leg Up

Lunge 360 ­ Bodyweight Pull Ups ­ Lying Full

Range

Hips, Gluteus, Quads & Hamstring Strength

Triple Flexion/Extension Sequence Gluteus Strength

Total Vertical Stability

From Squat Stream Initial Gains:

From Pushing Stream Initial Gains:

Arm/Shoulder/Chest/Trunk Strength Total Horizontal Stability

From Lunge Stream Initial Gains:

Hips, Gluteus, Quads & Hamstring Strength

Gluteus Strength Dynamic Stability Hip Flexibility

Running Efficiency

From Pulling Stream Initial Gains:

Back /Arm/Trunk/Chest/Shoulder Strength

Scapula Control Total Horizontal Stability

Over Several Years Supports the Development of:

BB Back Squat @ 60% x Bodyweight Explosive Jump Squats for Power Development of the Clean Stream

Greater Dynamic Stability

Over Several Years Supports the Development of:

Complex Loaded Push Up Routines Bench Press @ 50% x Bodyweight

Greater Horizontal Stability

Over Several Years Supports the Development of:

Dynamic Loaded 360º Jump Lunge Fast Hurdle Walks

Complex Single Leg Box Jumps Greater Dynamic Stability

Over Several Years Supports the Development of:

Barbell Bench Pull @ 50% x Bodyweight Loaded Chins

Greater Horizontal Stability

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Table 45 ~ Progression Sequence: Supplementary Exercises from Table 40: Example Training Program: Field / Court Sports for the Early Training to Train Stage (11­12 years). Early Preparation Phase.

Note: The selection of the Single Leg Box Squats is based upon a screening report that indicated a weakness in Right Leg function. The right leg should be trained to a greater extent than the left leg (It is important that both legs are trained to ensure muscular balance). The selection of the scapula exercises is based upon a screening report that indicated poor stability and strength in the shoulders / upper back complex.

Exercise Swiss Ball SL Wall Squat Back Reverse Flys ­ Lying

Static Hold

Hip, Gluteus, Quad & Hamstring Strength

Triple Flexion/Extension Sequence Gluteus Activation Hip Function

Balance between L&R Leg Total Vertical Stability

From Squat Stream Initial Gains:

From Pulling Stream Initial Gains:

Shoulder Strength and Function Trunk Stability Back Strength

Over Several Years Supports the Development of:

All Triple Flexion/Extension Requirements Running, Jumping, Bounding

Injury Prevention

Over Several Years Supports the Development of:

All functions of Throwing Activities All aspects of Upper Body Strength

Activities

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Table 46 ~ Progression Sequence: Core Exercises from Table 40: Example Training Program: Field / Court Sports for the Early Training to Train Stage (11­12 years). Early Preparation Phase.

Exercise Front Bridge ­ 3P Hands

Leg Up Side Bridge ­ Forearm Star MB Rotation ­ Standing

Long ­ Slow

Horizontal Stability Body Awareness

Hip, Gluteus, Shoulder and Trunk Static Strength

From Stability Stream Initial Gains:

From Trunk Stream Initial Gains:

Abdominal Strength Trunk Strength Vertical Stability

Over Several Years Supports the Development of:

Vertical & Dynamic Stability Injury Prevention

Over Several Years Supports the Development of:

Trunk and Hip Strength for all Activities Injury Prevention

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Running Fundamentals

Introduction

Speed is an essential component in almost every sport and although a major requirement in activities such as throwing it is more readily desired in running. The development of speed is influenced by both physical and technical qualities. In many circumstances athletes are asked to ‘run faster’ and many coaches include running drills in their training programs. Too often these drills, and other fast running practices, are executed in a state of poor posture and with poor execution. It is highly recommended that coaches of the young athlete encourage the development of the physical qualities required for running before attempting to embark on high speed drills.

One cannot separate running performance production from injury prevention, particularly in the development of running efficiency. Some 90% of all injuries reported are to the lower limbs and the most significant mechanism of injury is running (Price, Hawkins, Hulse and Hodson, 2004). The reasons are probably multifactorial, including neuromuscular fatigue, immaturity of the musculoskeletal and physiological systems and inadequate strength and stability for the desired movement (Price, Hawkins, Hulse and Hodson, 2004).

The Fundamentals

Although it seems to be an easy task to simply conduct a series of running tests to establish running performance (10 to 40m Sprint Tests, Multi­Stage Fitness Test), it is mandatory to establish the basic components of running competence prior to expecting performance increases.

Many athletes exposed to running drills (i.e. ‘Mach’ series) in their formative years do so without fundamental mechanical efficiency. For example the Ankling Drill cannot be effectively executed if ankle flexibility is inadequate. The ‘Tall Hips’ position cannot be held if hip extension is limited or if the gluteus muscles are ineffective. Doing these drills incorrectly will create a long term development problem by memorising incorrect or inefficient movement patterns.

The ability to coordinate the correct movement patterns will have a significant impact on speed development. Initially the mechanics of sprinting will need to be developed at slow­controlled speeds before being transferred to all out maximal running. Any lack of development in Total Structural Strength, Total Structural Stability and Total Structural Flexibility will limit the correct development of speed mechanics. Consequently, physical development needs to slightly precede that of technical development prior to embarking on the function of running speed development. This will ensure that the athlete not only achieves the required technical positions, but holds these positions for the required duration. In sequence, the development of running efficiency should take the following order:

• Establish the physical qualities. • Weave these qualities into straight line running application at moderate speeds. • Transfer these integrated qualities into acceleration and agility activities.

Total Structural Flexibility

Although there are many structural issues at stake it is wise to highlight three anatomical requirements that must be obtained prior to developing running technique.

From the Total Structural Flexibility (ROM) reservoir (see Running Fundamentals CD) the following competence levels are mandatory:

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Ankle Flexibility (Knee to Wall): see Running Fundamentals CD

Test: Against a wall check the distance from the wall of the big toe when the knee is flexed and held against the wall.

Hamstring Raise (Lying Leg Raise): see Running Fundamentals CD

Test: Lying flat, athlete raises a straight leg with foot cocked to best height and holds. Check for any lateral drift or external rotation.

Hip and Quadriceps Flexibility (Thomas Test): see Running Fundamentals CD

Test: Lying on back with hips hanging over edge of bench. Athlete holds one bent knee to chest keeping a flat back posture. Thigh of free leg should be at least horizontal to the ground. Lower limb of free leg should hang down at 90º. There should be no external rotation or lateral drift of the free leg.

Table 47 ~ Required Flexibility Competence for Running Mechanics

Exercise Poor Acceptable Ideal Ankle Flexibility <8 cm 8­11 cm 12­14 cm Lying Hamstring Raise

<80º 80­90º >90º

Thomas Test (1) Thigh raises above horizontal

Thigh a little below horizontal

Thomas Test (2) Lower leg >90º to thigh

Lower leg at 90º to thigh

Thomas Test (3) Back arches External rotation and/or drift of free leg

No external rotation or lateral drift. Back remains flat

Total Structural Strength

Strength plays a number of key roles in running development including the maintenance of correct running posture, the contribution to horizontal propulsion and the ability to handle high ground reaction forces.

The development and progression of the posture required for acceleration is strongly influenced by exercises from the Stability stream. Movement patterns required for the development of the correct running action are found in the Running Fundamentals stream. The desire for faster speeds will be influenced by the strength required to both obtain and maintain these positions and actions. Developing the ability to hold the required positions will minimise loss of force during the running action.

A significant correlation exists between an athlete’s lower body strength (obtained from the Lunge and Squat streams) and their ability to accelerate. This can be explained by Newtons 3 rd

law which states for “every action there is an equal and opposite reaction”. In other words the greater the force applied down and back against the ground during an efficient running stride, the more force will be returned to propel the athlete in a forward direction.

Adequate eccentric strength, gained from the Jumps stream, coupled with the correct posture gained from the Stability stream, is required to handle the high eccentric loading one encounters as a result of the ground reaction forces. If one cannot handle these forces propulsion may be impeded. The better an individual’s eccentric strength the more efficiently

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the body is able to utilise the available forces. The less stable the body is, the more the force­ producing muscles are asked to keep us stable thus, taking them away from their primary task.

Technical Development

Drills play an integral role along the path to improving speed. The introduction, progression and speed of the drills will be dependant on the physical development of the athlete using them. As such, key flexibility, stability and strength issues need to be addressed so as to ensure the correct neuromuscular patterning. Introducing or progressing drills before the athlete is physically ready may result in the development of poor technical models and the potential for injury. These errors may be difficult to correct later in the development continuum. Therefore, just as the use of speed drills may assist in developing good running mechanics, the teaching of incorrect drills can ingrain bad habits. The athlete should only be progressed when they are both physically and technically competent.

The Benefits of Speed Drills

• Crucial in the development of proper running mechanics • Act as exercises that strengthen the hamstring and postural muscles (hips and core)

responsible for good sprint mechanics • Excellent for developing dynamic flexibility • Used to improve:

o muscular strength and power: by sprinting at maximum speed over short distances (10­30 m)

o muscular endurance: by sprinting over longer distances at max speed (30­80m) • Used as a functional assessment of the athletes current readiness for competition or

training o “The athlete feels / looks snappy off the ground” ­ speed session can be of a

high quality o “The athlete feels / looks a little heavy” ­ the training session may need to be

modified o “The athlete feels / looks tight” ­ extra flexibility may be needed before moving

onto the main training aspect

Table 48 illustrates the key drills that should be used for speed development. Although there are numerous other drills it is best to use them either for variety or when trying to address particular individual limitations an athlete may possess.

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Table 48 ~ Speed Drills ­ The Key Drills: see Running Fundamentals CD

Drill Key Physical Qualities Function Progression Ankling Ankle, Calf flexibility and

strength Improve foot strike position

Walk­Jog­Run

Wall Drill Hip, Quad and Gluteus flexibility and strength

Strong and Stable Core

Improve knee lift as a function of effort put into the ground, not by lifting

Walk­Jog­Run

Mach A & B Hip, Quad and Gluteus flexibility and strength

Mobile Shoulder complex Strong and stable Core

Development of posture for maximum speed Improves knee lift Improves hamstring strength (B)

Walk­Jog/Skip­ Run

High Knees Hip, Quad and Gluteus flexibility and strength

Mobile Shoulder complex Strong and stable core

Improves knee lift, recovery leg speed and position

Walk­Jog/Skip­ Run

The Drills

Ankling

This drill isolates the correct placement of the foot on and off the ground. By emphasising a rigid dorsi­flexed (cocked) ankle with the big toe ‘up’, the athlete will be able to make the most efficient contact with the ground.

High Knees

This is a more complex segment of the sprinting action that sees the ‘high knee’ component initiated by the correct positioning of the foot. The Ankling Drill sets up the correct foot position and the High Knee ­ Butt Kick action sees this position continued, as the foot is lifted off the ground and rapidly moved into the next forward stride. The ankle remains dorsi­flexed during the pick up and the athlete attempts to strike the lower gluteus / high hamstring area with the heel. This action makes the knee travel high and the leg to travel very quickly forward due to the now shortened lever. An excellent teaching cue is to encourage the athlete to ‘step over the height of the opposite knee’ during the action.

Mach A

This drill sees the athlete combining both Ankling and High Knee ­ Butt Kick actions into an exercise that coordinates the total body into the action. The athlete will be tested in remaining ‘Tall’ / ‘High Hips’ during the drill. The athlete must continue to ‘step over the height of the opposite knee’ during the action. The height of the knee is influenced by the work off the ground.

Mach B

This a more advanced exercise as it is designed to allow the athlete to express more force ‘down and back’ against the ground. Arguably, the most essential technical component to horizontal propulsion, this drill will demand a high degree of total structural strength and stability so as to ensure that the appropriate technical proficiency is achieved and maintained.

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The drill sees the athlete slightly extend the leg at the knee just before the foot is driven to the ground. This exaggeration of the so called ‘pawing’ action allows the body to develop the ability to both actively ‘pull the foot down and back’ (i.e. pawing), while holding the essential ‘Tall Hips’ running posture.

Drills should be introduced at slow speeds first. Isolating one leg at a time during the learning stage is recommended. The progression up to the faster speeds must be done while maintaining correct positions. The long term aim is perform a high number of repetitions over a given distance. In the table below the drills are described relative to training distances and speeds.

Table 49 ~ Speed Drills – Progression

Drill Progression Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

Ankling Walk 10­20 m. Slow

Jog 20­30 m. Faster

Run 10­20 m. Fastest

Wall Drill Slow Faster Fastest Mach A Walk 10­20 m.

Slow Jog­Skip 20­50 m. Faster

Run 10­30 m. Fastest

Mach B Walk 10­20 m. Slow

Jog­Skip 20­50 m. Faster

Run 10­30 m. Fastest

High Knees Walk 10­20 m. Slow

Jog­Skip 20­50 m. Faster

Run 10­30 m. Fastest

Table 50 outlines how Speed Drills may be integrated and progressed within the physical development program. In this way the running fundamentals can be developed and progressed in an easy to follow method. Although 5­10 m sprints do occur in the early stages, the focus is on developing fundamental strength, flexibility and movement precision.

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Table 50 ~ Speed and Agility Development Stream – An Integrated Program

Level Continuum Drills and Posture

1 Ankling ­ Walking Lunge Matrix 5­10 m Sprints Early stage Agility drills

2 Ankling ­ Jogging Wall Drill ­ Slow (position & pause) Mach Drill A (Slow & controlled) Mach Drill B (Slow & controlled) 5­20 m Sprints Early stage Agility drills

3 Ankling ­ Running Wall Drill ­ Faster speed (position & speed) Mach Drill A (Faster speed & control) Mach Drill B (Faster speed & control) High Knees (heel to butt) / (walk & jog) 5­30 m Sprints Later stage Agility drills

4 Ankling ­ Running Wall Drill ­ Fast (position & speed) Mach Drill A (Faster speed) Mach Drill B (Faster speed) High Knees (heel to butt) / (run) 5­40 m Sprints Late stage Agility drills

5

Long ground contact. Slow movements. Simple actions.

Short ground contact. Fast movements. Complex actions.

All Drills (10­15m) into an Acceleration Resisted Pushing and Pulling Short Hill Sprints Speed development activities 5­50 m Sprints End stage Agility drills

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Physical Competence Tests

For those athletes with a long term view on their participation in physical activity, the aim is to prepare a reservoir of physical competence as wide as it is deep. Successful results in their senior years will depend upon their ability to tolerate and adapt to quite severe training loads. The world of the elite athlete is not a place for the fainthearted or those athletes with structural, physiological and psychological limitations. Whatever can be done must be done, to eradicate these limitations during the formative years of athletic development.

