A CONCISE INTRODUCTION TO MASS

COMMUNICATION

Prepared by

Dr. Mosheer Amer

Media Topics in English JOUR 6204

Department of Media and Journalism

Faculty of Arts

Islamic University of Gaza

2015

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CONTENTS

Unit 1 – Mass Communication ……………………………………..1

Unit 2 – Journalism ……………………..……..……………………13

Unit 3 – The Newspaper ……………………………………………26

Unit 4 – Mass Communication Theories ….………………………44

References …………………………………………………………..56

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Unit 1

Mass Communication

االتصال الجماهيري

UNIT CONTENTS:

1.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………2

1.2 What is communication? ……………………………………...2

1.3 Types of Communication ……………………………………..2

1.4 Characteristics of Mass Communication ……………………...3

1.5 Elements of Mass Communication ……………………………3

1.6 Mass communication Functions ………………………………4

1.7 Factors of Persuasiveness of Mass Communication ………….5

1.8 Mass Media ……………………………………………………6

1.9 Types of Mass Media in the Present Age ……………………..6

1.10 Exercises ……………………………………………………..8

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Unit 1

Mass Communication

االتصال الجماهيري

1.1 Introduction

Communication االتصااال in its simplest sense involves two or more persons

who come together to share, dialogue and communicate, or just to be together

for a festival or family gathering. Dreaming, talking with someone,

arguing in a discussion, speaking in public, reading a newspaper,

watching TV, etc., are all different kinds of communication that we are

engaged in every day.

1.2 What is communication? ما المقصود باالتصال ؟

Communication is the process of producing and exchanging meaning through

symbolic interaction . معنى من خالل التفاعل الرمزيوتبادل انتاج عملية

Process عملية: As a process, communication constantly moves يتحرك and

changes يتغير . It does not stand still ال يتوقف .

Meaning ideas ,التفكير Meaning involves thinking : معنى األفكار , and

understandings الفهم shared by communicators.

Symbolic on words and nonverbal نعتمد على Symbolic means that we rely : رمزي

behaviors السلوك الغير لفظي to communicate meaning and feelings.

Communication is vital for the existence of all human beings, and for the progress of

humanity. It is impossible to imagine existence without communication and

interaction. Thus, communication functions as a connecting tool that creates

understanding, facilitates work, and strengthens collective living among people.

1.3 Types of Communication

1. Intrapersonal Communication االنسان مع ذاته اتصال : It is communication that

occurs in your own mind. It happens when we are thinking, i.e., when

someone is talking to himself/herself.

2. Interpersonal Communication االنسان مع غيره تصالا : It is the process of

sending and receiving information or communication with another

person. Generally it happens when there is face-to-face conversation between

two or more people. This process happens in an environment using different

kinds of communication media. This communication could be verbal or

nonverbal.

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3. Small Group Communication اتصال مجموعة صغيرة: It happens in communication

within formal or informal groups or teams. It is group interaction that results in

decision making, problem solving and discussion within an organization.

عبارة عن تفاعل المجموعة حيث ينتج هو أو غير رسمية أو فرق. مجموعات رسميةيحدث في االتصال داخل

عملية صنع القرار وحل المشكالت والمناقشة داخل المنظمة.عنه

4. One-to-group Communication واحد إلى مجموعة :اتصال من communication involves

a speaker who seeks to inform, persuade or motivate an audience.

المتكلم إلى إعالم وإقناع وتحفيز جمهور. بأن يسعىاالتصاالت يتمثل هذا المستوى من

5. Mass Communication االتصال الجماهيري : It takes place when the message is

reached to large masses الجماهير through different media such as television, radio,

newspaper, magazines, etc.

Mass communication makes it possible to deliver messages to millions of people at

roughly the same time. The authors of these messages are usually organizations, and

the audiences are composed of individuals.

1.4 Characteristics of Mass Communication خصائص االتصال الجماهيري

Mass communication can also be defined as ‘a process whereby mass-produced

messages are transmitted to large, anonymous and heterogeneous masses of

receivers’:

1. ‘mass-produced’ يالستهالك الجماهيرلغرض اانتاجها الرسالة يتم means putting the

content or message of mass communication in a form suitable to be distributed

to large masses of people.

2. ‘Heterogeneous’ جمهور متنوع means that the individual members of the mass

are from a wide variety of classes of the society.

