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CHS 505/506: Wisdom from Church HistoryMarc Cortez

Western SeminaryPortland, OR

THE REFORMATION (1517-1660)OVERVIEW

I. Major Periods: The Reformation (1517-1660)

II. Political Developments

A. The Hapsburg Empire and the German Principalities

B. The Kingdom of England

C. The Kingdom of France

D. Spain and the New World

E. The Papal States

III. Significance of the Era

A. Ecclesially, the Reformation era stands as one of the decisive turning points in the history of the church.

1. The Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation mark the culmination of

centuries of _____________________ efforts.

2. The institutional _____________________ of the church in the west ends.

CHS 505/506: Reformation 5/7/2023 Page 1

3. The ecclesial ____________________of the west is decided, even in the New World.

4. The _____________________ church begins to take prominence over the

_____________________ church.

B. Theologically, the Reformation era forces Christian thinkers all over Europe to

_____________________ and _____________________ their position and the position of

the church as a whole on a number of critical theological issues.

C. Politically, the Reformation era witnesses…

1. The rise of the _____________________ church

2. The roots of the _____________________ state

3. The widespread practice of intra-Christian and explicitly religious ______________.

THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION (1517-1660)

I. Prelude to Reformation

A. The Political Background

1. The Ottoman Threat

2. Dynastic Tensions in Europe


B. The Cultural Background

1. The Age of Discovery

a) This period witnessed a nearly unprecedented explosion of knowledge about the geography and cultural diversity of the world.

b) In addition, the discovery and conquest of the New World, led to unrivalled wealth and economic expansion.

c) All of these new developments contributed to a society that was somewhat unsettled.

2. Erasmian Humanism

a) Erasmus (1466-1536)

(1) Erasmus was a renowned Dutch humanist.

(2) Though a faithful member of the Church, he was also one of its most prominent critics, calling for reform through a series of biting satires.

(3) His main emphasis was that of Christian freedom—the common Christian needs to be free from the rules and rites that obscured the true meaning of the Christian faith.

(4) Viewed as an ally of the Reformation in its earliest stages, he disagreed sharply with Luther on a number of key points and ultimately rejected the movement.

(5) Key writings:

(a) Enchridion militis Christiani (“Handbook of the Christian Soldier”)

(b) The Praise of Folly

(c) De libero arbitrio

b) Likeminded humanist thinkers throughout Europe were also calling for reforms in church and society.

3. Dissatisfied Classes

a) Growing restless at their economic and political disadvantages, the large number of peasants in Europe were always open to the idea of social reform.

b) The new ‘middle’ class was looking to extend its growing influence, particularly in the towns, and was quick to seize opportunities to strengthen its position.

c) The aristocratic upper-classes were also looking to use reform movements as ways of resisting the growing power of the king as well as reduce the financial and legal prerogatives of the Church.


C. The Ecclesial Background

1. The Papacy and the Problem of Authority

a) Avignon Papacy

b) The Great Schism

c) The Conciliar movement.

2. Dissatisfaction with the Status of the Clergy

a) The reformers often leveled the charge of widespread immorality and laxity among the clergy, although this may well have been more rhetoric than reality.

b) A more legitimate concern involved the significant theological and biblical ignorance of the clergy.

c) There was continued criticism of the practices of simony and nepotism among the higher ecclesial ranks.

D. The Theological Background

1. The Authority of _____________________?

a) Catholic theologians were actually divided on the question of how Scripture and Tradition are related to one another.

(1) Option 1: The Bible alone is finally authoritative in the Church, but it can only be properly interpreted by the magisterium through tradition in accord with church councils.

(2) Option 2: The Bible and Tradition are both equally authoritative in the Church, each of which can only be properly interpreted by the magisterium in accord with church councils.

b) The Reformers were almost universally united in arguing that the Bible alone is the Word of God and is finally authoritative in the life of the Church.

(1) The Bible is the inspired Word of God.

(2) The Bible is understandable to all believers.

(3) The Bible should be accessible to all believers.


2. Salvation by _____________________?

a) Traditional Catholic theology always strove to emphasize…

(1) Salvation is a work of grace.

(2) The work of salvation always begins with God.

(3) The believer must cooperate (synergism) with God’s act of grace to be saved.

b) Though agreeing that salvation is by grace, some late medieval theologians had come to emphasize that…

(1) The work of salvation begins with humanity.

(2) On the basis of his graceful determination alone, God has decreed that he will grant grace to anyone who does the best they can.

c) Many reform minded thinkers responded quite negatively to this and argued that salvation from beginning to end is a work of grace alone (i.e., sola gratia)…

(1) The work of salvation begins and ends with God (monergism).

(2) The believer simply receives the benefits of this divinely determined salvation.

3. Salvation by _____________________?

a) Catholic theologians of the middle ages had come to understand justification as something which comes by grace mediated through the sacraments in two distinct stages:

(1) Initial justification:

(2) Final justification:

b) Many reformers rejected this approach and argued that justification comes through faith alone (i.e., sola fidei—at no point are we justified on the basis of our own works.