Aim

It is important to note that the tests conducted should reflect the age and the exposure to structured training of the athlete. Any test environment can be a daunting and confidence breaking situation for a developing athlete and as such the coach should never ask an athlete to do something of which they are not capable. Through enjoyable play circumstances over a period of sessions the coach should be able to assess the test level of the athlete and only prescribe test inclusion where necessary. This point is further illustrated by the coach continually monitoring the training program on an individual basis. It is not always necessary to test athletes particularly when the coach has organised the program so that he or she deals with small groups of athletes at one time. With small, manageable groups the coach will be able to evaluate progress in each exercise stream and use the information to assess the competence of the athlete. The experienced coach knows that ‘training is testing, and testing is training’.

The primary aim of the Competency test battery is to assist in establishing the athletes training age and ‘trainability’ across a wide range of movements. Too often tests are chosen and conducted with young athletes for the primary purpose of team selection and competition. These tests are usually watered down versions of those conducted with fully developed athletes, especially under the ‘new’ ‘talent identification’ processes. Young athletes undergoing these tests invariably focus more on the result than the execution of the required technique for their development age. It is likely, with the correct presentation of the test environment, that the young athletes can experience some ‘fun’ while they attempt these personal tests.

The results from the Competency tests will also form the detail from which the initial training programs will be determined. The tests will allow the athlete to show competence in controlled movement rather than the amount of weight carried or the speed of the movement. Some tests are derived from, and appear in more than one stream as an illustration of their integration.

As the concern is for development over a number of training years, it must not be forgotten that the bodyweight of the athlete will change during this extended period. It will be noticed that some bodyweight tests (e.g. Chins) remain at the same competence requirement level over the period of time. This is due to the predicted increase in bodyweight during this time which acts as an increase in load. For a similar reason the ‘Wall Angel’ competence requirement stays constant across the timeline. This is recommended, as the anatomical changes during this period, particularly for males, can be detrimental to maintaining the required shoulder flexibility.

When an athlete achieves a level of competence in a given exercise it is a cue for the coach to further develop the repetitions, complexity, speed or external resistance of the exercise. Should an athlete achieve competence at an early age across all exercise streams it is wise for the coach to consolidate at this level rather than advance the athlete too fast into the next stage of training. In many instances individuals who become competent in one stream can ignore their weaknesses in others and misguidedly race forward to the next training stage. The intention must be to develop competence across ALL streams. There is much to do during this developmental period and it may be of long term advantage to further explore such qualities as speed development or sports specific skill acquisition if an early maturer progresses quickly in all streams.

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Importantly, the results of these tests must be interpreted for the athlete. They should receive a clear summary of their results, outlining both their successes and weaknesses. The coach will then be able to encourage the athlete onwards to the next stage of training with a new plan to overcome their weaknesses and take advantage of their strengths.

Note: All tests should stop if technique or safety is compromised.

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Required Competence Levels

• No matter what levels of performance are attained the coach must interpret them in the context of a long term program.

• It is mandatory to spend as long as is necessary on each exercise series to achieve permanence in muscle memory.

• Achieving a stated performance and rushing on is NOT the idea.

• Consolidating the movement pattern is as important as achieving it.

• Coaches should consider the quality and accuracy of the technique of the movement rather than looking to advance the loading or complexity.

• In some cases the competence level is primarily a technical one especially in the Stability stream. Evaluating an athlete’s competence in this stream is a matter of STABILITY and not loading. For all Streams in the Fundamental and Training to Train stages the key aspect is technical development. Coaches must always remember that, in general terms, the athlete is only 14­15 years of age at the latter stages of the Training to Train stage and external loading is not the primary aim of the program. The 15­20 year age group offers sufficient time for external loading to gain the upper hand; but only in the presence of the required and permanent technical competency.

• The following recommended standards are the MINIMUM attainment levels required to advance the training stage. They should be viewed as being attainable for all young people and not just for those who have an interest in sport. A young adult with physical competence across a wide range of exercises can look forward to an adult life with some degree of freedom from the ravages of muscular­skeletal problems currently experienced by the older generation.

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Table 51 ~ Physical Competence Standards: End of the Fundamental Stage ­ Boys and Girls (10­11 years) (Giles, 1999­2001)

Stream Competent Stability Front Bridge ­ 4P Forearms 120 sec Side Bridge ­ Forearm 120 sec 60º Sit Up Test 120 sec Back Extension ­ Static 120 sec Single Leg Static Squat Sequence (L&R) 3 Positions

10 sec, balanced, each position

Squat Double Leg Squat ­ Bodyweight 10 Single Leg Squat ­ Bodyweight (L&R) 5 L&R Lunge Forward & Return (x 5 each leg) 10 Jump Landing Competence ­ 3 Levels Hold 10 sec (Check L v’s R) Shoulder Protraction ­ Retraction 10 Wall Angel 10 Push Push Up ­ Standard 15 (Check stability during motion) Dips Bench ­ Feet Up 15 Pull Lying Pull Ups ­ Full Range 15 (Check stability during motion)

Key: L&R ­ Left and Right

These standards give an indication of the qualities attained after several years of training in the Fundamental stage. When an athlete displays these standards it is likely that they can enter the next stage of training with a reservoir of quality athletic, functional and technical development. With these qualities the athlete and coach can expect considerable attainment in technical development.

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Table 52 ~ Physical Competence Standards: End of the Training to Train Stage ­ Boys (14­15 years) (modified and adapted from Giles, 1999­2001)

Stream Competent Above Average

Average Below Average

Poor

Stability Front Bridge ­ 3Point Hands 1 Leg Up >120 sec 90­120 sec 60­89 sec 30­59 sec <30 sec Side Bridge ­ Hands Star (L&R) >120 sec 90­120 sec 60­89 sec 30­59 sec <30 sec Squat Single Leg Squat ­ Box (Thigh //) L&R 5 4 3 2 0­1 Squat ­ Back Barbell (Thigh //) 10x60% Bwt 8­9 6­7 4­5 0­3 Lunge 10m Lunge Walk (Thigh //) Functional mobility – subjective assessment Push Dips ­ Straight Leg >12 10­12 7­9 4­6 0­3 Bench Press 10x50% Bwt 8­9 6­7 4­5 0­3 Pull Chin Ups >10 8­10 5­7 2­4 0­1 Bench Pull ­ Barbell 10x50% Bwt 8­9 6­7 4­5 0­3 Jump Standing Long Jump (‘stick’ landing) >2.40 2.30­2.39 2.20­2.29 2.00­2.19 <2.00 5 Jumps (‘stick’ landing) >12.00 11.50­11.99 11.00­11.49 10.50­10.99 10.00­10.49 5 Hops (L&R) >12.00 11.50­11.99 11.00­11.49 10.50­10.99 10.00­10.49 Trunk Back Extension ­ Static >120 sec 90­120 sec 60­89 sec 30­59 sec <30sec Hanging Raises ­ Straight Legs >10 9­10 6­8 3­5 0­2 Agility Hurdle Jumps ­ Square Pattern Functional mobility – completion + subjective assessment Hurdle Jumps ­ Square Pattern (L&R) Functional mobility – completion + subjective assessment

Key: // ­ Parallel; Bwt ­ Bodyweight; L&R ­ Left and Right

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Table 53 ~ Physical Competence Standards: End of the Training to Train Stage ­ Girls (14­15 years) (Modified and adapted from Giles, 1999­2001)

Stream Competent Above Average

Average Below Average

Poor

Stability Front Bridge ­ 3P Hands Leg Up >120 sec 90­120 sec 60­89 sec 30­59 sec <30 sec Side Bridge ­ Hand Star (L&R) >120 sec 90­120 sec 60­89 sec 30­59 sec <30 sec Squat Single Leg Squat ­ Box (L&R) (Thigh //) 5 4 3 2 0­1 Squat ­ Back Barbell (Thigh //) 10x60% Bwt 8­9 6­7 4­5 0­3 Lunge 10m Lunge Walk (Thigh //) Functional mobility – subjective assessment Push Dips ­ Straight Leg >12 10­12 7­9 4­6 0­3 Bench Press 10x50% Bwt 8­9 6­7 4­5 0­3 Pull Chin Ups >10 8­10 5­7 2­4 0­1 Bench Pull ­ Barbell 10x50% Bwt 8­9 6­7 4­5 0­3 Jump Standing Long Jump (‘stick’ landing) >2.10 2.00­2.09 1.90­1.99 1.80­189 <1.80 5 Jumps (‘stick’ landing) >11.00 10.50­10.99 10.00­10.49 9.50­9.99 9.00­9.49 5 Hops (L&R) >11.00 10.50­10.99 10.00­10.49 9.50­9.99 9.00­9.49 Trunk Back Extension ­ Static >120 sec 90­120 sec 60­89 sec 30­59 sec <30 sec Hanging Raises ­ Straight Leg >10 9­10 6­8 3­5 0­2 Agility Hurdle Jumps ­ Square Pattern Functional mobility – completion + subjective assessment Hurdle Hops ­ Square Pattern (L&R) Functional mobility – completion + subjective assessment

Key: // ­ Parallel; Bwt ­ Bodyweight; L&R ­ Left and Right

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The Tests

Stability Tests

Together, the following tests will give an indication of the athlete’s ability to both endure and control a position. The bridging tests will give an indication of the athlete’s ability to statically hold together the entire kinetic chain from feet to shoulders. These tests are further advanced by reducing the number of balance points (3 and 2 Point). Greater stability is required to properly execute the Single Leg Box Squat test as the athlete’s leg strength is tested. This ability is further tested using the different Jump and Hop tests where the athlete has to absorb the shock of landing (eccentric strength) and at the same time control all body parts.

Squat Tests

These tests will give the clearest indication of the athlete’s ability to both extend and flex the hip, knee and ankle joints in a controlled sequence of strength and stability. The single leg variety will give the coach an indication of any discrepancies between right and left leg function and development.

The Pushing and Pulling Tests

These tests not only show how well an athlete can handle and control their upper body but also give an indication of how stable the shoulder girdle is. Pulling exercises centre on the ability of the athlete to retract and control the scapula during movement and during weight bearing.

Lunge Test

These tests allow the athlete to show the ability to transfer weight from one foot to the other while maintaining correct posture and control. The Walking Lunge test is a major indicator of control and flexibility during motion and is a major illustrator of the fundamentals of running mechanics and efficiency, in particular the ‘Tall Hips’ component of the running action.

Jumping Tests

These tests show the athlete’s ability to maintain balance and control during both the take­off and landing phases of jumping. Acceleration and agility derivatives are found in the jumping stream and therefore, this ability is an important assessment process. Integrated strongly with the Squat, Lunge and Stability streams, this physical quality demands accuracy and precision in its development. Instructing the athlete to ‘stick’ the landing and maintain balance and direction illustrates the need to observe stability rather than the distance jumped in the tests.

Trunk Tests

These tests are linked directly to the Stability streams as they isolate the trunk which is the part of the body connecting the upper and lower limbs in the kinetic chain.

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Fundamental Tests – Coaching Issues and Test Criteria

Front Bridge ­ 4P Forearms

• From forearms and toes. • Head in neutral position ­ looking down. • Gluteus activated. • Lower abdomen ‘drawn in’. • Shoulder blades retracted. • Body in line. • Athletes will stop when posture becomes distorted or excessive tremors occur. • Athletes are asked to stop if they feel any pain. • Time the athlete in the correct position

Side Bridge ­ Forearm (L&R)

• From forearms and feet. • Hands in line with body. • Body in line. • Gluteus activated. • Lower abdomen ‘drawn in’. • Support arm at 90º to the body. • Athletes will stop when posture becomes distorted or excessive tremors occur. • Athletes are asked to stop if they feel any pain. • Time the athlete in the correct position

60º Static Sit Up Test

• Sitting with bent knees the athlete leans back to 60º and holds the position. • Lower abdomen ‘drawn in’. • Arms are kept across the chest. • Time the athlete in the correct position.

Back Extension ­ Static

• With feet fixed the athlete hangs out over the edge of the bench from the pubic bone. • Hands are clasped across chest holding biceps. • Shoulder blades must remain retracted and Gluteus contracted at all times. • Back is extended to parallel to the ground. • A neutral spine position is to be held at all times. • The athlete is asked to cease the test if they feel pain at any time.

Single Leg Static Squat Sequence ­ 3 Positions (L&R)

• Position 1 (High position) ­ Thigh at 120º ­ Hold for 10 seconds. • Position 2 (Medium position) ­ Thigh at 90º ­ Hold for 10 seconds. • Position 3 (Low position) ­ Thigh parallel ­ Hold for 10 seconds. • Free leg held ahead of body. • Head Up, Chest Up, Flat back, Butt Out. • Check both the time and quality of the held position. • Note: Give plenty of recovery between each position attempt. Fatigue can distort the

result if there is not sufficient recovery between the High, Medium and Low positions.

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Double Leg Squat ­ Bodyweight

• Athlete slowly sits into a squat position with the thighs parallel to the floor. • Head Up, Chest Up, Flat back, Butt Out. • Heels must stay in contact with the ground at all times. • Trunk stays as upright as possible. • Check the depth of the squat and the quality of the posture.

Single Leg Squat ­ Bodyweight

• From a single leg balance. • Lower to 90º between thigh and lower leg and return. • Head Up, Chest Up, Flat back, Butt Out. • Check both the depth of the squat and the quality of balance.

Lunge ­ Forward and Return

• Athlete steps forward so that lead thigh is parallel to the floor. • Head Up, Chest Up. • Front knee should be above front foot. • Athlete pushes back to standing position and repeats on the other leg. • Trunk remains upright. • Check the efficiency and balance of the ‘return’ step.

Landing Competence ­ 3 Levels (Appropriate for all ages)

• Sequence ­ (1) Double Leg to Double Leg (2) Double Leg to Single Leg (3) Single Leg to Single Leg

• Compare distance achieved with R and L legs in (2) and (3). • Check the ability to hold the position for 10 secs without deviation or distortion. • Check that the athlete lands and bends ankle, knee and hip (Butt Out on landing) using

all 3 joints. • Measure the distance gained and the efficiency of landing

Protraction ­ Retraction

• Standing or seated. • Pull shoulders down and back (retraction). • Push shoulders forward (protraction). • Slow and controlled movement. • Shoulders must stay low in both directions.

