A Dictionary of Hallucinations

Jan Dirk Blom

A Dictionaryof Hallucinations

123

Jan Dirk Blom, M.D., Ph.D.Assistant Professor of PsychiatryParnassia Bavo Group

& University of GroningenParadijsappelstraat 22552 HX The HagueThe Netherlands

ISBN 978-1-4419-1222-0 e-ISBN 978-1-4419-1223-7DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-1223-7Springer New York Dordrecht Heidelberg London

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Cover illustration: 1. ‘The Absinthe Drinker’. Oil painting (c. 1903) by Viktor Oliva; 2. ‘Alice inWonderland’. Illustration (c. 1865) by John Tenniel 3. Functional MRI scans of the brain, axialslices, group analysis. The yellow, orange, and red areas represent an increase in the BOLD responseconcomitant to verbal auditory hallucinatory activity. Scan images courtesy of Dr. Rutger Goekoopand Dr. Jasper Looijestijn, Parnassia Bavo Group, The Hague.

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Preface

Our history is full of the reports of visionaries, prophets, and other figures who derived theirinsights and authority from what we would now call hallucinations. As these reports testify,individuals who knew how to deploy them convincingly for some noble cause were oftenrewarded with a high social status. Religious texts like the Bible even indicate that for a longtime no event of importance was thought to take place without some announcement by a voiceor vision from beyond. Thus one might hold that hallucinations have constituted a legitimatesource of information and inspiration in most – if not all – ancient cultures. On the otherhand, for other groups of individuals they have always constituted a significant source of suf-fering. But even in these cases, the concept of illness seldom seemed to come to mind. Thosewho needed help were more likely to be taken to a priest than to a physician. According toZilboorg and Henry, for thousands of years it was unthinkable that doctors, with their earthlymethods, would involve themselves in matters pertaining to the spirit. This may well have beenthe principal reason why biomedicine became involved in the study of hallucinations so latein its developmental history.

From the 17th century on, the rise of scientific thinking and the simultaneous processof secularization brought about a shift in the general attitude towards hallucinations. Theirotherworldly origin was no longer taken for granted, and the writings in which they appearedwere increasingly interpreted as allegorical in nature. The work published in 1813 by JohnFerriar is often referred to as the first text that examines hallucinations from an exclusivelyphysiological point of view. But when the 19th century came to a close, biomedicine wasstill hesitant about appropriating the territory to which it had become entitled. Althoughhallucinations had long since become their professional concern, doctors remained reluctantto give them the full attention that they deserved and to investigate them in their own right.Ironically perhaps, the first to take up the gauntlet were the parapsychologists. Representedby the philosopher Henry Sidgwick and his Society for Psychical Research (SPR), it was theywho carried out the first large-scale scientific studies of hallucinations.

On the scale of human history, biomedicine was late to the game of hallucinations research.But once the game was on, it quickly gained momentum. In 1932 Raoul Mourgue publishedan overview of 7,000 biomedical studies on hallucinations, and even he admitted that it wasnot exhaustive. Today the number of studies on these phenomena is literally countless. Thisdictionary attempts to open up the literature on hallucinations and related phenomena (i.e.,illusions and sensory distortions) by providing an alphabetical listing of the key terms andconcepts, as derived from the historical and contemporary literature. As my reading abilitiesare limited to four languages, the references are mainly confined to English, German, French,and Dutch texts.