(1) Justification is a legal declaration of innocence on the basis of a righteousness that is always alien to the believer and which results in sanctification.

(2) Final salvation, then, is on the basis of Christ’s alien righteousness alone; never the righteousness of the believer.

(3) This is often referred to as the material principle of the reformation.


4. Salvation through _____________________?

a) Catholic theology had always clearly affirmed that salvation comes through Jesus Christ and no other.

b) Nonetheless, the sacramental system and the understanding of the priest as the mediator between God and man, seemed to many reformers as a contradiction of that basic principle.

(1) Salvation comes to human persons through Jesus Christ alone (i.e., solus Christus).

(2) There is no other mediator between human persons and God.

(3) All believers, then, are priests before God (i.e., the priesthood of all believers).

E. Pre-reformation thinkers

1. Some crying out against the hierarchy of the church (Cathars, Waldensians)

2. Some calling for the reform of the church (Hus, Waldo, Wycliff, Savanarola, Gregory)

3. Some calling for and enabling the universal accessibility of Scripture (Wycliffe, Tyndale, Gutenberg, Erasmus)

F. Rise of Nationalism

II. The German Reformation

A. The Beginnings of Protest

1. Martin Luther (1483-1546)

a) Early Life

(1) Born to a lawyer’s family in Eisleben Germany.

(2) Educated to be a lawyer, he decides to become an Augustinian monk after a lightning storm (1505).

b) Monastic & Academic Life

(1) Terrified by his own sin, Luther dedicates himself to a rigorous practice of the monastic life.

(2) Johann von Staupitz, his superior, orders him to pursue an academic career and he begins teaching at the University of Wittenberg, a small and virtually unknown academic institution (1508).

(3) Luther lectures extensively on Psalms, Hebrews, Romans, and Galatians leading (at some point) to a renewed understanding of the “the just (righteous) shall live by faith.”


2. The 95 Theses (1517)a) The theses were directed to the Archibishop of Mainz and were an invitation

to debate regarding the legitimacy of the sale of indulgences.

b) Luther was particularly upset by the practices of Johann Tetzel.

“As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs.”

c) He protested that such pardons could come from God alone.

d) Though he took steps to make sure that his concerns were heard beyond Wittenberg, he apparently never intended this action to have the consequences it did in the church.

e) Luther’s 95 Theses shook Europe.

(1) Though the debate was never held, the 95 theses were quickly translated and spread throughout Europe.

(2) By challenging indulgences, Luther was undermining the authority of the Church, the centrality of the Church in salvation, and the sacramental structure of Church life (whether or not he originally intended to do all this is a separate question).

B. The Beginnings of a New Theology

1. The Heidelberg Disputation (1518)

a) Although Luther is clearly stretching his theological wings with the 95 Theses, his most distinct theological characteristics do not really emerge until he writes the theses for a debate in Heidelberg.

b) It appears to be at this point that Luther really comes to understand that the “righteousness of God” is a gift that he provides rather than an impossible task that he demands.


2. This theological trajectory continued to develop in three important works that he wrote in 1520.

a) To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation (1) In this work, Luther summoned the nobles to support the cause of the

reformation. (2) For the first time, Luther publicly suggested that the Pope is the

antichrist.

b) On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church (1) Here Luther set out his understanding of the sacraments, rejecting 5

of the traditional ones. (2) According to Luther, the “captivity” of the Church involved the

withholding of the cup from the laity, the doctrine of transubstantiation, and viewing the Eucharist as a sacrifice.

(3) This work marked a decisive change in the tone of the debate, with Luther clearly calling the Pope the antichrist and explicitly rejecting the sacramental system.

c) On the Freedom of the Christian(1) Now Luther developed the idea that Christians are truly free from the

Law through God’s grace, but that they now freely and willingly are “slaves” to God and their neighbors.

(2) This work sets out in detail Luther’s understanding of justification by faith and the priesthood of all believers.

C. The Turning Point: The Diet of Worms (1521)

1. The church responded surprisingly slowly to the issues and problems raised by Luther:

a) The pope appears not to have taken the problem very seriously at first, dismissing Luther as “a drunken German” who “when sober will change his mind.”

b) Luther enjoyed substantial political support from the highly influential elector Frederick the Wise.

c) So, instead of reacting quickly and decisively, the church spent the three years after the publication of the 95 Theses on a number of papal theologians and envoys.

2. During this time, three developments shaped the course of subsequent events:

a) Excommunication proceedings were begun against Luther in Rome.

(1) After a series of ‘investigations’, the Pope issued the papal bull Exsurge Domine instructing Luther that he risked excommunication unless he recants (1520).

(2) Finally the Pope excommunicated Luther (Jan. 1521)


b) An intense theological controversy broke out between Luther and his supporter Carlstadt on one side and Catholic theologians like Johann Eck on the other.

c) Luther wrote an impressive number of popular devotional tracts in German tracts, as a result of which he became immensely popular among the people.