Wall Angel

• Wall Angel facing the wall. • Body, toes and nose in contact with the wall. • Arms out straight and held low. • Arms are swept slowly upwards against the wall to a position just before retraction is

lost, and then returned. • Scapula must be held retracted at all times. • Check the range of movement before retraction is lost.

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Push Up ­ Standard

• Athlete sets the shoulder blades back and down and supports the weight on hands and feet.

• Gluteus remains contracted. • Lower abdomen ‘drawn in’. • Trunk remains fixed and straight at all times.

Dips Bench – Feet Up

• Athlete sits on the ground with legs extended and elevated onto a bench or box. Hands behind body placed upon top of a 30 ­ 40cm box.

• Athlete pushes up, extending the elbows, while keeping heels on the ground. • Trunk must remain upright.

Lying Pull Ups – Full Range

• Lying underneath a bar the athlete grips the bar at shoulder width and makes the entire body rigid.

• The athlete pulls themself up so that their chest touches the bar. • There should be no use of momentum by pushing off the ground or thrusting the pelvis

forward.

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Training to Train Tests ­ Coaching Issues and Test Criteria

Front Bridge ­ 3 Point Hands 1 Leg Up

• From hands and toes. • One leg is extended, making no contact with the ground. • Head in neutral position ­ looking down. • Gluteus activated. Shoulder blades retracted. • Lower abdomen ‘drawn in’. • Body flat and in line ­ no rotation of the hips. • Athletes will stop when posture becomes distorted or excessive tremors occur. • Athletes are asked to stop if they feel any pain. • Test one side only as this will give a clear indication of 3­point stability • Time the athlete in the correct position

Side Bridge ­ Hand Star (L&R)

• From hands and feet. • Support arm at 90º to the body. • Free arm vertical in line with support arm in star position. • Top leg abducted in a star position. • Hands in line with body. • Lower abdomen ‘drawn in’. Gluteus activated. • Body in line. • Athletes will stop when posture becomes distorted or excessive tremors occur. • Athletes are asked to stop if they feel any pain. • Time the athlete in the correct position • Test both sides

Single Leg Squat ­ Box (30­45cm box)

• Flex at hip, knee and ankle to a position where the athlete’s thigh is parallel to the ground.

• Hands ahead of the body, trunk as upright as possible. • Head Up, Chest Up, Butt Out. • Heel must stay in contact with the box. • No contact with the box or ground by the free leg. • Check both the depth of squat and quality of balance.

Squat ­ Back Barbell

• Athlete performs 10 x unloaded squats for technique. • Head Up, Chest Up, Butt Out, Heels down. • If satisfactory the athlete is to perform 10 x parallel squats with a light bar. • If satisfactory the athlete is then to conduct the same test with a load equal to 60%

bodyweight. • Bar is held across top of the shoulders and not on the neck. • Athlete lowers until thigh is parallel to the ground. • Feet are a little wider than shoulder width. • Heels must stay in contact with the ground at all times. • Trunk stays as upright as possible. • Check the depth of squat and the quality of posture. • There are to be no forced or assisted reps.

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10m Lunge Walk

• A unique test of function, balance and coordination where the athlete takes 10 very slow walking lunge steps continuously with a slight pause at the standing position.

• This position should see the knee held high, the hips extended (‘Tall Hips’), the sole of the free foot stepping over the support knee.

• The feet are kept ‘cocked’ (dorsi­flexed) throughout the movement. • Trunk remains upright, hands on hips. • Check waistband for hip collapse. Check alignment of knee and foot. • View from front and side.

Dips ­ Straight Legs

• Hands at shoulder width apart. • Body to remain vertical at all times. • Legs are to be kept either straight or bent but must remain in the starting position at all

times. • Body is lowered to full depth. • Arms must lock out to complete the repetition. • No swinging.

Bench Press

• Athlete performs 10 x push ups, chest to floor. • If satisfactory, athlete performs 10 x Bench Press with a light bar for technique. • If satisfactory, the athlete performs the same test with a load equal to 50%

bodyweight. • Bar is held with pronated grip, shoulder width apart. • Bar touches high point of chest and is pushed back vertically. • Feet are kept flat on the floor with hips always in contact with the bench.

Chins Ups

• Prone grip, hands at shoulder width. • Full range of motion is to be achieved to count the repetition. • Legs can be straight or bent but must remain in chosen position. • Athlete pulls so that chin is over bar and returns to the long hang position in control.

Bench Pull ­ Barbell

• Bar is held with pronated grip, shoulder width apart. • Shoulder blades must remain retracted at all times. • Bar is pulled up towards the chest, making contact with the bench. • Legs are bent at the knee. • Chest, hips and forehead must remain in contact with the bench. • Athlete does 10 reps with the bar to check technique. • If satisfactory the athlete conducts the test with a load equal to 50% bodyweight.

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Standing Long Jump (SLJ)

• This is a two feet take off to a two feet landing. • Athlete places both feet to the start mark and jumps for distance. • The athlete must ‘stick’ the landing. • Head Up, Chest Up, Butt out on landing. • Attempt is measured from the back of the rearmost heel.

5 Jumps

• From a standing, two feet start the athlete executes 5 continuous jumps. • The athlete must ‘stick’ the last landing and the measurement is from the rearmost

heel. • Check for any lateral deviation during the jumps.

5 Hops (L&R)

• From a standing start the athlete hops for distance landing on the same leg continuously for 5 hops.

• Head Up, Chest Up. • Measurement is taken from the heel of the last hopping foot. Make a note of where this

heel lands after the 5 th hop. The athlete is not required to ‘stick’ the last hop. • Repeat for the other leg. • Vertical stability and alignment through the trunk, hips and knees must be attained. • Check for any lateral deviation during hops.

Back Extension ­ Static

• With feet fixed the athlete hangs out over the edge of the bench from the pubic bone. • Hands are clasped across chest holding biceps. • Shoulder blades must remain retracted and Gluteus contracted at all times. • Back is extended to parallel to the ground. • A neutral spine position is to be held at all times. • The athlete is asked to cease the test if they feel pain at any time.

Hanging Raises ­ Straight Leg

• Hanging with a pronated grip from a bar the athlete raises straight legs with feet together so they are parallel to the ground.

• After a controlled pause they are then lowered to the long hang position. • Feet are kept together with feet ‘cocked’ (dorsi­flexed) at all times. • No swinging

Hurdle Jumps ­ Square Pattern

• Athlete starts inside a 1m square of 20cm high hurdles or witches hats. • The centre of the square should be marked with a cross or dot. • Always landing and taking off from 2 feet the athlete completes the test by:

o Start in the centre of the square and jump forwards out. o Jump backwards into the centre of the square and sideways out o Jump sideways into the centre of the square and backwards out. o Jump forwards into the centre of the square and sideways out. o Jump sideways back into the centre of the square to ‘stick’ the landing.

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• This is a continuous sequence. • Good balance with smooth transitions is required to score high. • The athlete must land on the centre mark each time.

Hurdle Hops ­ Square Pattern

• Conducted as the Hurdle Jumps ­ Square Pattern test but using Left and Right Leg.

Evaluating the Tests

Some experienced coaches have produced a set of scoring values to assist them in quantifying those tests that require more than an objective measurement. It must be fully understood that the majority of the test criteria are based upon the technique of the exercise being undertaken. To this extent some coaches have assisted their interpretation of the exercise assessment by developing certain scoring systems based on the violations of technique during the tests.

For example, during the flexibility and functional tests that form the cornerstone of physical requirements for running efficiency, some coaches have set certain points scoring for loss of form and function. The table below (Table 54) shows the objective measurements of hip and leg range of motion and function, extrapolated from the ranges recommended in Table 47, into a scoring table.

In the Thomas Test points are deducted when the dysfunction is apparent e.g. 3 points deducted for external rotation of the thigh.

Table 54 ~ A Typical Test Scoring System (Modified and adapted from Penfold, 1992­ 2003)

This type of objective scoring allows the coach to log the precise dysfunction of the athlete and use it as a point of reference for future test scores. The high points deductions come from back arching, external rotation of the thigh and lateral drift of the thigh. These indicate dysfunction in the mechanics of the hip region. The lack of range of the hip flexors and quadriceps is less of a problem and scores lower for points deduction. A simple flexibility program to lengthen these muscle groups will eradicate the problem, whereas the former issues will need much closer scrutiny.

As coaches gain more experience in these tests they will be able to quantify more and more of the technical components into set scoring tables that will allow for more validity in their assessments. The key is to carefully observe the actions of the athlete during the test to form a conclusion based upon their movement efficiency rather than the speed, distance or repetitions completed.

Thomas Test Thigh above 90º

Lower Leg >90º

External Rotation

Back Arch Thigh Drift

Point Reduction

1 2 3 4 5

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Guide to Video Clips

It is not the intention of this resource to provide a complete list of all known exercises – this is not possible. The intention is to provide:

• A starting point – the introductory movement patterns • The main features of technique and other coaching issues • How to advance an exercise in both loading and complexity

Each stream acts as a template for exercise selection and progression. Coaches will recognise many alternative exercise selections based upon their previous success in developing physical qualities and are encouraged to enhance the examples presented here when appropriate. Each stream indicates a starting exercise with a brief note of the main feature being viewed. Basic coaching points are listed with notes on how the exercise is to be progressed.

Levels of competence have been previously outlined (Tables 51, 52 and 53) and serve as a guide to coaches as they progress the athletes through the Fundamental and Training to Train stages. The primary environment of the Fundamental is one of FUN. Coaches must ensure that the recommended exercises are integrated into the ‘play’ and ‘game’ situations presented to the athletes at this time. The competence levels listed for the latter stages of the Training to Train stage (14­15 years) (Tables 52 and 53) have been determined relative to entry standards for more advanced work in the Training to Compete stage and are generally applicable to athletes beyond their mid­teenage years. These standards indicate a training age of at least 5 years.

It must be understood that progress may be slow as the athlete adapts to the technique of the exercise. Additional loading or speed of movement must only be introduced within the athlete’s technical expertise.

Program Checklist

• Establish the training age of the athlete (Screening, Competence Tests, PHV etc.) • Integrate Academic and Sport Commitments • Choose an appropriate Competition Schedule • Establish Training Periods • Establish Training Phases • Establish Training Weeks • Establish and balance the Weekly Training Sessions • Detail the individual Training Sessions

Balancing the Choices

When examining the extensive choice of exercise streams and the sub­sections contained therein the coach may find exercise selection somewhat overwhelming. This is coaching, and there are ‘rules of engagement’ that exist to help the coach towards the best decision on behalf of their athletes.

The Jumping stream offers a clear illustration of this coaching methodology as the coach is faced with having to select and integrate jumping development from Jumping Fundamentals, Horizontal Jumping and Vertical Jumping streams. One way of integrating would be for the coach to choose one sub­section per training day and spread the load through the week. For example (Table 55), following an initial ‘Jumping Fundamentals’ training phase, the program can consolidate the Fundamentals on Monday and include the other sections later in the week.

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Table 55~ Integrating the Jumping Streams

Monday Wednesday Friday Jumping Fundamentals

Stream Horizontal Jumping Stream Vertical Jumping Stream

In the case of the Stability stream the coach is faced with the further three choices of Horizontal Stability, Vertical Stability and Dynamic Stability. Using the ‘simple to complex’ coaching rule the choice may be as follows:

Table 56 ~ Integrating the Stability Streams

First 6 week Block Second 6 week Block Third 6 week Block Horizontal Stability Vertical Stability Dynamic Stability

Here the coach starts the program with simple, static exercises before introducing the more complex vertical and dynamic exercises. In most cases the introductory Horizontal Stability stream sees the Front Bridge, Back Bridge and Side Bridge exercises being progressed together as a series within the session e.g.

Table 57 ~ Front, Back and Side Bridge Series

As competencies develop in other streams (Jumping, Squat, Lunge, Trunk etc.) they will provide the physical qualities to develop the Stability stream from Vertical to Dynamic. This is an illustration of how all streams are reliant upon each other in integration.

Various coaching ‘tools’ are available to the coach when the question of progressing an exercise is raised. Slow to fast, simple to complex, static to dynamic and unloaded to loaded being the main criteria used. With the coach only progressing the exercise when the athlete has ‘earned the physical right’, the young athlete will always be able to attempt something of which they are physically capable. Table 58 and 59 give an example of this progression sequence.

Front Bridge ­ 4P Forearms x 30sec Back Bridge ­ 4P Forearms x 30sec Side Bridge ­ Forearms x 30sec Rest and repeat for required number of sets

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Examples of Clip Progression: Fundamental Stage

Table 58 ~ Example Clip Progression ­ Fundamental Stage

Stream: Stability Stream: Pushing Stream: Squats

Front Bridge 4P ­ Forearms Back Bridge 4P ­ Forearms Side Bridge ­ Forearms

Start 30 sec

120 sec

Hands and Feet Start 30 sec

120 sec

Standing Wall Push Up Start Feet Close

Increase reps

Feet Away

Increase reps

Push Up ­ Incline Start High Box Low reps

Increase reps

Low Box

Increase reps

Push Up ­ Modified Start Low reps

Increase reps

Push Up ­ Standard Start Low reps

Increase reps

Push Up ­ Wide Start Low reps

Increase reps

Push Up ­ Close Start Low reps

Increase reps

Push Up ­ Multi­position Start Low reps

Increase reps

Push Up ­ One Leg Up Start Low reps

Increase reps

SB Wall Squat Static Hold Start High Position (120º)

Increase ‘Hold’ time

Medium Position (90º)

Increase ‘Hold’ time

Low Position (parallel)

Increase ‘Hold’ time

Add MB at all Positions

Squat ­ Arms Extended Start Low reps

Increase reps

Add MB

Increase reps

Squat ­ Hands Behind Head Start Low reps

Increase reps

Key: 4P – 4 Point; MB – Medicine Ball; reps – repetitions; SB – Swiss Ball; sec – seconds;

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Examples of Clip Progression: Training to Train Stage

Table 59 ~ Example Clip Progression – Training to Train Stage

Stream: Stability Stream: Pushing

Stream: Squat

Stream Section: Horizontal

Stream Section: Horizontal

Front Bridge ­ 3P Forearms Start 30 sec

120 sec

Front Bridge ­ 3P Hands Start 30 sec

120 sec

Front Bridge ­ 3P Forearms Leg Up Start 30 sec

120 sec

Front Bridge ­ 3P Hands Leg Up Start 30 sec

120 sec

Front Bridge ­ 3P Forearm Arm Up Start 30 sec

120 sec

Front Bridge ­ 3P Hands Arm Up Start 30 sec

120 sec

Push Up ­ Lateral Shift Start Low reps

Increase reps

Push Up ­ Circle Start Low reps

Increase reps

Push Up ­ 2 Arm MB Start Low reps

Increase reps

Push Up ­ Resisted Start Light resistance

Increase resistance

MB X­Over Start Low reps

Increase reps

Increase height

Increase reps

Squat – Back Barbell Start Broomstick

Increase reps

Sand Sack

Increase reps

Increase resistance

Barbell

Increase reps

Increase resistance

Key: 3P ­ 3 Point; BB ­ Barbell; MB ­ Medicine Ball; reps ­ repetitions; sec ­ seconds; X­Over ­ Cross Over

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Practical Exercise Streams

Exercises and information listed in the ‘white’ areas are those appropriate for the Fundamental stage and those in the ‘grey’ areas are suggested for use in the Training to Train stage. It should be noted that the authors have made an arbitrary choice in the division between Fundamental exercises and Training to Train exercises. This choice is only a guide and it is highly recommended that the coach make all decisions on exercise selection based upon the characteristics and adaptation of the individual athlete concerned.