3. ‘Anonymous’ معروفجمهور غير means the individuals in the mass do not know

each other. The source or sender of message in mass communication does not

know the individual members of the mass. Also the receivers in mass

communication are physically separated from each other and share no physical

proximity.

4. Feedback is often indirect, non-existent or delayed.

5. Source belongs to an organization or social institutions which are responsive

to the environment in which they operate.

6. It often involves a great deal of selection of material, sources, audience and

media.

1.5 Elements of Mass Communication عناصر االتصال الجماهيري

We require a sender, a message, a channel and a receiver for communication to occur.

Further there is feedback, which is the response or reaction of the receiver, which

comes back to the sender through the same or some other channel.

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1. Sender: مرسل It may be media professional or media institution or

organization which sends the information. The sender needs to know who their

audience is and needs to be credible to that audience.

2. Receiver: مستقبِل person who receives the information sent. Mass

communication means communication to the masses, so there remains mass of

individuals at the receiver end of communication. This mass of receivers are

often called mass audience الجمهور المتلقي

3. Message: الرسالة it is the content of information sent by the sender. A

message needs reproduction to make it communicable through the media. The

message is put in various forms like an interview, documentary, film, an

article, feature or news story. The message must be relevant and understood

and must get the audience to pay attention.

4. Channel قناة االتصال: It is the medium used to transmit the message and it must

be credible. Modern mass media like radio, television or newspapers spread

the message with great speed. Channels of mass communication can be

classified into two broad categories: 1. Print Media وسائل االعالم المكتوب like

newspapers, books and magazines, and other printed materials, and 2.

Electronic Media االلكترونية وسائل االعالم like radio, television and cinema.

5. Feedback: التغذية الراجعة response or reaction from receiver. Mass

communication will have indirect feedback. A sender who communicated a

message about a specific issue through television or radio or newspaper will

have to depend on indirect means to know the reaction of the audience to the

message such as survey of audience reaction, letters or telephone calls from

audience members.

1.6 Mass communication Functions: وظائف االتصال الجماهيري

We live in the age where mass communication performs certain functions that are

useful to us. It is through mass communication that millions of people are exposed to

a variety of messages each day. While many consumers of media are satisfied with

any single channel of mass communication, there are others who seek exposure to

more than one channel. There is increasing anxiety about the negative effects of mass

communication on society in general and individuals in particular. The functions of

mass communication are:

To inform: Dissemination of information is the primary function of the news

media. Newspapers, radio and TV provide us with news from around the

world and keep us informed.

To educate: Journalists do not only tell us the news, but they have also

become news analysts who discuss the implications of important news stories.

They help educate people about news events, ideas, policy changes,

To entertain: The most common function of mass communication is

entertainment. Radio, television and films are basically entertainment media.

Newspapers provide entertainment through comics, cartoons, features, cross

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word puzzles, word jumbles, etc. Entertainment through radio consists of

mainly music.

To persuade: Most of mass media are used as vehicles of promotion and

persuasion. Goods, services, ideas, persons, places, and events are advertised

through mass media.

To transmit culture: Mass communication plays an important role in the

transmission of culture from one generation to another. Mass media provide an

opportunity for culture to be preserved and promoted. It presents different

cultures, belies and customs from different countries and helps us promote

ours to all parts of the world.

The primary function of communication is to inform, instruct/educate, entertain, and

influence/persuade people to make them function effectively in society. In addition,

through debates and discussion, cultural promotion and integration; communication

encourages consensus, creativity and understanding amongst people, groups and

societies so that they live in peace and harmony.

1.7 Factors of Persuasiveness of Mass Communication عوامل قدرة االتصال الجماهيري

على االقناع

1. Source Credibility مصداقية المصدر - Credibility is the degree to which a

communication source or channel is perceived as trustworthy and competent

by the receiver. The source and the medium are viewed as inseparable by the

audience, so credibility of the source and the medium is often treated

interchangeably.

2. Presentation of the message عرض الرسالة - the effectiveness of the media

communicated persuasion is largely dependent on how the message is

presented by the communicators. Clarity, brevity and preciseness are the

pillars of persuasion on mass media.

3. Media factor عامل الوسيلة االعالمية - there is a general impression that messages

having persuasive content if communicated through television, become more

effective than when the message is communicated through radio or print. This

impression does not seem to have validity in every situation with the audience

for every message.