3. Finally, Luther is summoned and appeared before an imperial diet in Worms with a promise of safe conduct from the Emperor Charles V, which had been arranged by Luther’s patron Frederick the Wise (April 17, 1521).

a) Johann Eck presented Luther’s writings to him and asked him if we wished to retract anything.

b) Surprisingly, Luther requested some time to formulate his response and the next day gives his response.

(1) He contended that his works can be categorized as (1) those that are of simply piety that no Christian would condemn, (2) those that were critical of serious abuses he believed no one would want to defend, and (3) those that contained very harsh criticisms that may have overstated and which he would be willing to retract if error could be proven from Scripture.

(2) This response was deemed insufficient by the diet and a more explicit response was called for.

(3) Luther finally offered his famous reply: “Unless I shall be convinced by the testimonies of the Scriptures or by clear reason…I neither can nor will make any retraction, since it is neither safe nor honourable to act against conscience. Here I stand, may God help me. Amen.”

c) Luther’s response was not received warmly by the diet.

(1) First, one church official pointed out the dangers of individual Bible interpretation that contradicted earlier church councils.

(2) The emperor echoed this concern and called Luther “a notorious heretic” who would have to be silenced.

(3) After lengthy consideration, the diet approved Luther’s condemnation and declared him a criminal who had committed high treason.

(4) By this time, however, Luther had left Worms and was under the protection of Frederick the Wise.


4. The diet at Worms marked the beginning of a new stage in the controversy:

a) After the diet it became clear that the theological controversy was not exclusively about Luther, but actually comprised a widespread chorus of voices.

b) The diet also marked the turning point from being an ecclesial affair limited to an obscure school in northern Germany, to be an affair of state that involved the most powerful people in Europe.

D. The Beginnings of a Movement

1. Despite its significance, the Edict of Worms had limited impact because of…

a) Frederick’s continued political support.

b) Luther’s increasing popular support.

c) Emperor Charles’ focus on affairs in Spain, the conflict with France, and the Ottoman threat.

d) the divided political situation in Germany.

2. The Spread of ‘Lutheranism’

a) From Wittenberg the Reformation sweeps out to affect all of Europe—seeing the eventual conversion of much of Germany, Scandinavia, and Eastern Europe.

b) In 1529 the Diet of Speyer tried again to stop the spread of Luther’s teaching; against which a number of German princes and free cities file a protest, and are labeled “Protestants.”

3. The new movement was marked by significant diversity

a) At the core of the movement was the simple assertion that all of Christian life had to be subjected to Scripture.

b) Other than this basic conviction, however, there was little theological cohesion among those calling for reform.

c) Even in the area of reform, there were substantial points of disagreement.

(1) Which areas of church practice need reforming?

(2) How should reform be brought about?

(3) Should theological reform be included?


(4) How quickly should reform take place?

4. Only gradually did the fledgling movement begin to understand that it was creating a new church.

a) None of the early reformers understand themselves to be calling for a separation for the church; they were all calling for the reform of the church.

b) Nonetheless, eventually the implications of their own theology and the resistance of the Church to their ideas led them to form new ecclesial structures.

c) Nearly everywhere the Reformation took hold, it followed the same basic pattern:

(1) Some individual or group of individuals began proclaiming vaguely ‘Lutheran’ ideas (e.g., sola scriptura, freedom of the believer, etc.).

(2) The people in that area would be clamoring for changes in ecclesial practices.

(3) The governmental authorities would get involved.

(4) Eventually new ecclesiastical structures would form with the support of the government to sustain the theological and ecclesial reforms.

5. The Marburg Colloquy (1529)

a) In order to foster greater doctrinal unity and cooperation among the various reform movements, Philip I of Hesse organized a gathering of reformers at Marburg.

b) The reformers were able to agree on nearly every point of doctrine except communion.

(1) Though rejecting the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, Luther argued that the body of Christ was really present in the elements of the Eucharist (consubstantiation).

(2) Luther’s views were hotly contested by several other reformers, especially those associated with Ulrich Zwingly, who affirmed a symbolic relationship between the elements and Christ.

c) The gathering foreshadowed the fact that the reformation would result in separate churches.


6. The Diet of Augsburg (1530)

a) Seeking to foster greater unity in the kingdom against the Turkish threat, Charles V convened an imperial diet in Augsburg.

b) This not only provided the Protestants another chance to present their case to the emperor, but even more importantly, it offered a chance for the reformers to clarify their theological thinking on a number of important issues.

c) Philip Melancthon (1497-1560)

(1) Melancthon was a German theologian and humanist scholar who was Luther’s right-hand man throughout the reformation.

(2) Less of a polemicist than Luther, Melancthon was more skilled in systematic thinking.

(3) Augsburg Confession

(a) Melancthon composed the Augsburg Confession as a summation of Protestant theology to be presented to the emperor.