Fundamental Training to Train

Using the Clips

• Study an entire stream of clips to understand the starting point and progression.

• Study the individual clip several times to build an awareness of the technique required and Main Coaching Issues.

• Select the starting exercise from the stream. • Try the exercise yourself! • Coach the exercise using the ‘Technique’ section of the manual and the coaching points on each clip.

• Progress the exercise using the ‘Progression’ section of the manual.

• Use the Physical Competence Tables to evaluate progression.

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Table 60 ~ Stability ­ Horizontal Stability

Horizontal Stability

This stream commences with the activation of the lower / inner abdominal and pelvic floor muscles. This activation should be a major coaching point for all bridging work.

The Front, Back and Side Bridge positions should be trained together as they have an equal role in the early stages of stability development. The athlete should be asked to develop competence in all three positions by the end of the Fundamental Stage.

Special Bracing

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Activation

02 Bent Leg Lift

03 Bent Leg Lift ­ Extension

04 Bent Leg Lift ­ Cycle

These exercises are designed to add stability to the spine. The actions are subtle rather than ‘strong’. The intention is to use the internal abdominal muscles, especially the transversus abdominus.

Move from static to slow movements.

Front Bridge

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Front Bridge ­ 4P Forearms

02 Front Bridge ­ 4P Hands

These exercises introduce stability through the entire kinetic chain. The primary issues are:

• maintain a straight line between the feet and shoulders

• maintain gluteus contraction • keep shoulders pulled down

and back • keep the lower abdomen

pulled in

Exercises will progress in their complexity by:

• increasing the time of the ‘hold’

• reducing the balance points

• moving free limbs • introducing an external

load.

03 Front Bridge ­ 3P Forearms Leg Up

04 Front Bridge ­ 3P Hands Leg Up

05 Front Bridge ­ 3P Forearms Arm Up

06 Front Bridge ­ 3P Hands Arm Up

07 Front Bridge ­ 3P Forearms Leg Up/Down

08 Front Bridge ­ 3P Hands Leg Up/Down

09 Front Bridge ­ 3P Forearms Leg In/Out

10 Front Bridge ­ 3P Hands Leg In/Out

When reducing the contact points (3 Point and 2 Point) and moving the free limb, ensure that the hips and shoulders stay square.

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Table 60 ~ Front Bridge (continued)

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 11 Front Bridge ­ 4P Forearms Resisted

12 Front Bridge ­ 4P Hands Resisted

13 Front Bridge ­ 2P Forearms Leg and Arm Up

14 Front Bridge ­ 2P Hands Leg and Arm Up

When reducing the contact points (3 Point and 2 Point) and moving the free limb, ensure that the hips and shoulders stay square.

Back Bridge

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Back Bridge ­ 4P Forearms

02 Back Bridge ­ 4P Hands

These exercises introduce stability through the entire kinetic chain. The primary issues are:

• maintain a straight line between the feet and shoulders

• maintain gluteus contraction • keep shoulders pulled down

and back • keep the lower abdomen

pulled in

Exercises will progress in their complexity by:

• increasing the time of the ‘hold’

• reducing the balance points

• moving free limbs • introducing an external

load.

03 Back Bridge ­ 3P Forearms Leg Up

04 Back Bridge ­ 3P Hands Leg Up

05 Back Bridge ­ 3P Forearms Leg Up/Down

06 Back Bridge ­ 3P Hands Leg Up/Down

07 Back Bridge ­ 3P Forearms Leg In/Out

08 Back Bridge ­ 3P Hands Leg In/Out

09 Back Bridge ­ 3P Hands Arm Up

When reducing the contact points (3 Point and 2 Point) and moving the free limb, ensure that the hips and shoulders stay square.

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Table 60 ~ Stability ­ Horizontal Stability (continued)

Side Bridge

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Side Bridge ­ Forearm

02 Side Bridge ­ Hand

03 Side Bridge ­ Forearm Leg Up

04 Side Bridge ­ Hand Leg Up

These exercises introduce stability through the entire kinetic chain. The primary issues are:

• maintain a straight line between the feet and shoulders

• maintain gluteus contraction • keep shoulders pulled down

and back • keep the lower abdomen

pulled in

Exercises will progress in their complexity by:

• increasing the time of the ‘hold’

• reducing the balance points

• moving free limbs • introducing an external

load.

05 Side Bridge ­ Forearm Resisted

06 Side Bridge ­ Hand Resisted

07 Side Bride ­ Forearm – Star

08 Side Bridge ­ Hand – Star

09 Side Bridge ­ Forearm Star MB Hold

10 Side Bridge ­ Hand Star MB Hold

11 Side Bridge ­ Forearm Star Leg Up/Down

12 Side Bridge ­ Hand Star Leg Up/Down

13 Side Bridge ­ Forearm Star Leg Forward/Back

14 Side Bridge ­ Hand Star Leg Forward/Back

15 Side Bridge ­ Forearms Star MB Catch and Pass

16 Side Bridge ­ Hand Star MB Catch and Pass

When reducing the contact points (3 Point and 2 Point) and moving the free limb, ensure that the hips and shoulders stay square.

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Table 60 ~ Stability ­ Horizontal Stability (continued)

Training to Compete

In general terms the Training to Compete stage sees the athlete move towards more sports specific exercises. There is also an increase in the amount of work undertaken.

There will be an increase in external resistance for some exercise and an increase in the speed of movement in others. Both loading and speed can increase for others.

The pursuit of Maximum Strength and Power becomes more determined and the repetition range can shorten from the previous 10’s down to 3’s and 4’s. Any increase in loading must be done safely and in small increments.

Power can now be explored more intensively as a result of the increase in Maximum Strength. Contrast Training, where Maximum Strength and Power are woven together in sequence, can be a valuable system to include in the program.

The emphasis must always be on maintaining the correct technique of every exercise regardless of any increase in intensity. Horizontal Stability

• Increase external resistance • Increase speed of limb movements • Once mastered should be included at ‘maintenance’ level as the stability emphasis will be

moved towards more Vertical and Dynamic components.

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Table 61 ~ Vertical Stability

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Single Leg Bwt Squat ­ High Position

02 Single Leg Balance Squat ­ High Position

03 Single Leg Bwt Squat ­ Mid Position

04 Single Leg Balance Squat ­ Mid Position

05 Single Leg Stance ­ T­ Balance Aeroplane

06 Single Leg Stance ­ T­ Balance Superman

07 Single Leg Balance ­ Karate Kick

O8 Single Leg Balance Squat ­ High Position MB Pass

09 Single Leg Balance Squat ­ Mid Position MB Pass

10 Single Leg Balance Squat ­ MB Diagonal Bounce

11 Single Leg Bwt Squat ­ MB Catch & Pass High Position

12 Single Leg Bwt Squat ­ MB Catch & Pass Mid Position

13 Single Leg Bwt Squat ­ Low Position

14 Single Leg Balance Squat ­ Low Position

These exercises are a test for the entire kinetic chain from feet to shoulders.

• Head up • Chest up • Butt out • Heels down • Waistband horizontal • Hips square

Once the static positions are mastered the stability can be tested by the use of a Medicine Ball.

The ‘Overhead’ varieties add a substantial difficulty in controlling the coordination of upper and lower body.

15 Single Leg Balance Squat ­ MB Pass Full Range

16 Single Leg Balance Squat ­ Low Position MB Pass

17 Single Leg Bwt Squat ­ MB Catch & Pass Low Position

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Table 61 ~ Vertical Stability (continued)

Training to Compete

In general terms the Training to Compete stage sees the athlete move towards more sports specific exercises. There is also an increase in the amount of work undertaken.

There will be an increase in external resistance for some exercise and an increase in the speed of movement in others. Both loading and speed can increase for others.

The pursuit of Maximum Strength and Power becomes more determined and the repetition range can shorten from the previous 10’s down to 3’s and 4’s. Any increase in loading must be done safely and in small increments.

Power can now be explored more intensively as a result of the increase in Maximum Strength. Contrast Training, where Maximum Strength and Power are woven together in sequence, can be a valuable system to include in the program.

The emphasis must always be on maintaining the correct technique of every exercise regardless of any increase in intensity. Vertical Stability

• Increase external resistance ­ may consider loading increasing to above 60% of bodyweight towards the latter years of this stage.

• Increase speed of movement

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Table 62 ~ Dynamic Vertical Stability

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Jump and Double Leg ‘Stick’

­ Short and Long

02 Hop and Single Leg ‘Stick’ ­ Short and Long

03 Mini Tramp Jump & ‘Stick’ Sequence

04 Mini Tramp Hop and ‘Stick’ Sequence

05 Run, Jump & Double Leg ‘Stick’

06 Run, Jump and Single Leg ‘Stick’

These exercises consolidate the ‘triple flexion / extension’ theme by adding motion to the task.

• Head up • Chest up • Butt out • Heels down • Waistband horizontal • Hips square

The scheme moves from Double Leg support to Single Leg support.

07 MB Walk Lunge ­ Rotations

08 MB Walk Lunge ­ Lateral Flexion

09 MB Walk Lunge ­ Fig 8’s

These exercises add a complexity of movement along the entire kinetic chain and see rotation and flexion elements introduced.

• Head up • Chest up • Waistband horizontal • Hips square • Trunk vertical

The ‘MB Walk Lunge’ matrix sees the combination of movement in the upper body alongside the stability required to move forward.

Movements begin small and increase in amplitude.

Training to Compete

In general terms the Training to Compete stage sees the athlete move towards more sports specific exercises. There is also an increase in the amount of work undertaken.

There will be an increase in external resistance for some exercise and an increase in the speed of movement in others. Both loading and speed can increase for others.

The pursuit of Maximum Strength and Power becomes more determined and the repetition range can shorten from the previous 10’s down to 3’s and 4’s. Any increase in loading must be done safely and in small increments.

Power can now be explored more intensively as a result of the increase in Maximum Strength. Contrast Training, where Maximum Strength and Power are woven together in sequence, can be a valuable system to include in the program.

The emphasis must always be on maintaining the correct technique of every exercise regardless of any increase in intensity. Dynamic Vertical Stability

• Increase external resistance • Increase speed of actions • Increase the complexity of the movements

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Table 63 ~ Squats

Double Leg Exercises

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Swiss Ball Wall Squat ­

Static Hold Series

02 Swiss Ball Wall Squat ­ Standard

03 Swiss Ball Wall Squat ­ MB

04 Squat ­ Arms Extended

05 Squat ­ Hands Behind Head

• Head up • Chest up • Butt out • Heels down • Waistband horizontal • Hips square • Knee over foot

Progression begins with increasing the range of movement on two legs and progresses to range of movement on a single leg.

The Wall Squats allow for balance and range to be mastered before doing free standing squats.

06 Squat ­ Back Barbell

07 Squat ­ Front Barbell

08 Squat ­ Overhead Barbell

09 MB Squat and Push ­ Vertical

10 MB Squat and Push ­ Horizontal

Use the Medicine Ball for power production.

Single Leg Exercises

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 SB Single Leg Wall

Squats ­ Static Holds

02 SB Single Leg Wall Squats ­ Standard

03 Single Leg Squat ­ Static Holds

04 Single Leg Squat ­ Rear Leg Support

05 Single Leg Squat ­ Rear Leg Support Dumbbell

• Head up • Chest up • Butt out • Gluteus braced • Heels down • Waistband horizontal • Hips square • Knee over foot

06 Single Leg Squat ­ Rear Leg Support Barbell

07 Single Leg Squat ­ Box

08 Single Leg Squat ­ Floor

Key: MB – Medicine Ball; SB – Swiss Ball

122

Table 63 ~ Squats (continued)

Training to Compete

In general terms the Training to Compete stage sees the athlete move towards more sports specific exercises. There is also an increase in the amount of work undertaken.

There will be an increase in external resistance for some exercise and an increase in the speed of movement in others. Both loading and speed can increase for others.

The pursuit of Maximum Strength and Power becomes more determined and the repetition range can shorten from the previous 10’s down to 3’s and 4’s. Any increase in loading must be done safely and in small increments.

Power can now be explored more intensively as a result of the increase in Maximum Strength. Contrast Training, where Maximum Strength and Power are woven together in sequence, can be a valuable system to include in the program.

The emphasis must always be on maintaining the correct technique of every exercise regardless of any increase in intensity. Squat

• Increase external resistance • Increase speed of actions • Power to be developed by the intention to move the external resistance (30­70% of

maximum strength capability) ‘fast’ • Consider Contrast Training in the later years of this stage

123

Table 64 ~ Cleans (Training to Train)

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Reverse Dead Lift

02 Clean Pull Shrug

A ‘Triple Flexion / Extension’ activity that sees coordination between several body segments.

• Head up • Chest up • Butt out • Heels down

03 Power Shrug

04 Clean High Pull

05 Mid Thigh Clean

06 Power Clean

07 Clean

When catching the bar ensure that elbows are ‘up and in’ so that the bar rests on the points of the shoulders.

Progression begins with isolated components of the Clean before progressing to the Clean itself. Establish movement range and efficiency before increasing speed of movement.

Training to Compete

In general terms the Training to Compete stage sees the athlete move towards more sports specific exercises. There is also an increase in the amount of work undertaken.