4. Audience factor عامل الجمهور - audience is the single most important factor to

determine the degree of persuasiveness of mass communication. The attitude

of the audience toward the persuasion message of the mass media largely

depends upon who gives what message in which channel; to what extent the

content of the message satisfy their needs and the intentions; to what measures

the suggestions contained in the message are in line with their pre-held

experiences and pre-existing preferences; and, how far the message is

compatible with group norms and value system to which the audience belongs.

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1.8 Mass Media وسائل اإلعالم

'Media' is the plural of medium (of communication) and refer to the different channels we use to communicate information in the everyday world.

The mass media are ‘the vehicles of mass communication’ وسائل االتصال الجماهير . The mass media have an important role in modern democratic society as the main channel of communication. The people depend on the news media as the main source of information and the basis on which they form their opinions and voting decisions.

The mass media plays a crucial role in forming and reflecting public opinion الرأي

it communicates the world to individuals, and it reproduces modern society's :العامself -image.

There are different media involved in the process of mass communication. They reach every corner of the world and are very powerful. They invade even the privacy of our bedrooms. They inform, educate, entertain and persuade. They also

help in the transmission of culture and perform the job of surveillance of the society.

1.9 Types of Mass Media in the Present Age

The mass media have an important role in modern democratic society as the main

channel of communication. The population relies on the news media as the main

source of information and the basis on which they form their opinions and voting

decisions. Any selection of messages in the mass media will thus have a profound

effect on the entire society. The main mass media are as follows:

Television (including satellite TV and cable TV)

Newspapers

Magazines

Books

Radio

Film

Internet

Mass media is broadly divided into print media and electronic media. While the print media are the oldest, having a history of about five hundred years, the electronic media are products of the 20

th century technological revolution.

The mass media constitute the backbone of democracy. The media are supplying the

political information that voters base their decisions on. They identify problems in our

society and serve as a medium for discussion.

The mass media are also the watchdog that we rely on for uncovering errors and

wrongdoings by those who have power. It is therefore reasonable to require that the

media perform to certain standards with respect to these functions, and our democratic

society rests on the assumption that they do the most important democratic functions

that we can expect the media to serve.

The newspaper can influence the people to a large extent creating awareness and

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political development. Broadcasting media وسائل اإلعالم المبثوثة under government

control can be used for the purpose of education, social change and development of

the society. Films can bring forward unhealthy social issues of our society and

promote peace and harmony within communities. Thus, these mass media can

contribute immensely towards nation development and social awareness.

Media like television and cable television can sometimes have bad effect in our

society. The audience of these media are watching everything being telecasted in hope

of entertaining themselves, be it violence, vulgarity, etc.

In addition, advertising also leaves images and impact on young minds. They give

children a materialistic world, which desires unaffordable things. Also too much of

television watching is creating health problems of obesity and diversion from studies,

sleep and eating proper diet.

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1.10 EXERCISES

1)- Check if the following statements are True (T) or False (F):

1. _____ Communication plays an important role in strengthening collective

living among people.

2. _____ Interpersonal communication occurs in your own mind.

3. _____ As a process, communication moves but does not change.

4. _____ Feedback is often indirect, non-expected or delayed.

5. _____ Messages will have more persuasive content if communicated through

TV.

6. _____ It's possible to imagine life without communication and interaction.

7. _____ Entertainment is the most common function of mass communication.

8. _____ The receiver may be media professional or media institution or

organization.

9. _____ Most mass media are used as vehicles of promotion and persuasion.

10. _____ The sender of the message in mass communities knows the individual

members of the mass audience.

2)- Provide a term for the following definitions:

1. __________________ is a process of sending and receiving information or

communication with another person.

2. __________________ involves two or more persons who come together to share,

to dialogue and to commune.

3. __________________ happens within formal or informal groups or teams.

4. __________________ putting the content or message of mass communication in a

form suitable to be distributed to large masses of people.

5. __________________ occurs when the message is reached to masses through

different media such as television, radio and newspaper.

6. __________________ means that the individual members of the mass medium are

from a wide variety class of the society.

7. __________________ is the content of information sent by the sender.

8. __________________ communication involves a speaker who seeks to inform,

persuade or motivate an audience.

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3)- Match the following terms with their suitable descriptions:

1. Channel ____ a. is the most important factor to determine

the persuasion of mass communication .

2. Audience ____ b. is a response or reaction from receiver .

3. Mass media ____ c. plays a crucial rule in forming the Public

opinion.