(b) Though the Confession was based on earlier articles written by Luther, it was mainly the work of Melancthon.

(c) Luther affirmed that it was wholly in agreement with his theology, though he thought it too irenic in places.

E. The Religious Wars

1. The Peasants’ War (1524-1525)

a) Understanding the reformers’ attacks on the church hierarchy to entail a rejection of secular hierarchy and fed up by the abuses of the nobles, peasants in and around Germany revolted.

b) Under the leadership of Thomas Münzer, the peasant revolt turned into an all-out war with many atrocities.

c) Luther responded devastatingly with a work entitled Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants, in which he encouraged the nobles to crush the revolt—a response the peasants interpreted as a betrayal.

2. The Schmalkald League (1531)

a) After the Diet of Augsburg at which the emperor rejected Melancthon’s Augsburg Confession, the emperor for the first time threatened to take a strong stand against the Protestant employing the full weight of his Spanish resources.

b) To protect themselves and their religious convictions, the Protestant leaders joined together in the Schmalkald League.


c) Faced with such united opposition in Germany, and needing a united empire to withstand external threats by France and the Turks, the emperor agree to the Peace of Nuremberg (1532).

3. The War of Schmalkald (1547)

a) Protestantism continued to expand despite the agreement at Nuremberg and seemed on the verge of overwhelming Germany under the political leadership of Philip of Hesse.

b) In the 1540’s the Protestant cause suffered a series of tremendous setbacks with the discovery that Philip of Hesse was a practicing bigamist, the death of Martin Luther, and a significant military defeat.

4. The Peace of Augsburg (1547)

a) Despite the emperor’s victory, the cost of pursuing the war would have been far too high.

b) He thus entered into a “Interim” agreement with the Protestant rulers that established the policity “cuius regio, eius religio (“whose reign, that religion”).

c) Though the agreement ended the war, it failed to deal with all of the tensions.

5. The Thirty Years War (1616-1648)

a) The Peace of Augsburg left Germany in a situation in which a return to warfare was almost inevitable.

(1) Many Lutheran leaders refused to abide by the agreement.

(2) Anabaptist and Calvinist groups were left out entirely.

(3) Both sides entered into the agreement for reasons of expedience alone.

b) Continued political and religious tensions along with widespread concern about the growing power of the Hapsburgs led to a renewal of the fighting.

c) Though aided by England, the Netherlands, and Denmark the Protestants suffered early setbacks.

d) Then Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, entered the war and crushed the Catholic armies in several engagements.

e) Adolphus was soon killed in battle and the war slipped into a prolonged state of low-level warfare in which Spain (on the side of the Catholics) and France (on the side of the Protestants) became increasingly involved.


6. The Peace of Westphalia (1648)

a) Finally, both sides grew tired of the devastating stalemate produced by the war and agreed to end the fighting.

b) The significance of the agreement:

(1) Both sides agreed to adhere to the policies of the Peace of Augsburg.

(2) Minority Christian groups in each region were granted the right to practice their faith in public during allotted times.

(3) France and Sweden both gained significant political/territorial advantages.

(4) The treat contributed to the development of the modern secular state as it marked a key turning point in states making decisions for largely secular reasons.

III. The Swiss Reformation

A. Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)

1. Background

a) A priest in Switzerland, the early Zwingli was a staunch defender of the Pope.

b) After becoming the priest of a prominent church in Zürich, he began to question church dogma.

c) His completed his movement away from the Catholic church by criticizing the sale of indulgences (1519), renouncing his papal pension (1520), and getting married (1524).

2. The Reformation in Zürich.

a) He had significant influence on Zurich’s city council and eventually persuades them that all religious teaching must be based on the Bible.

b) His ministry was opposed by Catholics on the one side and by Anabaptists who wanted and even more immediate and radical reform on the other.

c) Zwingli eventually became the political head of Zürich and leads it into war with the Catholic cantons, dying in battle at Kappel.

d) The Reformation spread from Zürich throughout Switzerland, though some Swiss cantons remained firmly Catholic.


B. John Calvin (1509-1564)

1. Background

a) Born in Picardy, part of France, Calvin initially intended to be a priest but eventually followed his father in studying law instead.

b) Experiencing a sudden conversion (1533), he broke from Catholicism, left France, and settled as an exile in Switzerland.

2. The Pastor

a) He caught the attention of the reformers in Geneva and was recruited to serve as the pastor there (1536).

b) He was soon expelled from the city by the council and served as a pastor in Strasbourg for three years (1538-1541).

c) He was then invited back to Geneva by the city council where he remained until his death (1564).

3. The Reformation in Geneva

a) Geneva was a city of notoriously lax morals and Calvin wanted to see it become a holy city.

b) He worked closely with the city council (contrary to popular opinion Calvin never ruled Geneva) to enforce moral norms throughout the city.

c) Although these reforms were generally embraced by the people of Geneva, Geneva also developed a reputation for unyielding harshness as it strove to implement its ideals throughout its sphere of influence; the most egregious example being the burning of the anti-Trinitarian heretic Michael Servetus.