There will be an increase in external resistance for some exercise and an increase in the speed of movement in others. Both loading and speed can increase for others.

The pursuit of Maximum Strength and Power becomes more determined and the repetition range can shorten from the previous 10’s down to 3’s and 4’s. Any increase in loading must be done safely and in small increments.

Power can now be explored more intensively as a result of the increase in Maximum Strength. Contrast Training, where Maximum Strength and Power are woven together in sequence, can be a valuable system to include in the program.

The emphasis must always be on maintaining the correct technique of every exercise regardless of any increase in intensity. Cleans

• Increase external resistance • Increase speed of actions • Power to be developed by the intention to move the external resistance (30­70% of

maximum strength capability) ‘fast’ • Consider Contrast Training in the later years of this stage

124

Table 65 ~ Lunge

Simple Lunge

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Split Squat ­ Bodyweight

02 Split Squat ­ Dumbbells

03 Lunge ­ Bodyweight

04 Lunge ­ Dumbbells

O5 Lunge ­ MB Overhead

06 Lunge ­ Barbell

Crucial in the development of transferring weight from one foot to the other. Links the entire kinetic chain.

• Trunk vertical. • Lower body so that front

thigh is parallel to the floor • Front knee over front foot • Front knee behind front foot

toes • Check waistline is horizontal

This Stream sees the development of the ‘Tall Hips’ coaching point in running competence.

Begin in the simple plane of forward and back. Add an external resistance as competence improves.

Walking Lunge

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Lunge Walk ­ Bodyweight

02 Lunge walk ­ Dumbbells

03 Lunge Walk ­ MB Overhead

04 Lunge Walk ­ Barbell

Athlete must pass through the fully extended ‘Tall Hips’ position. Ensure range through hip flexors is adequate to attain this position.

Slow to fast. Add external resistance as competence improves.

360 Lunge Series

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Lunge 360 ­ Bodyweight

02 Lunge 360 ­ MB Overhead

03 Lunge 360 ­ 1 Arm Reach

04 Lunge 360 ­ Dumbbell Reach

Maintain all aspects of the standard Lunge exercise.

Control must be paramount in the early stages of this multi­ directional stage. Start at slow pace before increasing complexity and speed of movement.

Add external resistance as competence improves.

125

Table 65 ~ Lunge (continued)

Training to Compete

In general terms the Training to Compete stage sees the athlete move towards more sports specific exercises. There is also an increase in the amount of work undertaken.

There will be an increase in external resistance for some exercise and an increase in the speed of movement in others. Both loading and speed can increase for others.

The pursuit of Maximum Strength and Power becomes more determined and the repetition range can shorten from the previous 10’s down to 3’s and 4’s. Any increase in loading must be done safely and in small increments.

Power can now be explored more intensively as a result of the increase in Maximum Strength. Contrast Training, where Maximum Strength and Power are woven together in sequence, can be a valuable system to include in the program.

The emphasis must always be on maintaining the correct technique of every exercise regardless of any increase in intensity. Lunge

• Increase external resistance • Increase speed of actions • Power to be developed by the intention to move the external resistance (30­70% of

maximum strength capability) ‘fast’ • Improve ‘contact’ time during ‘rebound’ versions of the Lunge • Consider Contrast Training in the later years of this stage

126

Table 66 ~ Step Ups

Alternate Leg

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Alternate Leg Step Up ­

Bodyweight

02 Alternate Leg Step Up ­ MB Overhead

Crucial in the development of transferring weight from one foot to the other. Links the entire kinetic chain.

• Head up • Chest up • Waistband level at all times • Hips square • Transfer weight over front

foot before step up

Slow to fast. Add external resistance as competence improves.

03 Alternate Leg Step Up ­ Dumbbells

04 Alternate Leg Step Up ­ Barbell

05 Alternate Leg Step Up ­ Jump

Same Leg

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Same Leg Step Up ­

Bodyweight

02 Same Leg Step Up ­ Medicine Ball Overhead

Crucial in the development of transferring weight from one foot to the other. Links the entire kinetic chain. Isolates one leg at a time.

• Head up • Chest up • Hips square

Slow to fast. Add external resistance as competence improves.

03 Same Leg Step Up ­ Dumbbells

04 Same Leg Step Up ­ Barbell

05 Same Leg Step Up ­ Jump

High Knees

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 High Knee Step Up ­

Bodyweight

02 High Knee Step Up ­ MB Overhead

Crucial in the development of transferring weight from one foot to the other. Links the entire kinetic chain.

• Head up • Chest up • Hips square

Slow to fast. Add external resistance as competence improves.

03 High Knee Step Up ­ Dumbbells

04 High Knee Step Up ­ Barbell

127

Table 66 ~ Step Ups (continued)

Lateral

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Lateral Step Up ­

Bodyweight

02 Lateral Step Ups ­ MB Overhead

03 Lateral Step Up ­ Dumbbells

Crucial in the development of transferring weight from one foot to the other. Links the entire kinetic chain.

• Head up • Chest up • Hips square

Slow to fast. Low amplitude to high amplitude. Add external resistance as competence improves.

04 Lateral Step Up ­ Barbell

05 Lateral Jump Step Up ­ Close

06 Lateral Jump Step Up ­ Wide

Training to Compete

In general terms the Training to Compete stage sees the athlete move towards more sports specific exercises. There is also an increase in the amount of work undertaken.

There will be an increase in external resistance for some exercise and an increase in the speed of movement in others. Both loading and speed can increase for others.

The pursuit of Maximum Strength and Power becomes more determined and the repetition range can shorten from the previous 10’s down to 3’s and 4’s. Any increase in loading must be done safely and in small increments.

Power can now be explored more intensively as a result of the increase in Maximum Strength. Contrast Training, where Maximum Strength and Power are woven together in sequence, can be a valuable system to include in the program.

The emphasis must always be on maintaining the correct technique of every exercise regardless of any increase in intensity. Step Ups

• Increase external resistance • Increase speed of actions • Power to be developed by the intention to move the external resistance (30­70% of

maximum strength capability) ‘fast’ • Improve ‘contact’ time during ‘rebound’ versions of the Step Up • Consider Contrast Training in the later years of this stage

128

Table 67 ~ Jumping Fundamentals

Note 1: Check total landings per week do not exceed 60­80 for Fundamentals and Training to Train stages. Intensity, complexity and increasing bodyweight add an adequate loading without increasing the repetitions. The low impact work of Skipping should not be included in the total landings per week.

Note 2: The maximum height for jumping off a box for an athlete 14yrs an under should not exceed 20cm.

Landing Fundamentals

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Forward Jump and Double

Leg Land

02 Lateral Jump and Double Leg Land

03 Backward Jump and Double Leg Land

04 Forward Jump and Single Leg Land

05 Lateral Jump and Single Leg Land

06 Backward Jump and Single Leg Land

07 Forward Hop and Single Leg Land

08 Lateral Hop and Single Leg Land

09 Backward Hop and Single Leg Land

‘Triple Flexion / Extension’ coupled with the ability to control both landing and take­off is essential.

Take­off should see extension of ankle, knee and hip.

Landing should see flexion of ankle, knee and hips.

• Head up • Chest up • Butt out on landing • Active flat feet

Single leg exercises require gluteus activation and trunk stability upon landing.

Develop double leg competence first in all directions.

Move to single leg when competent.

Progression is usually slow to fast (pause to continuous).

Build up the number of repetitions based upon each landing being controlled.

129

Table 67 ~ Jumping Fundamentals (continued)

Landing Fundamentals

Box Jump Series

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Box Jump Series 1

02 Box Jump Series 2

03 Box Jump Series 3

• Head up • Chest up • Butt out on landing • Trunk braced • Gluteus active

This early ‘Box’ work sees jumping ‘On’ being developed first. The overall strategy is: Double Leg to Double Leg Landing Double Leg to Single Leg Landing Single Leg to Single Leg Landing

04 Box Jump Series 4

05 Box Jump Series 5

06 Box Jump Series 6

07 Box Jump Series 7

08 Box Jump Series 8

09 Box Jump Series 9

10 Box Jump Series 10

11 Box Jump Series 11

12 Box Jump Series 12

13 Box Jump Series 13

14 Box Jump Series 14

15 Box Jump Series 15

This initiates the start of adaptation to an increase in the ‘shock’ of landing. It is mandatory that competence is gained in Total Structural Strength and Stability prior to commencing this stage.

These ‘Series’ of exercises increase in complexity. The general rule is to gain competence in Double Leg activities before attempting Single Leg.

The ‘Triple Flexion’ ability, especially the role of Gluteus, will come under scrutiny.

Multiple take­offs and landings are coupled with very active contact with the ground.

Only introduce jumping ‘Off’ when the athlete is competent across early stability exercises in the Fundamental Stage.

Add a Medicine Ball and Medicine Ball overhead to increase the difficulty.

Training to Compete

In general terms the Training to Compete stage sees the athlete move towards more sports specific exercises. There is also an increase in the amount of work undertaken.

There will be an increase in external resistance for some exercise and an increase in the speed of movement in others. Both loading and speed can increase for others.

The pursuit of Maximum Strength and Power becomes more determined and the repetition range can shorten from the previous 10’s down to 3’s and 4’s. Any increase in loading must be done safely and in small increments.

Power can now be explored more intensively as a result of the increase in Maximum Strength. Contrast Training, where Maximum Strength and Power are woven together in sequence, can be a valuable system to include in the program.

The emphasis must always be on maintaining the correct technique of every exercise regardless of any increase in intensity. Jumping Fundamentals

These exercises now develop into the ‘Plyometric’ aspects of training. There must be a measurable improvement in ‘force reduction’ capacity, Total Structural Strength and Total Structural Stability before advancing the loading.

• Boxes can increase in height • Height and length of rebound jumps can increase • Improve contact time • Increase number of repetitions

130

Table 68 ~ Horizontal Jumping

Note 1: Check total landings per week do not exceed 60­80 for Fundamentals and Training to Train stages. Intensity, complexity and increasing bodyweight add an adequate loading without increasing the repetitions. The low impact work of Skipping should not be included in the total landings per week.

Note 2: The maximum hurdle height for jumps used for an athlete 14yrs an under should not exceed 20cm.

Double Leg Exercises

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Square Drill ­ Jump

02 Run­Jump & Double Leg Stick

03 Jumps Forward ­ Pause

04 Jumps Lateral ­ Pause

05 Jumps Backward ­ Pause

06 Jumps Forward ­ Continuous

07 Jumps Lateral ­ Continuous

08 Jumps Backward ­ Continuous

• Head up • Chest up • Butt out on landing • Trunk braced • Gluteus active

Applies all the aspects of the Fundamental Stage.

Progression is usually slow to fast (pause to continuous).

Build up the number of repetitions based upon each jump being controlled.

09 Restart Jumps ­ Forward

10 Restart Jumps ­ Diagonal

11 Restart Jumps ­ Lateral

Introduces the concept of greater ‘force reduction’ to the athlete.

Alternate Leg Exercises

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Square Drill ­ Step

02 Ice Skater Bounds ­ Pause

03 Ice Skater Bounds ­ Continuous

04 Ice Skater Bounds ­ Reach

• Head up • Chest up • Butt out on landing • Trunk braced • Gluteus active

Deal with the Fundamentals of Jumping first before attempting Horizontal development beyond the introductory stages.

Progression is usually slow to fast (pause to continuous).

05 Standing Triple Jump

06 High Skips ­ Height

07 High Skips ­ Speed

131

Table 68 ~ Horizontal Jumping (continued)

Single Leg Exercises

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Square Drill ­ Hop

02 Run, Jump & Single Leg Stick

03 Hops Forward ­ Pause

04 Hops Lateral ­ Inside & Outside ­ Pause

05 Hops Backward ­ Pause

06 Hops Forward ­ Continuous

07 Hops Lateral ­ Inside & Outside Leg Continuous

08 Hops Backward ­ Continuous

• Head up • Chest up • Butt out on landing • Trunk braced • Gluteus active

Applies all the aspects of the Fundamental Stage.

Progression is usually slow to fast (pause to continuous).

Build up the number of repetitions based upon each jump being controlled.

09 Hurdle Hops ­ Pause

10 Hurdle Hops ­ Continuous

11 Cycle Hops ­ Continuous

Training to Compete

In general terms the Training to Compete stage sees the athlete move towards more sports specific exercises. There is also an increase in the amount of work undertaken.

There will be an increase in external resistance for some exercise and an increase in the speed of movement in others. Both loading and speed can increase for others.

The pursuit of Maximum Strength and Power becomes more determined and the repetition range can shorten from the previous 10’s down to 3’s and 4’s. Any increase in loading must be done safely and in small increments.

Power can now be explored more intensively as a result of the increase in Maximum Strength. Contrast Training, where Maximum Strength and Power are woven together in sequence, can be a valuable system to include in the program.

The emphasis must always be on maintaining the correct technique of every exercise regardless of any increase in intensity. Horizontal Jumps

These exercises now develop into the ‘Plyometric’ aspects of training. There must be a measurable improvement in ‘force reduction’ capacity, Total Structural Strength and Total Structural Stability before advancing the loading.

• Boxes, Hurdles can increase in height • Height and length of rebound jumps can increase • Number of hops and bounds can increase per set • Distance covered can increase per set • Speed over set distance can improve • Improve contact time • Cyclic actions of the working leg can be encouraged

132

Table 69 ~ Vertical Jumping

Note: Check total landings per week do not exceed 60­80 for Fundamentals and Training to Train stages. Intensity, complexity and increasing bodyweight add an adequate loading without increasing the repetitions. The low impact work of Skipping should not be included in the total landings per week.

Skipping

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Skipping ­ Double Leg ­

Standard

02 Skipping ­ Double Leg ­ Fast

03 Skipping ­ Double Leg ­ Lateral

04 Skipping ­ Double Leg ­ High Knees

05 Skipping ­ Double Leg ­ Square Pattern

06 Skipping ­ Alternate Leg ­ Stride

07 Skipping ­ Alternate Leg ­ Boxer Shuffle

08 Skipping ­ Alternate Leg ­ High Knees

09 Skipping ­ Single Leg ­ Standard

10 Skipping ­ Single Leg ­ Lateral

11 Skipping ­ Single Leg ­ Square Pattern

Introduces the Vertical Jumping component. Balance, rhythm and coordination are linked to active landings and take­offs.

• Trunk braced • Head Up • Chest Up

Will progress from double leg to alternate legs to single leg and simple to complex.