This dictionary does not claim to be exhaustive – how could it be? – but it does claim toprovide a representative overview of relevant phenomena. The entries can be roughly dividedinto five categories:

v

Preface

1. Specific symptoms (i.e., hallucinations, illusions, and sensory distortions)2. Medical conditions and substances associated with the mediation of hallucinations3. Definitions of the terms hallucination and illusion by some important historical authors4. Historical figures who are known to have experienced hallucinations5. Miscellaneous issues

Each of the definitions of specific symptoms (under 1 above) includes the following:

• A definition of the term• Its etymological origin• The year of introduction (if known)• A reference to the author or authors who introduced the term (if known)• A description of the current use• A brief explanation of the etiology and pathophysiology of the symptom at hand (if

known)• References to related terms• Relevant literature references

During the era of classic psychiatry, the localizing value of different types of mispercep-tion was considered highly significant. As a consequence, much energy was devoted totheir phenomenology, classification, and hypothetical relation with neurobiological processes.However, apart from post mortem histological research, the means to empirically validatethe ensuing neurobiological models were limited. Today structural and functional imagingtechniques allow us to localize the various CNS areas involved in the mediation of thesephenomena and to answer the question of whether the complexity at the phenomenologi-cal level is indeed indicative of the assumed complexity at the underlying neurobiological andneuropsychological levels. But as the literature indicates, the present-day emphasis on empir-ical research is sometimes at the expense of the conceptual issues our predecessors valuedso highly. Therefore, this dictionary aims to reappraise the concepts of hallucinations, illu-sions, and sensory distortions developed during the era of classic psychiatry and advocates toincorporate them into our current scientific discours.

Leiden, The Netherlands Jan Dirk Blom

References

Ferriar, J. (1813). An essay towards a theory of apparitions. London: Cadell and Davies.Mourgue, R. (1932). Neurobiologie de l′hallucination. Essai sur une variété particulière de

désintégration de la fonction. Bruxelles: Maurice Lamertin.Parish, E. (1897). Hallucinations and illusions. A study of the fallacies of perception. London:

Walter Scott.Sidgwick, H., Johnson, A., Myers, F.W.H., Podmore, F., Sidgwick, E. (1894). Report on the

Census of Hallucinations. In: Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research. VolumeXXVI. Part X. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co, pp. 25–422.

Zilboorg, G., Henry, G.W. (1941). A history of medical psychology. New York: W.W. Norton &Company.

vi

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the following individuals for contributing – directly or indirectly – tothe realization of this book. In alphabetical order: André Aleman, Ann Avouris, MartenBlom, Jos Brinkmann, Kirstin Daalman, Kelly Diederen, John Enterman, Barbara Fasting,Audrey Fennema, Dominic ffytche, Mark van der Gaag, Rutger Goekoop, Bert van Hemert,Melissa Higgs, Wijbrand Hoek, Ellen van Hummel, René Kahn, King Kho, JasperLooijestijn, Willemke Marinus, Sankara Narayanan, Bas Neggers, Felix Portnoy, Anne-Marije Rijkaart, Hugo Simons, Karin Slotema, Iris Sommer, Victor Vladár Rivero, Remcode Vries, Renate de Vries, Antoin de Weijer, and an unknown number of anonymous review-ers who helped to move the project forward. Last but not least, I would like to thank themany patients from the Parnassia Bavo Group and elsewhere, who were willing to provideverbal reports of their hallucinations, and to thus share their experiences with me over theyears.

vii

Contents

A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367

P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381

Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441

R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445

ix

Contents

S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459

T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499

U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523

V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527

W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543

X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547

Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549

Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551

x

List of Figures

A.1 The Absinthe Drinker. Oil painting (around 1903) by ViktorOliva. Source: Café Slavia, Prague . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

A.2 Afterimages. From left to right: original optical stimulus, Hering’safterimage, Purkinje’s afterimage, Hess afterimage. Illustration byJDB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

A.3 Alice in Wonderland. Illustration by John Tenniel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14A.4 Alois Alzheimer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18A.5 Amanita mushroom with lilliputian hallucinations. Illustration by

JDB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20A.6 The Monastery. Engraving (1821) by Charles Heath. Published by

Hurst, Robinson, & Co., London . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34A.7 Archimedes’ spiral. Source: Plateau, J.A.F. (1878). Bibliographie

analytique des principaux phénomènes subjectifs de la vision,depuis le temps anciens jusqu’à la fin du XVIIIe siècle, suivied’une bibliographie simple pour la partie écoulée du siècle actuel.Mémoires de l’Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et desBeaux-arts de Belgique, Volume 52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