4. Calvin’s Influence on the Reformation

a) From the beginning, Calvin had a keen interest in spreading Protestant ideals throughout Europe.

b) He founded the Genevan Academy specifically for training Protestant missionaries to spread the reform; these missionaries were particularly influential in France and the Low Countries.

c) As a result Calvin’s theological writings quickly became the standard for Protestant theology across Europe.

d) Geneva quickly became the shining star of the Reformation, being described by the Scottish reformer John Knox as “the most perfect school of Christ since the days of the apostles.”


5. Key works:

a) Commentaries and sermons

b) Institutes of the Christian Religion

(1) Went through several editions, each of which involved substantial changes.

(2) Became the single most influential theological work of the reformation.

(3) Intended to provide a starting point for the proper understanding of Scripture and, thus, to serve his commentaries.

C. The Swiss Tradition

1. Early in the Swiss reformation, there were significant theological and ecclesial differences between the reformers in Zurich and those in Geneva.

2. Discussions between Zwingli’s successor, Heinrich Bullinger, and Calvin, however, led to a union of these two branches.

3. This united Swiss tradition would go on to be the single most influential branch of Protestant theology.

IV. The English Reformation

A. The last century had been a turbulent one for the Catholic Church in England.

1. Earlier movements had set the stage for reform.

a) John Wycliff and the Lollards

b) William Tyndale and the Tyndale Bible

2. Like the rest of Europe, many church leaders were concerned about the current situation of the church with its wealthy bishops, immoral clergy, and rampant superstition in the general population.

3. Large segments of the English church, then, were well disposed to the ideas set forth in Luther’s writings.

B. The Act of Supremacy (1534)

1. Henry VII was no protestant; indeed, he had earlier written a tract against Luther for which the Pope had designated him “Defender of the Faith,” a title still claimed by English monarchs.


2. Nonetheless, Henry, desperately wanting his marriage to Catherine of Aragon annulled—something the Pope feared to do given Catherine’s relationship to the Hapsburg emperor Charles V—broke from the Catholic Church and formed the independent Anglican Church.

a) The King of England was now viewed as the head of the English national church.

b) The Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, became its highest clergy office.

C. Henry’s “Reforms”

1. Henry wanted to retain the greater part of Catholic theology and practice, desiring only institutional separation.

2. He departed from official Catholic practice in two ways:

a) He closed the monasteries and confiscated their land and wealth.

b) He ordered an English Bible to be installed in all churches.

D. The Anglican Church after Henry

1. Edward IV & Thomas Cranmer

a) After Henry’s death (1547) his son Edward IV became king.

b) Thomas Cranmer had long been interested in pursuing reformation ideals in England and with the passing of Henry became more bold, discontinuing both private confessions to priests and clerical celibacy, while at the same time inviting many Calvinist scholars to serve as professors at English universities.

c) He introduced the Book of Common Prayer (1549) and the Act of Uniformity (1549) mandated its use in all English churches.

2. Mary (reigned 1553-1558)

a) The end of Edward’s brief reign saw Henry’s daughter Mary take the throne.

b) A committed Catholic, she sought to reverse many of the protestant changes brought about during Edward’s rule.

c) She earned her moniker “Bloody Mary” by overseeing the execution of many protestant leaders (nearly 300), including Thomas Cranmer (many others fled, some to Geneva and returned later as influential Puritan leaders).

3. Elizabeth (reigned 1558-1603)

a) Elizabeth re-instituted the Church of England and the 39 Articles were officially accepted by the English parliament as its official theology.

b) The via media (“middle way”)

(1) Elizabeth sought to find a compromise position between Protestantism and Catholicism.


(2) In so doing she established an approach to Christianity which combines a prayer book, ecclesial polity, and liturgy that retain a Catholic “flavor,” with a clearly Protestant theology.

(3) This approach continues to characterize the Anglican church today.

E. The English Civil War

1. The Religious Situation in England and Scotland

a) The Anglican Church.

(1) The Anglican Church was still the established church and pursuing the “Middle Way” laid out by Elizabeth.

(2) William Laud was the most influential churchman of the age and he instituted a number of totalitarian measures to bring about religious uniformity.

b) The Scottish Presbyterians

(1) Calvinist theology in Scotland was well established by this point and the Scottish Presbyterians had come to exercise significant influence in the Scottish parliament.

(2) They had also opposed the Scottish king, James VI, on a number of occasions whom they had always suspected of having “Romanist” designs.

c) Puritans

(1) Many theologians in England felt that the Elizabethan reform of the church had not gone far enough and that the Anglican “Middle Way” was a sinful compromise.

(2) These mostly Calvinist thinkers wanted to “purify” the church by removing the trappings of Catholicism and espousing a more consistent form of Calvinist theology.

(3) Key emphases:

(a) Personal salvation is entirely from God.

(b) Scripture provides the only indispensable guide to life.