Build up the number of repetitions based upon each jump being controlled.

133

Table 69 ~ Vertical Jumping (continued)

Jumping

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Jumps Square ­ Pause

02 Jumps Square ­ Continuous

03 Jumps Square ­ Diagonal

04 In Place Squat Jumps ­ Pause ­ Hips

05 In Place Squat Jumps ­ Pause ­ Arms

06 In Place Squat Jumps ­ Continuous ­ Hips

07 In Place Squat Jumps ­ Continuous ­ Arms

08 Stiff Leg Jumps ­ Standard

09 Stiff Leg Jumps ­ Forward Split

10 Stiff Leg Jumps ­ Lateral Split

11 Tuck Jumps ­ Pause

12 Tuck Jumps ­ Continuous

13 Tuck Jumps ­ Qtr Turn

14 Split Jumps ­ Pause

15 Split Jumps ­ Continuous

16 Split Jumps ­ Qtr Turn

• Head up • Chest up • Butt out on landing • Trunk braced • Gluteus active

Applies all the aspects of the Fundamental Stage.

Progression is usually slow to fast (pause to continuous).

Build up the number of repetitions based upon each jump being controlled.

17 Cycle Jumps

18 In Place Cycle Hops ­ Pause

19 In Place Cycle Hops ­ Continuous

134

Table 69 ~ Vertical Jumps (continued)

Training to Compete

In general terms the Training to Compete stage sees the athlete move towards more sports specific exercises. There is also an increase in the amount of work undertaken.

There will be an increase in external resistance for some exercise and an increase in the speed of movement in others. Both loading and speed can increase for others.

The pursuit of Maximum Strength and Power becomes more determined and the repetition range can shorten from the previous 10’s down to 3’s and 4’s. Any increase in loading must be done safely and in small increments.

Power can now be explored more intensively as a result of the increase in Maximum Strength. Contrast Training, where Maximum Strength and Power are woven together in sequence, can be a valuable system to include in the program.

The emphasis must always be on maintaining the correct technique of every exercise regardless of any increase in intensity. Vertical Jumps

These exercises now develop into the ‘Plyometric’ aspects of training. There must be a measurable improvement in ‘force reduction’ capacity, Total Structural Strength and Total Structural Stability before advancing the loading.

• Improve contact time • Boxes, Hurdles can increase in height • Height and length of rebound jumps can increase • Number of hops and bounds can increase per set • Distance covered can increase per set • Speed over set distance can improve • Cyclic actions of the working leg can be developed • Various combinations of hops, jumps and bounds can be developed

135

Table 70 ~ Running Fundamentals

Note: The following stream is not training age dependant and one must ensure that the athlete has developed the appropriate physical qualities of flexibility and strength prior to moving onto the sprint drills and other associated speed exercises including short sprints and agility runs. If run in tandem with the stability and strength streams the young athlete’s physical properties should develop at a rate slightly preceding that of the technical development of sprint running. It is not the aim of the running fundamentals to provide the most elaborate running development but rather a guide to the key aspects one needs to address prior to moving on to running fast itself.

Flexibility and Mobility

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Ankle Range Test

02 Hamstring Range Test

03 Modified Thomas Test

04 Standing Hip Flexion

05 Lunge Walk

06 Hurdle Mobility Walk ­ Level 1

07 Hurdle Mobility Walk ­ Level 2

08 Hurdle Mobility Walk ­ Level 3

09 Hurdle Mobility Walk ­ Level 4

Ensure that these physical qualities are developed before introducing the subsequent drills.

These early clips indicate the demand for certain flexibility characteristics before drills are introduced.

• Head up • Chest up • Hip Extension at full stance

position – ‘Tall Hips’ • Foot ‘cocked’ • Waistband level at all times

Progression is usually slow to fast (pause to continuous) and simple to complex.

Running Drills

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Wall Sprints ­ Level 1

02 Wall Sprints ­ Level 2

03 Wall Sprints ­ Level 3

04 Ankling Drill ­ Level 1

05 Ankling Drill ­ Level 2

06 Mach A Drill ­ Level 1

07 Mach A Drill ­ Level 2

08 Mach A Drill ­ Level 3

Establishing the required physical qualities (TSS, TSStab, TSROM and TBA) is paramount before doing these drills.

• Head up • Chest up • Torso upright • Step over opposite knee (toe

up, knee up, heel up) • Hip Extension at full stance

position – ‘Tall Hips’ • Foot ‘cocked’ • Waistband level at all times

Progression is usually slow to fast (pause to continuous).

09 Mach B Drill ­ Level 1

10 Mach B Drill ­ Level 2

11 Mach B Drill ­ Level 3

12 High Knee Drill ­ Level 1

13 High Knee Drill ­ Level 2

136

Table 70 ~ Running Fundamentals (continued)

Training to Compete

In general terms the Training to Compete stage sees the athlete move towards more sports specific exercises. There is also an increase in the amount of work undertaken.

There will be an increase in external resistance for some exercise and an increase in the speed of movement in others. Both loading and speed can increase for others.

The pursuit of Maximum Strength and Power becomes more determined and the repetition range can shorten from the previous 10’s down to 3’s and 4’s. Any increase in loading must be done safely and in small increments.

Power can now be explored more intensively as a result of the increase in Maximum Strength. Contrast Training, where Maximum Strength and Power are woven together in sequence, can be a valuable system to include in the program.

The emphasis must always be on maintaining the correct technique of every exercise regardless of any increase in intensity. Running Fundamentals

The key is ‘consistency’. The running model must continue to consolidate and the athlete should visit and re­visit all key components. As the efficiency of the running action continues o the athlete can apply the greater forces gained from other exercise streams. Multi­directional activity can be further explored at higher speeds (agility).

137

Table 71 ~ Acceleration Fundamentals

Acceleration Posture Drills

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Wall Sprints ­ Level 1

02 Wall Sprints ­ Level 2

03 Wall Sprints ­ Level 3

04 Partner Drop and Catch

05 Partner Drop and Run

Establishing the required physical qualities (TSS, TStab, TSROM and TBA) is paramount before doing these drills.

The ‘desired angle’ is the point at which the runner can maintain the correct posture.

Progression is usually slow to fast. Build up the number of repetitions that are controlled.

06 Partner Push

07 Partner Push and Chase

08 Belt Resistance Run

09 Belt Release Run

10 Belt Run and Release

Partner applies enough force to allow the correct actions to take place.

Start Positions

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Falling Start

02 Rollover Start

03 Standing Track Start

04 Three Point Start

05 Walk In Start

06 Push Up Split Start

07 Scramble Up Start

08 Seated Turn Start

Establishing the required physical qualities (TSS, TStab, TSROM and TBA) is paramount before doing these drills.

Maintain the correct posture and ensure full extension during the ‘drive’ phase.

Progression is usually slow to fast and simple to complex. Build up the number of repetitions that are controlled.

09 Backward Jump Start

10 One Leg Start

11 Standing Long Jump Start

138

Table 72 ~ Agility Fundamentals

Short Distance Drills

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Multi­Direction First Step

02 Multi­Direction Run

03 Lateral Run and Stop

04 Lateral Return

05 Qtr Turn Jumps and Lateral Return

06 Lateral Shuttle

The ‘Crossover’ step is one where the first step is taken by the leg furthest away from the proposed direction. The ‘Open’ step is made by the leg nearest the proposed direction. The ‘Drop’ step is used to commence a rearward run.

The ‘Crossover’ step can be more forceful but does turn the athlete side­on. This is a useful start when not marking opposition e.g. Base running and fielding in Baseball.

The ‘Open’ step is more commonly used in field sports when reacting to changes of direction by the opposition. Athlete remains in a more front on position

Establish competence and ‘muscle memory’ in the different first step components before applying the starts to full agility runs.

07 Funnel Run

08 Criss­Cross Run

09 Diagonal Shuttle Run

10 Z Shuttle Run

11 Double Square

Longer Distance Drills

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Low Intensity Weave

02 Low Intensity Sidestep

Must maintain a stable relationship between upper and lower body.

Progression is slow to fast (low intensity to high intensity).

03 High Intensity Weave

04 High Intensity Sidestep

05 Turnaround Run ­ Forward

06 Turnaround Run ­ Backward

139

Table 73 ~ Shoulder Stability and Control

Note: This exercise stream forms the fundamental competence required for all Pulling and Pushing exercises. Each exercise is performed in a controlled manner. Loading should be minimised to ensure correct recruitment of the stabilising structures.

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Protraction ­ Retraction

02 Elevation ­ Depression

03 Push Up Press

04 Wall Angel

05 Chair Press

06 Back Reverse Flys ­ Lying Static Hold

07 Back Reverse Flys ­ Lying Dumbbells

08 Rotator Cuff ­ Lying Dumbbells

09 Two Way Band Routine

The essential point is to keep the shoulders in a ‘down and back’ position during activity that sees the arms carried below shoulder height.

With activity through a longer range the athlete should retain stability during both elevation and protraction.

Scapula retraction is developed using different arm positions.

10 Rotator Cuff Standing Dumbbell ­ Single Arm

11 Rotator Cuff Standing Dumbbell ­ Double Arm

12 Rotator Cuff Standing Band ­ Single Arm

13 Reverse Fly and External Rotation

14 Shoulder Roll ­ Barbell

15 Shoulder Roll ­ Dumbbell

Maintain scapula stability during all arm and trunk actions.

140

Table 73 ~ Shoulder Stability and Control (continued)

Training to Compete

In general terms the Training to Compete stage sees the athlete move towards more sports specific exercises. There is also an increase in the amount of work undertaken.

There will be an increase in external resistance for some exercise and an increase in the speed of movement in others. Both loading and speed can increase for others.

The pursuit of Maximum Strength and Power becomes more determined and the repetition range can shorten from the previous 10’s down to 3’s and 4’s. Any increase in loading must be done safely and in small increments.

Power can now be explored more intensively as a result of the increase in Maximum Strength. Contrast Training, where Maximum Strength and Power are woven together in sequence, can be a valuable system to include in the program.

The emphasis must always be on maintaining the correct technique of every exercise regardless of any increase in intensity. Shoulder Stability and Control

Loading should remain low when stability and control aspects are being trained.

• Increase eccentric loading in sport specific positions

For those athletes involved in throwing activities there can be both an increase and decrease in external resistance as overweight and underweight throwing implements are used. When using these differing weights the rhythm of the total throwing action must be maintained.

141

Table 74 ~ Pushing ­ Vertical

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Dips Bench ­ Feet Down

02 Dips Bench ­ Feet Up

03 Handstand ­ Supported

04 Dips ­ Bent Leg

05 Dips ­ Straight Leg

Stabilising the shoulder blades is a priority within this stream.

Progression is usually slow to fast. Build up the number of repetitions that are controlled.

06 Shoulder Press ­ Seated Dumbbell

07 Shoulder Press ­ Standing Back

08 Shoulder Press ­ Standing Front

09 MB Squat and Push ­ Vertical

10 Handstand ­ Supported Half Push Up

11 Dips ­ Seated

12 Handstand ­ Supported Full Push Up

13 Push Press

14 Push Jerk

15 Split Jerk

Above the head pressing sees the need for stability during the elevation and protraction phases of the action.

Use the Medicine ball for power production.

Training to Compete

In general terms the Training to Compete stage sees the athlete move towards more sports specific exercises. There is also an increase in the amount of work undertaken.

There will be an increase in external resistance for some exercise and an increase in the speed of movement in others. Both loading and speed can increase for others.

The pursuit of Maximum Strength and Power becomes more determined and the repetition range can shorten from the previous 10’s down to 3’s and 4’s. Any increase in loading must be done safely and in small increments.

Power can now be explored more intensively as a result of the increase in Maximum Strength. Contrast Training, where Maximum Strength and Power are woven together in sequence, can be a valuable system to include in the program.

The emphasis must always be on maintaining the correct technique of every exercise regardless of any increase in intensity. Pushing ­ Vertical

• Increase external resistance • Increase speed of actions • Power to be developed by the intention to move the external resistance (30­70% of

maximum strength capability) ‘fast’ • Consider Contrast Training in the later years of this stage

142

Table 75 ~ Pushing ­ Horizontal

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Push Up ­ Standing Wall

02 Push Up ­ Incline

03 Push Up ­ Modified

04 Push Up ­ Standard

05 Push Up ­ Wide

06 Push Up ­ Close

07 Push Up ­ Multi­ Position

08 Push Up ­ 1 Leg Up

09 Push Up ­ Rotation

10 Push Up ­ Pike Through

11 Push Up ­ One Arm MB

12 MB Chest Pass

• Shoulders ‘down and back’ • Trunk braced • Gluteus tight • Straight line from feet to

shoulders

Add Medicine Ball for power production.

Progression is usually slow to fast. Build up the number of repetitions that are controlled.

13 Push Up ­ Lateral Shift

14 Push Up ­ Circle

15 Push Up ­ Two Arm MB

16 MB Chest Pass ­ 1 Foot

17 MB Chest Pass ­ Rotational

18 Push Up ­ Resisted

19 Push Up ­ MB Cross Over

20 Push Up ­ Box Drop

21 Push Up ­ Single Clap

22 MB Soccer Throw

23 Push Up ­ Double Clap

24 Push Up ­ Box Rebound

25 Push Up ­ Alternate Arm Roll Out

26 Bench Press ­ Standard Grip

27 Bench Press ­ Wide Grip

28 Bench Press ­ Close Grip

Add Medicine ball for power production.

Add Medicine ball for power production.

Add Medicine ball for power production.

Complexity and speed of the movement increases as does the difficulty encountered by transferring weight laterally and from front to back.

Strength gained by doing the Bench Press can be used to assist the development of the Push Up.

143

Table 75 ~ Pushing ­ Horizontal (continued)

Training to Compete

In general terms the Training to Compete stage sees the athlete move towards more sports specific exercises. There is also an increase in the amount of work undertaken.

There will be an increase in external resistance for some exercise and an increase in the speed of movement in others. Both loading and speed can increase for others.

The pursuit of Maximum Strength and Power becomes more determined and the repetition range can shorten from the previous 10’s down to 3’s and 4’s. Any increase in loading must be done safely and in small increments.

Power can now be explored more intensively as a result of the increase in Maximum Strength. Contrast Training, where Maximum Strength and Power are woven together in sequence, can be a valuable system to include in the program.