A.8 Silvano Arieti. Photograph by Blackstone-Shelburne, NY . . . . . . . . . 37A.9 Aristotle’s illusion. Source: La Nature, 1881, 1, 384 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37A.10 Aristotle. Portrait (c. 1475) by Joos van Gent. Source: Musée du

Louvre, Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37A.11 Belladonna, the goddess of the deadly nightshade. Engraving after

a painting by Gabriel Max. Source: Gartenlaube, 1902 . . . . . . . . . . . 41A.12 Atropa belladonna. Woodcut. Source: Tabernaemontanus, J.Th.

(1687). Neu Vollkommen Kräuter-Buch. Basel: Joh. Ludwig Königund Johann Brandmyller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

A.13 Autoscopic hallucination. Illustration by JDB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53B.1 Bagel vision. Illustration by JDB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60B.2 Benham’s top. Sources: Benham, C.E. (1894). The artificial

spectrum top. Nature, 51, 113–114; and: Fechner, G.T. (1838).Ueber eine Scheibe zur Erzeugung subjectiver Farben. In: Annalender Physik und Chemie. Edited by Poggendorff, J.C. Leipzig:Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

B.3 Sir William Richard Gowers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66B.4 William Blake. Engraving (1808) by Luigi Schiavonetti, after a

portrait (1807) by Thomas Phillips. Source: Collection of G.E.Bentley, Jr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

B.5 Ezekiel’s Wheels (c. 1803–1805). Watercolour by William Blake.Source: Museum of Fine Arts, Boston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

xi

List of Figures

B.6 Eugen Bleuler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71B.7 Brocken spectre. Source: Flammarion, C. (1873). The Atmosphere.

Translated by Pitman, C.B. Edited by Glaisher, J. London:Sampson Low, Marston, Low, & Searle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

C.1 Café Wall illusion. Illustration by JDB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82C.2 Silas Weir Mitchell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86C.3 Charles Bonnet. Engraving by Ambroise Tardieu, 1827 . . . . . . . . . . . 93C.4 Cobweb figure. Illustration by JDB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102C.5 Corona phenomenon. Illustration by JDB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119C.6 Wilder Penfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120C.7 John Dalton. Source: Sterling, W. (1902). Some apostles of

physiology. London: Waterlow and Sons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123D.1 Demon. Illustration by JDB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138D.2 René Descartes. Oil painting (1649) by Frans Hals. Source: Musée

du Louvre, Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139D.3 Charles Dodgson, a.k.a. Lewis Carroll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151D.4 William Wilson and his Doppelgänger, by Harry Clarke. Source:

Poe, E.A. (1928). Tales of mystery and imagination. Illustrated byHarry Clarke. London: George G. Harrap & Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

E.1 Ectoplasm. Photograph by Fritz Grunewald. Source: Dessoir,M., ed. (1925). Der Okkultismus in Urkunden. Der physikalischeMediumismus. Berlin: Verlag Ullstein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

E.2 Hermann Emminghaus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172E.3 Titans and giants (Ephialtes and three other giants). Woodcut by

Gustave Doré . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175E.4 Avicenna. Source: Avicenna (1595). Avicennae Arabum Medicorum

Principis. Canon Medicinae. Venetiis: Apud Iuntas . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177E.5 Etienne Esquirol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180E.6 Eyeless vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185F.1 Fata morgana. Source: Flammarion, C. (1873). The atmosphere.

Translated by Pitman, C.B. Edited by Glaisher, J. London:Sampson Low, Marston, Low, & Searle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

F.2 Fiery rings of Purkinje. Illustration by JDB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191F.3 Floating-finger illusion. Illustration by JDB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195F.4 August Forel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196F.5 Heinrich Klüver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197F.6 Expanding fortification spectra. Source: Gowers, W.R. (1904).