(c) The Church’s polity and practice should reflect only the express teaching of the Bible.

(d) Society was one unified whole.

(4) Key figures:


(a) William Perkins (1558-1602)

(i) He tried to further the Puritan desire for deep reform through the channels of quality pastoral care and genuine spirituality rather than through civil legislation.

(ii) He also introduced to Puritanism the art of casuistry, viz. the application of general ethical and spiritual principles to individual cases of conscience.

(iii) He gave great attention to the dynamics of conversion and the basis for assurance.

(b) Samuel Rutherford (1600-1661)

(i) A Scottish pastor and theologian, he was one of the divines who gathered as part of the Westminster Assembly.

(ii) He argued that the monarchy, while divinely appointed, was responsible to serve the people and was to be forfeited if it practiced an ungodly rule; thus the covenant between king and God had not just privileges, but responsibilities as well.

(c) John Bunyan (1628-1688)

(i) One of the leading puritan thinkers of his day, Bunyan was arrested several times for being a nonconformist.

(ii) His primary work, Pilgrim’s Progress (1678), is an allegory of the Christian life and became one of the most influential Christian devotional books written.

d) Independents (i.e., Pilgrims)

(1) Similar to the puritans, the pilgrims rejected the Anglican approach.

(2) But, unlike the puritans who espoused the need to reform the church from within, the independents/pilgrims were separatists who espoused congregationalism and wanted the right to worship independently of the Anglican hierarchy.

e) A variety of other groups, including Baptists and Quakers, contributed to the tremendous diversity of English religious life.

2. Growing tension and civil war

a) James VI/I

(1) When Elizabeth died without heir, the English crown was offered to James VI of Scotland who became James I of England.


(2) James wanted to establish an absolute monarchy along the lines of the French kings and in order to do so he felt that he needed to establish more firmly the authority of the episcopacy against the wishes of the puritans.

(3) Despite the growing tension with the puritans, James did authorize a new translation of the Bible, which came to be known as the King James Version (1611).

(a) Indisputably, this became the most influential English translation ever.

(b) Even people who have never read a King James version Bible are still familiar with phrases like “the skin of my teeth,” “Woe is me!” “a drop in the bucket,” “my brother’s keeper,” “holier than thou,” and many others.

(4) James’ reign was, therefore, marked by growing tension between the monarchy, the Anglican establishment, and more Calvinist minded reformers; a tension that was reflected within parliament itself.

b) Charles I

(1) Charles continued his father’s centralizing tendencies, a decision that led to increasing conflict with parliament and the puritan/independent elements of society.

(2) After a period of growing conflict, civil war broke out; the increasingly puritan parliament turned to the Presbyterians in Scotland for assistance while Charles looked to Catholic Ireland.

c) Parliamentary Rule and the Westminster Assembly (1643-1649)

(1) Parliament quickly moved to abolish the episcopal system and summoned an assembly to meet at Westminster Abbey to help establish a Presbyterian system.

(2) Over a six year period, the assembly produced the Westminster Confession (1646), along with a shorter and longer catechism, which was clearly Calvinist in opposition to the more Arminian direction of the Anglican church.


3. The Protectorate

a) After a short war the parliamentary armies were led to victory by Oliver Cromwell, a staunch puritan, and both William Laud and Charles I were executed.

b) Tensions within parliament led Cromwell dissolve parliament and rule on his own—i.e., the Protectorate.

c) Cromwell instituted a series of reforms and puritanism became the dominant religious force in England until Cromwell’s death in 1658.

d) His son, Richard, did not have the leadership abilities of his father and he resigned.

4. The Restoration (1660)

a) Richard’s resignation paved the way for the restoration of both monarchy and the episcopal system under Charles II.

b) Reversing the gains of Presbyterianism, an Act of Uniformity was passed, with the result that over 2000 ministers in England and Scotland were ejected from the Church of England for nonconformity.

5. The Glorious Revolution (1668)

a) Although James II tried to mediate some of the effects of this bill when he came into power, his staunch support of Roman Catholicism led to widespread discontent.

b) After three years, William, Prince of Orange, was invited to become the king of England, which he did.

c) Under William and Mary (his wife), an Act of Toleration was passed in 1689 that significantly reduced the persecution of non-conformists, though they were still required to support the Anglican clergy (Catholics were excepted from the Act of Toleration, and were persecuted).

V. The Reformation Elsewhere

A. The Radical Reformation

1. The Anabaptists

a) The magisterial reformers largely retained the Catholic ideal of a Christian state in which all citizens were baptized members of the same church and espousing the same creed.

b) Several of Zwingli’s associates, especially Conrad Grebel and Felix Manz, felt that the reformation needed to reject both this church/state connection and its understanding of baptism.

(1) Such thinkers tended to emphasize the free will of the human person in accepting salvation and the autonomy of the local church.


(2) Rejecting infant baptism, then, they affirmed that believers who had been baptized as infants needed to be baptized again (i.e., they were ana-baptists).