The emphasis must always be on maintaining the correct technique of every exercise regardless of any increase in intensity. Pushing – Horizontal

• Increase external resistance • Increase speed of actions • Power to be developed by the intention to move the external resistance (30­70% of

maximum strength capability) ‘fast’ • Consider Contrast Training in the later years of this stage

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Table 76 ~ Pulling ­ Vertical

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Chin Up ­ Partial

02 Chin Up ­ Eccentric

03 Chin Up ­ Isometric Hold

04 Chin Up ­ Partner Assisted

05 Chin Up ­ Close Grip

06 Chin Up ­ Medium Grip

07 MB Throw Down

The initial exercise (Partial Chins) sees the athlete strengthening the shoulder girdle during elevation and depression of the shoulder blades – a pre­requisite to later, more dynamic activity.

Use the Medicine Ball for power production.

Progression starts using a limited range. Range increases with assistance through to full range. The grips can be varied to add more difficulty.

08 Chin Up ­ Wide Grip

09 Lat Pulldown ­ Wide Grip

Rotate through the grips as described in the Close Grip Chin.

Only consider the over grasp grip when gripping significantly beyond shoulder width.

The pulldown can also be done in front of the body. Rotate through the grips of under grasp, over grasp and neutral where possible.

The Lat Pulldown can be used to gain strength to support the development of the Chin series.

Training to Compete

In general terms the Training to Compete stage sees the athlete move towards more sports specific exercises. There is also an increase in the amount of work undertaken.

There will be an increase in external resistance for some exercise and an increase in the speed of movement in others. Both loading and speed can increase for others.

The pursuit of Maximum Strength and Power becomes more determined and the repetition range can shorten from the previous 10’s down to 3’s and 4’s. Any increase in loading must be done safely and in small increments.

Power can now be explored more intensively as a result of the increase in Maximum Strength. Contrast Training, where Maximum Strength and Power are woven together in sequence, can be a valuable system to include in the program.

The emphasis must always be on maintaining the correct technique of every exercise regardless of any increase in intensity. Pulling ­ Vertical

• Increase external resistance • Increase speed of actions • Power to be developed by the intention to move the external resistance (30­70% of

maximum strength capability) ‘fast’ • Consider Contrast Training in the later years of this stage

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Table 77 ~ Pulling ­ Horizontal

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Protraction ­ Retraction

02 Pull Up ­ Standing 2 Arms

03 Pull Up ­ Standing 1 Arm

04 Pull Up ­ Lying Half Range

05 Pull Up ­ Lying Full Range

The essential point is to keep the shoulders in a ‘down and back’ position during activity that sees the arms carried below shoulder height.

With activity through a longer range the athlete should retain stability during both elevation and protraction.

Progression is usually slow to fast. Build up the number of repetitions that are controlled.

06 Bench Pull ­ Barbell

07 Bench Pull ­ Dumbbells

08 Seated Cable Row ­ Close Grip

09 Seated Cable Row ­ Wide Grip

Strength gained from doing the Cable Row can be used to assist the development of the early parts of the Stream.

Training to Compete

In general terms the Training to Compete stage sees the athlete move towards more sports specific exercises. There is also an increase in the amount of work undertaken.

There will be an increase in external resistance for some exercise and an increase in the speed of movement in others. Both loading and speed can increase for others.

The pursuit of Maximum Strength and Power becomes more determined and the repetition range can shorten from the previous 10’s down to 3’s and 4’s. Any increase in loading must be done safely and in small increments.

Power can now be explored more intensively as a result of the increase in Maximum Strength. Contrast Training, where Maximum Strength and Power are woven together in sequence, can be a valuable system to include in the program.

The emphasis must always be on maintaining the correct technique of every exercise regardless of any increase in intensity. Pulling ­ Horizontal

• Increase external resistance • Increase speed of actions • Power to be developed by the intention to move the external resistance (30­70% of

maximum strength capability) ‘fast’ • Consider Contrast Training in the later years of this stage

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Table 78 ~ General Movement Development 1

Hip Strength and Mobility

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Lying Hip External Rotation

02 Hip Mobility Walk Series ­ Pike Walk

03 Hip Mobility Walk Series ­ Spiderman

04 Hip Mobility Walk Series ­ Half Duck

05 Mini Band Walks ­ Forward and Back

06 Mini Band Walks ­ Sidestep

07 Mini Band Walks ­ Half Duck Walk

08 Medicine Ball Kick Backs

Gluteus activation.

Gluteus Activation.

Gluteus Activation.

Gluteus Activation.

Use the Medicine ball for power production.

Slow, controlled movements, with a pause in between attempts, is vital.

Exercises can be made more complex and continuous as competence increases.

Core Strength and Mobility

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Backward Wall Drop ­

Rotations

02 Leg Undercuts

Weight bearing through the shoulder region (clips 06­08) should be delayed until strength and stability have improved in other streams.

Progression is usually slow to fast. Build up the number of repetitions that are controlled.

03 MB Walk Lunge ­ Rotations

04 MB Walk Lunge ­ Lateral Flexion

05 MB Walk Lunge ­ Fig 8

06 Backward Wall Walk

07 Back Arches

08 Reverse Wall Walk

See Trunk Stream.

See Trunk Stream.

See Trunk Stream.

Shoulder Strength and Mobility

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Crawls ­ Forward and Back

02 Crawls ­ Sidestep

03 Crawls ­ Carioca

04 Crawls ­ 180 Return

05 Handstand ­ Supported

Weight bearing through the shoulder region (clips 05­07) should be delayed until strength and stability have improved in other streams.

Progression is usually slow to fast. Build up the number of repetitions that are controlled.

06 Tip Up ­ Balance

07 Tip Up ­ to Headstand

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Table 79 ~ General Development 2

Tumbling and Vaulting

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Forward Roll ­ Pause

02 Backward Roll ­ Pause

03 Forward Roll ­ Continuous

04 Backward Roll ­ Continuous

05 Barrel Roll

06 Commando Roll

07 Backward Roll ­ Leg Extension

08 Forward Roll to Jump

09 Backward Roll to Jump

10 Forward Roll to 180 Jump

11 Backward Roll to 180 Jump

12 Bench Vaults ­ Pause

13 Bench Vaults ­ Continuous

14 Mule Kicks

15 Barrel Role ­ MB

16 Cartwheel – Standard

Weight bearing through the shoulder region (clips 12­18) should be delayed until strength and stability have improved in other streams.

Progression is simple to complex and slow to fast. Build up the number of repetitions that are controlled.

17 Cartwheel ­ Round Off

18 Forward Roll ­ To Handstand

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Table 80 ~ Trunk 1 ­ Special Bracing and Extension

Special Bracing

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Activation

02 Bent Leg Lift

03 Bent Leg Lift ­ Extension

04 Bent Leg Lift ­ Cycle

These exercises are designed to add stability to the spine. The actions are subtle rather than ‘strong’. The intention is to use the internal abdominal muscles, especially the transversus abdominus.

Move from static to slow movements. Build up the number of repetitions that are controlled.

Trunk Extension

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Back Extension Floor ­ Static

02 Back Extension ­ Floor

03 Back Extension ­ Floor Hands Behind Head

04 Back Extension ­ Floor Arms Extended

05 Back Extension ­ MB Extended

Shoulders retracted at all times. Maintain a ‘neutral’ spine position. Ensure that the Gluteus is strongly activated throughout the exercise.

Master the action on the floor before extending over the edge of a piece of equipment.

Execute a static ‘hold’ to start with before adding repetitions, external load and rotations.

Progression is usually slow to fast. Build up the number of repetitions that are controlled.

06 Back Extension ­ Static

07 Back Extension ­ Arms across Chest

08 Back Extension ­ Hands Behind Head

09 Back Extension ­ Arms across Chest – Single Twist

10 Back Extension ­ Arms Across Chest – Double Twist

11 Back Extension ­ MB across Chest

12 Back Extension ­ MB across Chest – Single Twist

13 Back Extension ­ MB Across Chest – Double Twist

14 Back Extension ­ MB Extended

15 Back Extension ­ MB Extended ­ Single Twist

16 Back extension ­ MB Extended – Double Twist

Use a Medicine Ball to increase resistance.

Increase range of motion by using a high bench or other equipment.

Key: MB ­ Medicine Ball

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Table 81 ~ Trunk 2 ­ Flexion and Lateral / Rotation

Flexion

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Crunch ­ Static

02 Crunch ­ Dynamic

03 Knee Raises ­ Seated

04 Knee Raises ­ Lying

05 Sit­Up ­ Progression

06 MB Sit Up

07 MB Sit Up ­ Catch and Pass

08 Sit Up ­ Twist

Pull navel to spine. Keep feet anchored.

Use the Medicine ball for resistance.

Use the Medicine Ball for power production.

Progression is usually slow to fast and simple to complex. Build up the number of repetitions that are controlled.

09 Hanging Raises ­ Bent Knee

10 Hanging Raises ­ Straight Legs

11 MB ‘V’ Sit ­ Catch and Pass

12 Hanging Raises ­ Small Circles

13 Hanging Raises ­ Giant Circles

Keep torso vertical and straight.

Use the Medicine ball for power production.

Key: MB ­ Medicine Ball

Trunk Lateral and Rotation

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 MB Rotation ­ Kneeling

Short ­ Slow and Fast

02 MB Rotation ­ Kneeling Long – Slow to Fast

03 MB Rotation ­ Standing Short – Slow to Fast

04 MB Rotation ­ Standing Long – Slow to Fast

05 MB Tug of War ­ 2 Feet

06 MB Tug of War ­ 1 foot

07 MB Rotations ­ Seated Pick Ups

08 MB Rotations ­ Diagonal

09 MB Rotations ­ Standing Side On Passes

To maintain the ‘entire kinetic chain’ principle, ensure that gluteus and trunk are braced.

Keep torso straight and vertical.

Progression is usually slow to fast and simple to complex. Build up the number of repetitions that are controlled.

Key: MB ­ Medicine Ball

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Table 81 ~ Trunk Lateral / Rotation (continued)

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 10 Seated Partner Wrestle ­

Rotation

11 Seated Partner Wrestle ­ Lateral Flexion

12 MB Walk Lunge ­ Rotation

13 MB Walk Lunge ­ Lateral Flexion

14 MB Walk Lunge ­ Fig 8

15 Barbell Rotation ­ Kneeling Short

16 Barbell Rotation ­ Kneeling Long

17 Barbell Rotation ­ Standing Short

18 Barbell Rotation ­ Standing Long

• Trunk Braced • Trunk Upright

These exercises add a complexity of movement along the entire kinetic chain and see rotation and flexion elements introduced.

• Head up • Chest up • Waistband horizontal • Hips square • Trunk vertical

Progression is usually slow to fast and simple to complex. Build up the number of repetitions that are controlled.

Key: Fig 8 ­ Figure8; MB ­ medicine ball

Training to Compete

In general terms the Training to Compete stage sees the athlete move towards more sports specific exercises. There is also an increase in the amount of work undertaken.

There will be an increase in external resistance for some exercise and an increase in the speed of movement in others. Both loading and speed can increase for others.

The pursuit of Maximum Strength and Power becomes more determined and the repetition range can shorten from the previous 10’s down to 3’s and 4’s. Any increase in loading must be done safely and in small increments.

Power can now be explored more intensively as a result of the increase in Maximum Strength. Contrast Training, where Maximum Strength and Power are woven together in sequence, can be a valuable system to include in the program.

The emphasis must always be on maintaining the correct technique of every exercise regardless of any increase in intensity. All Trunk strength and stability must be maintained

Trunk Flexion • Increase external resistance • Increase speed of action • Increase range of action • Increase complexity of exercise

Trunk Lateral and Rotation • Increase external resistance • Increase speed of action • Increase range of action • Increase complexity of exercise

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Table 82 ~ Medicine Ball Exercises

Upper Body

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Chest Pass

02 Chest Pass ­ 1 Foot

03 Chest Pass ­ Rotational

04 Throw Downs

05 Overhead Wall Throws ­ Straight Arm

06 Overhead Wall Throws ­ Straight Arm 1 Foot

All Medicine Ball exercises shown using a wall can also be conducted with a partner.

Brace through trunk and shoulders.

Brace gluteus when on one leg.

The Medicine Ball is an external load and should be considered carefully. Begin with a Beach Ball type of very light implement – move to Soccer Ball and finally on to a light Medicine Ball.

Progression is usually slow to fast and simple to complex. Build up the number of repetitions that are controlled.

07 Overhead Wall Throws ­ Straight Arm 1 Arm

08 Soccer Throw

09 Soccer Throw ­ 1 Foot

10 Soccer Throw ­ 1 Arm

11 Kneeling Overhead Throw

12 Kneeling Overhead ­ Catch and Throw

13 Step and Throw

14 Pullover Throw

15 Pullover Throw ­ 1 Arm

Lower Body

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Squat and Push ­ Vertical

02 Squat and Push ­ Horizontal

03 Kick Backs

04 Underhand Throw ­ 2 feet Landing

05 Underhand Throw ­ 1 foot Landing

06 Underhand Throw ­ 2 Jumps

07 Side Throw

08 Shot Put

09 Backward Overhead Throw

10 Backward Overhead ­ Rotational

11 Backward Overhead ­ 2 Forward Jumps

All Medicine Ball exercises shown using a wall can also be conducted with a partner.

Brace through trunk and shoulders.

Brace gluteus when on one leg.

Progression is usually slow to fast and simple to complex. Build up the number of repetitions that are controlled.

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Table 82 ~ Medicine Ball Exercises (continued)

Trunk

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Medicine Ball Sit Ups

02 Medicine Ball Sit Up ­ Catch and Pass

03 Medicine Ball Rotations ­ Seated Pick Ups

04 Medicine Ball Rotations ­ Standing

05 Medicine Ball Rotations ­ Diagonal

06 Medicine Ball Rotations ­ Standing Side On Passes

07 Medicine Ball Rotations ­ Standing Front On Passes

08 Medicine Ball Rotations ­ Standing Crossover Passes

09 Medicine Ball Rotations ­ Standing Backward Passes

All rotational exercises will demand Trunk stability. Ensure this is supported by the Gluteus being braced.

• Head Up • Chest Up • Trunk braced • Gluteus braced • Rotate Hips, Trunk and

Shoulders ­ NOT only the arms • Brace the side being turned to

during rotational exercises.

Generally the seated exercises are tougher then the standing ones due to the isolation of the trunk. Start with the Sit Up exercises ­ move to the standing exercises ­ move to the seated exercises.