4. Feedback ____ d. the medium used to transmit the message.

5.Source Credibility ____ e. the degree to which communication or channel

is perceived as trustworthy by receivers.

6. Watchdogs ____ f. plays an important role in the transmission of

culture from one generation to another.

7. Mass communication ____ g. are used for uncovering errors and wrongdoings

by those who have power.

4)- Complete the missing parts in the following sentences:

1. Channels of mass media can be classified into :

a. _____________________________________

b. _____________________________________

2. Some of the main mass media include:

a. ___________________________

b. Television

c. ___________________________

d. internet

3. Arguing in a discussion , speaking in public and watching television are all

considered as _________________________________.

4. Interpersonal communication could be ______________ or _______________.

5. Symbolic means that we rely on words and ______________ to communicate

____________________.

6. Communication involves ______________ and exchanging ____________through

symbolic interaction .

7. ____________________ communication happens when someone is talking to

himself.

8. Some functions of communication are to_________________,

___________________, ______________________and _____________________.

9. _________________________ communication involves a speaker who seeks to

inform , persuade or motivate an audience .

10. The mass media plays a crucial role in forming and reflecting

___________________________.

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5)- Correct the mistakes in meaning in each statement below:

1. Media is the degree to which a communication source or channel is perceived as

trustworthy and competent.

_________________________________________________________________

2. The communication that happens in an environment using different kinds of

communication media is intrapersonal.

_________________________________________________________________

3. Audience as a factor results in clarity , brevity and preciseness .

_________________________________________________________________

4. Watchdogs can be used for the purpose of education .

_________________________________________________________________

5. To inform is the most common function of mass communication .

_________________________________________________________________

6. Transmission of culture is one element of mass media.

_________________________________________________________________

7. The medium used to transmit the message is the sender.

_________________________________________________________________

8. Mass-produced is one function of mass communication.

_________________________________________________________________

9. Heterogeneous means that individuals in the mass do not know each other.

_________________________________________________________________

10. One-to-group communication happens within formal or informal groups or items.

_________________________________________________________________

6)- Fill in the blanks with the appropriate word:

[ small group – symbolic – feedback – mass media – interpersonal – sender –

communication – entertainment – symbolic – anonymous ]

1. The process of producing and exchanging meaning through symbolic interaction is

called ________________________.

2. ________________________ can be a media professional or media institution

organization which sends information .

3. ________________________ communicates the world to individuals and produces

modern society's self-image .

4. The process of sending and receiving information can be defined as

___________________ communication .

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5. ________________________is response or reaction from receiver.

6. communication that happens within formal or informal groups or teams is _______

__________________________.

7. ______________________ means that we rely on words and nonverbal behaviors

to communicate meaning and feelings.

8. The most common function of mass media is ________________________.

9. ________________________ means that individuals in the mass audience do not

know each Other .

7)- Underline the correct answer:

1.[Mass culture – Mass media ] is divided into print media and electronic media.

2.The mass of receivers are called [ mass audience – senders ].

3. Mass media are also [ watchdogs – internet ].

4. [Mass Media – public opinion ] can be used for the purpose of education.

5. Mass media plays an important role in forming and reflecting [concepts – public

opinion ].

6. Cable TV is mass media in the [ old – present ] age.

7. Newspapers, books and magazines are types of [ print media – electronic media].

8. A group interaction that results in decision making, problem solving and discussion

is referred to as [ small group – one-to group ].

9. Communication within a person that can be verbal or non-verbal is called [

interpersonal – intrapersonal ] communication.

10. [ Mass-produced – Heterogeneous ] means putting the content or message of

mass communication in a form suitable to be distributed to large masses of

people .

8)- Answer the following questions:

1. Mass Communication has various functions. Discuss three of the them

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

2. Discuss the concept of Mass Communication

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

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3. Write a short note on 'Interpersonal Communication'.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

4. Discuss three elements of Mass Communication.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

9)- Translate into the other language:

ن هناك عديد من أال إ ،وظائفه المتنوعةوصال الجماهيري تالا في الوقت الذي يشير فيه الكثيرين الى فوائد -1

خرى .أدا حثيثة للبحث عن وسائل وقنوات ويبذلون جهو هراضين عنمستهلكيه مازالوا غير

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

2- The mass media have an important role in modern democratic society as the main

channel of communication. The population relies on the news media as the main

source of information and the basis on which they form their opinions and voting

decisions. Any selection of messages in the mass media will thus have a profound

effect on the entire society.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