(3) They also tended to be strongly pacifistic and to affirm congregational church government over more hierarchical approaches.

c) They quickly came into conflict with the other reformers.

(1) A combination of factors contributed to this: (1) theological disagreement, (2) disunity regarding the speed with which change should be instituted in the church, and (3) their eventual association with more radical elements of the reformation.

(2) They were routinely persecuted by nearly every segment of the protestant church.

(3) Nonetheless, the movement spread through the evangelistic zeal of its members and the rise of significant leaders like Menno Simons, Melchior Hoffman, Jacob Hutter, and Balthasar Hubmaier.

(4) They became particularly influential in the areas that are now Belgium and the Netherlands.

2. The Spirituals

a) This group comprises a number of reformers who either claimed to receive particular revelation from the Holy Spirit or who sought to institute a spiritual utopia on earth (often both).

b) Zwikau Prophets

c) Thomas Müntzer and the Peasants War

d) Münster Rebellion


3. The Rationalists

a) A third group of radical reformers relied more heavily on the use of reason in developing their theological convictions (e.g., Michael Servetus, Juan de Valdes, and Faustus Socinus).

b) These thinkers tended to be united in rejecting the doctrine of the Trinity and any substitutionary view of the atonement.

c) Unsurprisingly, they were resoundingly condemned and persecuted by the reformers (Servetus being executed in Geneva during Calvin’s ministry).

B. John Knox and the Scottish Reformation

1. Early Scottish reformers had been executed for their faith in St. Andrews.

2. John Knox, and early supporter of these reformers, was captured and, upon his release, lived in England for a while under Edward IV before fleeing when Mary took the throne.

3. Having become a great disciple of Calvin, he returned to Scotland (1559) where he led Protestant opposition to Mary, Queen of Scots who was sympathetic to Catholicism.

4. The Scottish parliament eventually accepted a Calvinist confession of faith (1560), which led to the establishment of the Scottish presbyterian church.

C. The Low Countries (i.e., Belgium and the Netherlands)

1. This area had long been a stronghold for those who wanted reform in the church.

2. All three main branches of the continental reformation (Lutheran, Calvinist, and Anabaptist) had significant influence in the Low Countries, but ultimately it was the Calvinist approach that rooted most firmly.

3. The Low Countries were a part of the Hapsburg Empire and their shift towards Protestantism was hotly contested by both Charles V and his son Philip II.

4. Through a series of missteps, Philip fostered a widespread rebellion that lasted for many years and eventually saw the creation of an independent Protestant state under the rulership of William of Orange.


5. The Dutch Wars (i.e., The Eighty Years War) (1568-1648)

a) The Spanish Netherlands had long been fighting against the Hapsburg empire for its independence.

b) After initial setbacks, the northern provinces established a de facto level of independence despite continued tension.

c) The southern provinces remained under the control of the Spanish empire.

d) The rebels were frequently supported by the French kings as a way of undermining the influence and power of the Hapsburgs.

D. The Reformation in France

1. The early stages of the reformation received an ambivalent response from Francis I, the King of France, as he vacillated between allowing a measure of freedom and ordering vigorous persecution.

2. Despite this resistance, Calvinism came France in 1555 and was firmly established by 1559. The French Protestants became known as Huguenots.

3. St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (1572)

a) Indeed, the French Protestants became some numerous and influential that were courted by various French royals in their political machinations.

b) Eventually, some of the French royals became concerned about their growing power and influence and the Queen, Catherine de Medici, order the massacre of all the Protestant leaders in Paris (some 2,000 people).

c) This was followed by a widespread campaign against the Huguenots that resulted in the deaths of more than 30,000.

4. The Edict of Nantes (1598)

a) Some measure of peace was restored when Henry IV issued a decree granting freedom to worship in any church they had established by the previous year, except in Paris.

b) Unfortunately, the edict was revoked by Louis XIV in 1685 resulting in the dispersal of the Huguenots into England, Holland, Prussia, and America.

5. The Huguenot Struggles

a) After the Edict of Nantes, the Huguenots in France experienced a period of relative stability during which they grew in numbers and consolidated their power in several fortified cities granted them by Henry IV.

b) Cardinal Richelieu, concerned about the existence of an quasi-independent power inside France, destroyed the Huguenot cities after a lengthy siege at La Rochelle (1629).

c) Although Richelieu was content with the end of the Huguenot’s independent power, when Louis XIV took power he determine to unify France.


d) After a short period in which Louis tried to force the “reunion” of the Huguenots, he declared Protestantism illegal in France.

(1) Rather than live under such conditions, many Huguenots fled to other Protestant countries.

(2) Some remained as secret Protestants in France.

(a) A portion of these developed in to the French Reformed Church.

(b) Others took a more radical approach and engaged in a prolonged underground struggle against the French kings.