Progression is usually slow to fast and simple to complex. Build up the number of repetitions that are controlled.

10 Medicine Ball Rotations ­ Seated Side On Passes

11 Medicine Ball Rotations ­ Seated Backward Passes

12 Medicine Ball V Sit Ups ­ Catch and Pass

Note: The Medicine Ball is an external load and should be considered carefully. Begin with a light Beach Ball type of ball, move to Soccer Ball and finally on to a light Medicine Ball.

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Table 83 ~ Flexibility

Lower Body

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Adductor

02 Calf

03 Gluteus

04 Quadriceps

05 Hamstring

06 Hip Flexor

To achieve lengthening hold the stretch for 30­60sec. Only consider ‘dynamic’ activity when length has been achieved.

Start with active stretching before moving to passive (assisted) stretching. Only use dynamic actions when length has been achieved.

Upper Body

Clip Title Main Coaching Issues Progression 01 Abdominals

02 Arms

03 Rotator Cuff

04 Lateral Trunk

05 Back ­ Lower and Upper

06 Chest

07 Shoulders

To achieve lengthening hold the stretch for 30­60sec. Only consider ‘dynamic’ activity when length has been achieved.

Start with active stretching before moving to passive (assisted) stretching. Only use dynamic actions when length has been achieved.

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Table 84 ~ Example Training Program 1 ­ Early Training to Train Stage: 11­12 Years

Clip Title Warm Up ­ Movement Theme

01 Skipping ­ Double Leg Standard

02 Skipping ­ Double Leg Lateral

03 Flexibility

04 Hip Mobility Walk Series ­ Pike Walk

05 Forward Roll ­ Jump

06 Cartwheel ­ Standard

Warm Up ­ Running Theme

01 Mini­Band Walks ­ Forward and Back

02 Tuck Jumps ­ Pause

03 Hurdle Mobility Walk ­ Level 2

Main Exercises

01 Squat ­ Back Barbell

02 Lunge 360 ­ Bodyweight

03 Push Ups ­ Leg Up

04 Pull Ups Lying ­ Full Range

Supplementary Exercises

01 Swiss Ball Single Leg Wall Squat ­ Standard

02 Back Reverse Flys ­ Lying Static Hold

Core

01 Front Bridge ­ 3P Hands Leg Up

02 Side Bridge ­ Forearm Star

03 MB Rotation ­ Standing Long ­ Slow

Warm Down ­ Flexibility

01 Flexibility

Key: MB ­ Medicine Ball

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Table 85 ~ Example Training Program 2 ­ Early Training to Train Stage: 11­12 years ­ An Integrated Session

Clip Title Warm Up ­ Movement Theme

01 Skipping ­ Alternate Leg High Knees

02 Skipping ­ Double Leg Square Pattern

03 Flexibility

04 Hip Mobility Walk Series ­ Spiderman

05 Backward Roll ­ Continuous

06 Cartwheel ­ Standard

Warm Up ­ Running Theme

01 Hurdle Mobility Walk ­ Level 3

02 Ankling Drill ­ Level 1

03 Mach A Drill ­ Level 1

Main Exercises

01 Acceleration Runs ­ Rollover Start

02 Squat ­ Hands Behind Head

03 Push Ups ­ Leg Up

04 Pull Ups Lying ­ Full Range

Core

01 Front Bridge ­ 3P Hands Leg Up

02 Side Bridge ­ Forearm Star

03 MB Rotation ­ Standing Long­Slow

Warm Down ­ Flexibility

01 Flexibility

Key: 3P ­ 3 Point; MB ­ Medicine Ball

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Table 86 ~ Example Training Program 3 ­ Late Training to Train Stage: 13­14 Years

Clip Title Warm Up ­ Movement Theme

01 Skipping ­ Single Leg Standard

02 Skipping ­ Single Leg Lateral

03 Flexibility

04 Backward Roll ­ 180 Jump

05 Bench Vaults ­ Continuous

06 Commando Roll

Warm Up ­ Running Theme

01 Hurdle Walk ­ Level 4

02 Wall Sprints ­ Level 3

03 Ankling Drill ­ Level 2

04 Mach A Drill ­ Level 3

Main Exercises

01 Squat ­ Back Barbell

02 Hurdle Hops ­ Continuous

03 Push Up ­ MB Cross Over

04 Chin Ups ­ Medium Grip

Supplementary

01 Two­Way Band Routine

Core

01 Side Bridge ­ Forearm Star MB Catch and Pass

02 Single Leg Bodyweight Squat ­ MB Pass

03 Barbell Rotation ­ Standing Long

Warm Down ­ Flexibility

01 Flexibility

Key: MB ­ Medicine Ball

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Table 87 ~ Physical Competence Tests 1 ­ Fundamental Stage

Clip Title Notes 01 Front Bridge ­ 4P Forearms

02 Side Bridge ­ Forearm

03 60º Sit Up Test

04 Back Extension ­ Static

05 Single Leg Static Squat Sequence

06 Double Leg Squat ­ Bodyweight

07 Single Leg Squat ­ Bodyweight

08 Lunge ­ Forward and Back

09 Landing Competence Series

10 Protraction ­ Retraction

11 Wall Angel

12 Push Up ­ Standard

13 Dips Bench ­ Feet Up

14 Lying Pull Ups ­ Full Range

3 positions.

Double Leg to Double Leg. Double Leg to Single Leg. Single Leg to Single Leg.

Key: 4P ­ 4 Point

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Table 88 ~ Physical Competence Tests 2 ­ Training to Train Stage

Clip Title Notes 01 Front Bridge ­ 3P Hands Leg Up

02 Side Bridge ­ Hand Star

03 Single Leg Squat ­ Box

04 Squat ­ Back Barbell

05 10m Lunge Walk

06 Dips ­ Straight Leg

07 Bench Press

08 Chin Ups

09 Bench Pull ­ Barbell

10 Standing Long Jump

11 5 Jumps

12 5 Hops

13 Back Extension ­ Static

14 Hanging Raises ­ Straight Leg

15 Hurdle Jumps ­ Square

16 Hurdle Hops ­ Square

Check balance, range and coordination.

Check balance and control on landing.

Check balance, direction and coordination.

Check balance, direction and coordination.

Check balance, coordination and precision.

Check balance, coordination and precision.

Key: 3P ­ 3 Point

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The Next Step: The Training to Compete Stage

This training period can only be navigated successfully if the basic training issues of the Fundamental and Training to Train stages have been successfully and permanently completed.

This training stage (15­20 years) will be the period when the coach and the still developing athlete take advantage of the huge investment undertaken in their previous commitments. Those athletes entering this stage with several years of adaptive training, will have accumulated a permanent and precise mastery of total structural strength, total structural stability, total structural flexibility and body awareness, and will be able to move forward with safety and confidence.

It also begins the phase of specialisation where the athlete makes the choice to pursue an individual sport and probably a specific position in team sports. Training can take on a ‘serious’ status but ‘fun’ must never be far away.

The strategy for this training stage and beyond will be based on the considerable experience of both the coach and the athlete as they raise their sights to the horizon that heralds the step into the senior ranks of sporting achievement. The Training to Compete stage is a preparation period for the final stages of an athlete’s development. It forms the platform for the Training to Win process that will take the athlete through to the end of their competitive career. This phase of an athlete’s development should not be seen as a series of new planning systems, sophisticated new exercises and new coaching techniques. The rules laid down pertaining to matching the training program to the athlete’s development stage still hold true. Particular attention must be paid to the male athlete at this time regarding his PHV. This training stage can see the male athlete experience accelerated growth and the coach must consider the implications to skill learning. A period of consolidation is recommended prior to embarking upon any advancement in loading and intensity. It is a stage where the lessons learned in the previous models are honed to an edge by both the coach and athlete in partnership.

The coach / athlete partnership can expect that improvement will arise from:

• continuing the development of technique • mastering the skills of ‘how’ to train in the context of maturing ‘life’ skills • experiencing varying competition environments • emphasising more sport specific training • developing more complex training systems • carefully adapting to an increase in external resistance

It is during this stage that the coach will make choices directed specifically towards high performance and as such there must be a greater emphasis on monitoring training. With advances in sport and position specific exercises and an all­round increase in physical and psychological demands it is a period where the spectre of ‘overtraining’ can raise its head. The general planning in previous stages, geared towards a low to moderate level of training intensity, will slowly give way to an increase in workload over longer periods of time. Any increase, be it in intensity, volume or both, must be done progressively with adequate periods of recovery deliberately constructed in the program. The greater the increase in physical demand, the more powerful the recovery practices must be. The coach and athlete will again have to prioritise the competing demands that often arise from various groups wanting the

WARNING! Do not enter without the required physical qualities

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athlete to represent them. The athlete, now entering a period where they can play a personal role in goal setting, will now be able to consider a more focused view on their participation.

Key Coaching Strategy: Training to Compete Stage (15­20yrs) (adapted and modified from Balyi & Hamilton, 2001)

• Double periodisation can be more effective for those with a long training history. • Training approaches consistent high intensity and specificity all year round. • Strength is developed through a greater emphasis on external loading and more

complex exercises. • Training the lactic energy system can be introduced. • More sports specific and individual specific work.

­ Check Peak Height Velocity • Simulation of all competition conditions including competition specific training. • Tapering techniques are more sophisticated. • Competition selection continues to be accurate and well balanced.

A double periodised year may now be a variable to consider. Table 89 illustrates the more sophisticated management of the training environment during the Training to Compete stage. The program allows the athlete to experience two high performance periods (Competition 1 and 2) where the intention is to bring all training properties to an integrated peak. In this way the coach can evaluate the progress of the athlete towards competition readiness and this first competition period acts as a rehearsal for the main test later in the year.

Table 89 ~ Example Periodisation: Double Periodised Year ­ Late Training to Compete Stage

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Phase

Phase Preparation Pre Comp

Comp 1

Preparation Pre Comp

Comp 2

T

Phase Gen Strength

Mx Str

P Mx Str

P M Gen Strength

Mx Str

P M T

Key: C1 ­ Competition 1; C2 ­ Main Competition; Gen ­ General; Mx Str ­ Maximum Strength; M ­ Maintain; P ­ Power; T ­ Transition;

There is less general training as a vast quantity of this training type has been developed over the preceding training stages. More specific work develops over this training stage as the coach directs the program towards efficiency in the specific muscle actions and physiological requirements of the sport.

Also illustrated is the manipulation of the intensities of training as the athlete adapts to maximum strength and power cycles in sequence. This manipulation is only effective after several years of focus on the fundamental issues of training in the Training to Train stage and early Training to Compete stage.

Other training variables can also be manipulated and it is possible for the coach to introduce higher intensity weeks (Tables 90 and 91), more complex exercise routines and loading varieties as the athlete improves their athletic, functional and technical development.

C2 C1

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Table 90 ~ Example of a Medium Intensity Training Week: Early to Mid Training to Compete Stage (adapted and modified from Bompa, 1993b)

Load Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun

High

Medium

Light

Low

Table 91 ~ Example of a High Intensity Training Week: Mid to Late Training to Compete Stage (adapted and modified form Bompa, 1993b)

Load Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun

High

Medium

Light

Low

The actual load development for each exercise can be carefully advanced as long as technique continues to be consolidated. Maximum Strength and Power development begin their journey and the ‘repetition and sets’ environment undergoes change. Tables 92 and 93 illustrate the manipulation techniques available to the coach.

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Table 92 ~ The Repetitions, Sets, Intensity and Rest Components for the Training to Compete Stage

QUALITY REPS SETS INTENSITY REST

Power Early T­C: 6­8 Late T­C: 4­6 3­4 30­70% 2­5 mins

General Strength Early T­C: 10­15 Late T­C: 8­10 3­6 40­75% 30­90 secs

Maximum Strength Early T­C: 6­8 Late T­C: 3­5 2­4 80­100% 2­5 min

Strength Endurance / Anatomical Adaptation

Early T­C: 15­50 Late T­C: 15­50 2­4 40­60% 15­60 secs

Key: T­C – Training to Compete

Table 93 ~ Example of Load Variations: Training to Compete Stage ­ General Strength Development Phase.

Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5

2 x 8 16 reps 75%

3 x 8 24 reps 75%

4 x 8 32 reps 75%

5 x 8 40 reps 75%

8866 28 reps 75%,75%, 80% 80%

In this example the load is increased in a linear fashion by increasing the number of sets and maintaining the repetition range and the intensity over the first 4 weeks. The final week sees a lowering of volume back to 28 repetitions with a slight increase in intensity (80% for the repetitions of 6).

It is also possible to make the exercise selection a more complex one by mixing different intensity ranges during the exercise unit. Table 94 indicates the use of a maximum strength and power combination using Squats.

Table 94 ~ Example of ‘Back Squat ­ Jump Squat’ Contrast Training: Late Training to Compete Stage

Back Squat 2­5 min Rest Jump Squat X 3 @ 90­95% x 6 @ 30%

Repeat for 4 sets

With all these variables at the coach’s disposal it is important to state that perhaps the greatest trait the coach can have is patience. This often ignored human characteristic is absolutely vital in the early stages of training, but is also crucial in the Training to Compete stage, as the temptation for immediate results still pervades the environment. For the successful athlete the

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world of representative sport can now beckon and there are regional, national, international, World Youth and World Junior championships to contend with. Alongside all these attractive competition platforms the coach must lay the foundation for an injury free, consistent and long term athletic life for the athlete.

164

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Giorgi, Anthony (Precision Movements) (1999­2002). Tennis S&C Training Programs 1999­ 2002.

Giorgi, Anthony; Wilson GJ; Weatherby RP and Murphy, A (1996). Functional Isometric Weight Training: It’s effect on the development of muscular function and the endocrine system. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research (USA). 12(1): 18­25.

Giorgi, Anthony (1996). Speed and Agility Training for Success in Touch. Australian Strength and Conditioning Association Journal. 4(2): 13­17.

Klatt, Lois (1988). Personal conversation on balance and stabilisation testing. Klatt is Director of Physical Performance Laboratory, Concordia College, River Forest, Illinois. In Gambetta, V, Plyometrics – myths and misconceptions, Sports Coach, summer 1998.

McGill, Stuart (2002). Low Back Disorders. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics.

Wilson, GJ., Murphy, A., and Giorgi, A (1996). The effect of weight and plyometric training on the development of eccentric and concentric force. Canadian Journal of Physiology. 21(4): 301­315.

Further information on Movement Dynamics can be found at:

movementdynamics.com