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Unit 2

Journalism

الصحافة

UNIT CONTENTS:

2.1 What is Journalism? ……………………………………….14

2.2 What is a Journalist? ………………………………………14

2.3 What is the Role of a Journalist? …………………………..14

2.4 The Characteristics of the Journalist ………………………14

2.5 News Sources ……………………………………………...16

2.6 What Cannot Be News? ………………………………...…16

2.7 Aims of Journalism ………………………………………...16

2.8 Types of Mass Media ……………………………………..17

2.8.1 News Agencies …………………………………………..17

2.8.2 Print Media ………………………………………………17

2.8.3 Broadcast Media …………………………………………17

2.8.4 Online Media …………………………………………….18

2.9 The News Goes Mobile ……………………………………18

2.10 Differences Between Mass Media ………………………..18

2.11 Fields of Journalism ………………………………………19

2.12 What is Yellow Journalism? ………………………………20

2.13 EXERCISES ……………………………………………….21

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Unit 2

Journalism

الصحافة

2.1 What is Journalism? ما المقصود بالصحافة

Journalism is the craft of conveying news, descriptive material and opinion via a

wide range of mass media. These include newspapers, magazines, radio and

television, the internet and, more recently, the cell phone. The main goal of

journalism is to convey information and opinion in contemporary mass society. In

other words,

“The central purpose of journalism is to provide citizens with accurate and reliable information they need to function in a free society.”

2.2 What is a Journalist? ما المقصود بالصحافي ؟

A journalist is a person who practices journalism, the gathering and dissemination of

information about current events, trends, issues, and people while striving for

viewpoints that aren't biased. Journalists include reporters, editors, photojournalists,

broadcast presenters or producers who serve as the main transmitters of information

and opinion in contemporary society.

2.3 What is the Role of a Journalist? ما هو دور الصحافي ؟

A good journalist should take on the following roles:

1. To answer commonly asked questions : Who? What ? Why ? When ? Where ?

How?

2. To help the audience make educated choices about issues of public interest.

3. To deliver facts that can be verified, attributed, sourced and tested.

4. To find stories that the world would never have known about without the

journalist's work.

2.4 The Characteristics of the Journalist الصحفي خصائص

Journalists should generally have the following characteristics:

1. Alert and ordered

a. People trust journalists with facts.

b. Journalists must not be careless with people.

c. All journalists must aim for accuracy.

d. Without accuracy, journalists will lose trust of people.

2. Have a Suspicious Mind

a. Journalists will be given information for many reasons.

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b. Journalists must develop the ability to know when they are being given

false information.

3. Determination

a. Journalists often have to ask hard questions and risk angering

people.

4. Polite

a. Journalists need to be polite with all sorts of people.

b. Journalists cannot pick and choose who to interview in the way

they choose friends.

5. Honest

a. Journalists are committed people so respect what they say and act

accordingly.

b. Journalists only report what they know to be true.

c. Journalists never lie to their audience.

2.5 News Sources األخبار مصادر

Journalists often choose from the following sources to collect news:

1. Material they are given a. Information from press officers and public relations officers are a steady

source of information. Journalists also pick up stories from other media and

add their own additional information and comment.

2. Material they find a. There is also news which journalists find for themselves and reveal to the

public.

b. Many people have a story to tell, and so it is part of a journalist's job to find

these people and report their stories

An exclusive story قصة حصرية is what the newspaper or journalist knows or publishes

only. If you are able to find a story that is relevant and interesting to your readers,

then you can publish it as an exclusive story.

3. Translations: Journalists might search foreign news websites for stories that

can be connected to something local. The more local connection you can find,

the more emphasis can be given to the story. Add your own information and

feel free to completely rearrange the original article.

4. Conflicts: Wars, strikes, revolutions, political power battles are hot topics for

news reporting.

5. Disaster and Tragedy

a. Plane crashes, train crashes, ships sinking, volcanic eruptions, Tsunamis,

earthquakes.

b. Human tragedies such as children falling down deep wells, car accidents,

etc.

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6. Crime is news, whether it is a road traffic offence, robbery, corruption,

forgery, rape or murder.

7. Money

a. Money made or lost

b. Taxes and budgets

c. Food prices

d. Wage rises

e. Economy

8. Famous People

a. Famous men and women make news

b. What people in the public eye do, the lives they lead, and what they look

like are all of interest.