Subjective sensations of sight and sound: Abiotrophy, and otherlectures. Philadelphia, PA: P. Blakiston’s Son & Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

F.7 Pericentral scotoma. Source: Gowers, W.R. (1904). Subjectivesensations of sight and sound: Abiotrophy, and other lectures.Philadelphia, PA: P. Blakiston’s Son & Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

F.8 Sir Francis Galton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202H.1 Haidinger’s brushes. Illustration by JDB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216H.2 Halo. Source: Flammarion, C. (1873). The atmosphere. Translated

by Pitman, C.B. Edited by Glaisher, J. London: Sampson Low,Marston, Low, & Searle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

H.3 Halo seen in Norway. Source: Flammarion, C. (1873). Theatmosphere. Translated by Pitman, C.B. Edited by Glaisher, J.London: Sampson Low, Marston, Low, & Searle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

H.4 Hemianopic hallucination. Illustration by JDB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238H.5 Hildegard’s vision of the Heavenly City (c. 1151) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242H.6 Stars reminiscent of scintillating scotomata, by Hildegard of

Bingen (c. 1151) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

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List of Figures

H.7 Honeycomb. Illustration by JDB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245H.8 James Braid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256I.1 Illusion of the pierced hand. Source: Gaston Tissandier, La

Nature, 1881 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268I.2 Incubus. Source: Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277I.3 Inferior mirage. Source: Flammarion, C. (1873). The atmosphere.

Translated by Pitman, C.B. Edited by Glaisher, J. London:Sampson Low, Marston, Low, & Searle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

I.4 Lev Vygotsky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280I.5 John Hughlings-Jackson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287J.1 William James . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290J.2 Karl Jaspers. Photograph by Foto Claire Roessiger, Basel . . . . . . . . . 290J.4 Joseph Jastrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291J.3 Jastrow’s duck–rabbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291J.5 Carl Jung. Photograph by ATP Bilderdienst, Zürich . . . . . . . . . . . . 293K.1 Frontispiece of Yellow Sound, a stage composition by Wassily

Kandinsky (1912) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297K.2 Emil Kraepelin. Source: Psychiatrie-Historischen Sammlung

der Psychiatrischen Klinik der Ludwig-Maximilians-UniversitätMünchen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

L.1 Lateral mirage. Source: Flammarion, C. (1873). The atmosphere.Translated by Pitman, C.B. Edited by Glaisher, J. London:Sampson Low, Marston, Low, & Searle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

L.2 Jean Lhermitte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304M.1 Ernst Mach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312M.2 Alice in Wonderland – macrosomatognosia. Illustration by John

Tenniel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314M.3 Moon illusion. Illustration by JDB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336M.4 Morpheus and Iris. Oil painting (1911) by Baron Pierre-Narcisse

Guérin. Source: Hermitage Museum, Saint-Petersburg . . . . . . . . . . . 338M.5 Mosaic vision. Illustration by JDB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339M.6 Johannes Müller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343M.7 Müller-Lyer illusion. Source: Müller-Lyer, F.C. (1889). Optische

Urteilstäuschungen. Dubois-Reymonds Archiv für Anatomie undPhysiologie, Supplement Volume, 263–270 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

N.1 Necker cube. Illustration by JDB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351N.2 Negative autoscopy. Illustration by JDB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352N.3 Friedrich Nietzsche. Source: Ullstein Bilddienst, Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . 356N.4 The Nightmare. Oil painting (1781) by Henry Fuseli. Source: The

Detroit Institute of Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358N.5 Vaslav Nijinsky. Photograph (c. 1911–1912) by Elliot & Fry.