THE CATHOLIC REFORMATION (1560-1648)

I. The Fall and Rise of the Catholic Church

“It was, by all odds, the most turbulent of centuries for that Church, which at the beginning of the century was self-confident, yet challenged, and by the end was battered, yet self-confident. The sixteenth century was the time of both the greatest crisis and the greatest triumph for the roman Church; perhaps, one suspects, the latter would not have been possible without the former.” (Hillerbrand p. 267 ).

A. The Protestant reformation quickly spread across Europe and for a time it looked as though nothing could stop the spread of the Reformation.

B. Eventually, the Catholic church responded to the crisis, stemmed the tide of Protestant theology, and reclaimed many Protestant areas.

C. Combined with the tremendous spread of Catholicism throughout the new world, the sixteenth century can be viewed as era of unprecedented Catholic expansion.


II. The Challenge of Catholic Reform

A. The Catholic Reformers had a terribly difficult task in front of them.

1. The range of issues that demanded attention daunted even the staunchest reformer.

2. In addition, the Catholic reformers had to be careful that they called for reform without sounding like they were supporting Protestant theology.

3. Finally, they struggled with the natural disadvantage of being the group arguing in support of the status quo.

B. Initially, the Catholic reformers responded to the crisis with some desperation and righteous indignation.

C. Eventually, they adapted to the challenge of the times (supporting vernacular scriptures, writing popular catechisms, denouncing the new churches, etc.).

D. Throughout the Catholic reformers were clear in their argument that another council was necessary if the church were going to respond adequately to the need for reform.

III. Catholic Reformation Movements

A. The Spanish Reformation

1. Even before the Protestant Reformation, Isabella and Ferdinand had instituted rigorous reforms in the Spanish church.

2. This is the time of the Spanish Inquisition, an institution that remained in effect until the nineteenth century.

3. A group of mystically minded Spanish theologians were likewise influential in summoning the Spanish church to a deeper spirituality.

a) Teresa of Avila and the Discalced Carmelites

b) St. John of the Cross and the Dark Night of the Soul

B. The Jesuits

1. Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556): A Spanish soldier and adventurer, he had a conversion experience while recovering from his wounds that led him to found a new order.

2. The Order of the Jesuits was approved by the pope in 1540.

a) Though their initial purpose was to reach the Turks in Israel, the Protestant threat soon came to dominate their mission.

b) The Jesuits became the most effective tool in the Catholic arsenal for combating the spread of Protestantism and they led to the recovery of significant parts of Europe (especially in Germany and Hungary) for the Catholic Church.


c) They did not abandon their original missionary emphasis, however, and went on to become some of the most effective Catholic missionaries in the new world.

d) Famous Jesuits include the missionary Francis Xavier and the anti-Protestant polemicist Robert Bellarmine.

IV. The Council of Trent (1545-1563)

A. Although the early reformers’ pleas for reformation in the Catholic church fell on largely deaf ears during the pontificate of the worldly Leo X, a later pope, Paul III (1534-1549), was more sympathetic and he appointed a commission to examine the state of the church.

1. The commission’s report, Concerning the Reform of the Church, was pointed: popes and cardinals had become too worldly; bribery to gain church office was widespread; monasteries had lost their discipline; and the selling of indulgences was widely abused. (Protestants obtained a copy and published it as evidence of the church’s corruption.)

2. In 1537 Paul summoned a church council, which did not begin meeting until 1545.

3. As a result of a series a interruptions, the council actually conducted its business in three main sessions: 1545-7, 1551-2, and 1562-3.

B. The Participants

1. Turnout at the council was never very high (ranging from 34-255) and the majority of the attendees were Italian.

2. The participants also came with disparate ideas of the problems facing the church and their proper solutions.

C. The Decrees of the Council

1. Church Reform

a) They abolished the selling of indulgences, passed measures to combat clerical corruption, and condemned such practices as holding simultaneously several church offices, nepotism, and clerical mistresses.

2. Response to Protestantism

a) Generally, the council reaffirmed the traditional (medieval) position of the church on nearly every doctrine (esp. the nature and necessity of the sacraments for salvation).


b) After extended debate, the council rejected the Protestant understanding of justification and any attempts to mediate between the Protestant and the traditional Catholic position.

c) The council firmly rejected sola Scriptura, arguing instead that both tradition and Scripture are authoritative, denying the legitimacy of personal interpretations that depart from the magisterium, and affirming both the Latin Vulgate as the only official version of the Bible and the canonicity of the Apocrypha.

D. Impact of the Council

1. The Council of Trent helped to bring much-needed reform to the Catholic church.

a) It produced more definition and legislation than the previous eighteen ecumenical councils combined.

b) The council refined the church’s structure and marshalled its forces for the years ahead.

2. On matters of doctrine, however, the council made the gulf between Catholics and Protestants deep and lasting; in effect it confirmed as official church dogma the very doctrines challenged by the Protestants.

a) Any remaining hopes of reunion were dashed.

b) The Council of Trent defined what the church would be for four centuries.

3. Not until Vatican II in the 1960s did another major reexamination of such magnitude take place.


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