Source: The Dance Collection, The New York Public Library forthe Performing Arts, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations . . . . . . . . 359

N.6 Number forms. Source: Galton, F. (1883). Inquiries into HumanFaculty and its Development. London: J.M. Dent & Sons . . . . . . . . . . 364

O.1 Out-of-body experience. Source: Mavromatis, A. (1987).Hypnagogia. The unique state of consciousness between wakefulnessand sleep. London: Routledge. Reproduced with permission . . . . . . . . 379

P.1 Poggendorff illusion. Illustration by JDB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414P.2 Johannes Evangelista Purkyne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438R.1 Triple rainbow. Source: Flammarion, C. (1873). The atmosphere.

Translated by Pitman, C.B. Edited by Glaisher, J. London:Sampson Low, Marston, Low, & Searle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446

xiii

List of Figures

R.2 Rainbow spectrum. Source: Gowers, W.R. (1904). Subjectivesensations of sight and sound: Abiotrophy, and other lectures.Philadelphia, PA: P. Blakiston’s Son & Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447

R.3 Thomas Reid. Copy of an oil painting by Henry Raeburn . . . . . . . . . 449R.4 Rubin’s figure. Source: Rubin, E. (1915). Synsoplevede Figurer.

Copenhagen: Gyldenhal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456R.5 Henricus Cornelius Rümke. Source: Van Belzen, J.A. (1988).

Gezondheid, Ziekte en Psychiatrie volgens H.C. Rümke. Zeist:Kerckebosch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457

S.1 Daniel Paul Schreber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461S.2 Migraine scotomata. Source: Gowers, W.R. (1904). Subjective

sensations of sight and sound: Abiotrophy, and other lectures.Philadelphia, PA: P. Blakiston’s Son & Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463

S.3 Evolution of scintillating scotomata. Source: Gowers, W.R.(1904). Subjective sensations of sight and sound: Abiotrophy, andother lectures. Philadelphia, PA: P. Blakiston’s Son & Co . . . . . . . . . . 465

S.4 Sensory deprivation, experimental setting. Source: Goldberger,L., Holt, R.R. (1958). Experimental interference with realitycontact (perceptual isolation): Method and group results. Journalof Nervous and Mental Disease, 127, 99–112 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470

S.5 Sensory deprivation, experimental setting with water immersion.Source: Shurley, J. (1963). Proceedings of the Third World Congressof Psychiatry, Volume 3. Toronto: University of Toronto Press . . . . . . . 472

S.6 Socrates. Marble Roman artwork, possibly a copy of a work byLysippos. Source: Musée du Louvre, Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477

S.7 Baruch Spinoza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482S.8 Spiral with lattice. Illustration by JDB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482S.9 Demonic succubus attacks a sleeping man, by Robin Ray (date

unknown) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489S.10 Inverted superior mirage. Source: Flammarion, C. (1873). The

atmosphere. Translated by Pitman, C.B. Edited by Glaisher, J.London: Sampson Low, Marston, Low, & Searle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491

S.11 Emanuel Swedenborg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492S.12 Synaesthesias, as depicted by Sir Francis Galton. Source: Galton,

F. (1883). Inquiries into human faculty and its development.London: J.M. Dent & Sons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496

T.1 Top hat illusion. Source: La Nature, 1890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512T.2 Trailing phenomenon. Source: Mavromatis, A. (1987).

Hypnagogia. The unique state of consciousness between wakefulnessand sleep. London: Routledge. Reproduced with permission . . . . . . . . 515

T.3 Tunnel with tessellation. Illustration by JDB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519T.4 TV sign. Illustration by JDB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520U.1 Ulloa circle. Source: Flammarion, C. (1873). The atmosphere.

Translated by Pitman, C.B. Edited by Glaisher, J. London:Sampson Low, Marston, Low, & Searle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524

W.1 Carl Wernicke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544Z.1 Zöllner illusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552

All reasonable efforts have been made by the author to trace the copyright holders of thefigures contained in this publication. In the event that any of the untraceable copyright holderscomes forward after the publication of this book, the author will endeavour to rectify thesituation accordingly.

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