9. Health

a. Disease, cures, and medical research all make news stories.

b. Advice on drugs, diet and exercise are of interest to the public.

c. Health issues also concern the audience.

10. Weather

a. The weather may affect the daily routine of people.

b. It’s of interest when it is unusual with exceptionally high or low

temperatures, or exceptionally high or low rainfall.

c. Stories where the weather has caused personal and social disruption.

11. Sport

a. Sports news, results, player transfers, statistics, etc.

b. Many people will choose a radio or TV station or select a newspaper based

on its sports coverage.

2.6 What Cannot Be News?

Some events cannot be regarded as news. To test whether an event is news or not, you

can ask the following questions:

1. Is it new or unusual?

2. Is it interesting or important?

3. Will it affect your readers’ lives?

If the answer to any of these questions is negative, then do not publish it as news.

2.7 Aims of Journalism

In order for a journalist to fulfill his or her duty of providing the people with the

information, he/she needs to follow these guidelines:

1. Journalism's first obligation is to the truth.

2. Journalism's first loyalty is to the citizens.

3. Its essence is the principle of verification.

4. Its practitioners must maintain independence from those they cover.

5. It must serve as an independent monitor of power.

6. It must provide a forum for public criticism and discussion.

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7. It must keep the news comprehensive and proportional.

8. Its practitioners must be allowed to exercise their personal conscience.

2.8 Types of Mass Media أنواع وسائل االعالم

Journalism can be categorized in terms of the medium it uses, as illustrated in the

following types of mass media:

2.8.1 News Agencies وكاالت األنباء

A news agency is a news distribution service that produces news reports and

sells its copy or video to subscribing media institutions.

News agencies transmit information on a regular basis, including a significant

amount of breaking news The large services have offices in major . أخبار عاجلة

cities throughout the country and across the globe.

The distribution of news content make it possible to get stories in a newspaper,

television or radio, especially if a news outlet is unable to assign reporters to

cover events because of limited resources.

Examples of news wires include the Associated Press, Reuters; Inter-Press Service,

Dow Jones, and Agence France Presse (AFP).

2.8.2 Print Media الصحافة المكتوبة

Print media generally include the following:

1. National, local and international Newspapers الصحف الوطنية والمحلية والدولية

2. Weeklies جرائد أسبوعية

3. Magazines المجالت

Magazines can be classified into:

1. News Magazines: News magazines like Newsweek, Time and the Economist

report on current events and/or provide analysis and opinion.

2. Trade Magazines: report on the business sector or professional community.

3. General Interest Magazines: tend to target a specific audience such as

women or men or the youth and inform the reader about a variety of products,

services and issues that would be appealing to that particular group of people.

2.8.3 Broadcast Media وسائل االعالم المبثوثة

Broadcast media refer to both television and radio.

• Television is a visual medium and as a result requires pictures and video to

help tell the story.

• Radio can be a great resource when you do not have a specific story but rather

have a perspective you would like to speak about.

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• Radio and television programming sometimes follows up on stories that

appear in print media.

2.8.4 Online Media وسائل االعالم عبر االنترنت

Many people use the worldwide web / the internet to get their news. As a result,

news organizations are developing a larger and more diverse presence on the internet.

• Most news outlets have news websites which often break مواقع اخبارية إلكترونية

news as well as recycle content from their print or broadcast editions.

• There are news websites which are exclusive to the web, such as AlterNet, The

Nation, Politico and TruthOut.

Blog المدونات (web log) is a website with regular entries of commentary, descriptions

of events, or other material such as graphics or video.

• Many blogs provide commentary or news on a particular subject while others

function as personal online diaries.

• Many news organizations that have created blogs and reporters will increase

news stories with commentary addressing particular aspects of an issue

addressed in the news.

2.9. The News Goes Mobile

Digital technologies are changing the way we consume news. News is going mobile

via various phone apps, iGoogle, Twitter, etc. That is, news is no longer tied to a

physical product such as the newspaper and is no longer tied to time constraints قيود

.الوقت

In addition, journalists no longer control the distribution of the content they produce.

Once something is published, it belongs to the audience of readers and becomes part

of a conversation about the news. These technologies have made interactivity التفاعلية

and audience participation a main characteristic of today’s journalism. In fact, some

argue that the 140 character text message and “Tweet” could be the future of news.

2.10 Differences Between Mass Media أوجه االختالفات بين وسائل اإلعالم

TV News

a. Visually driven

b. Soundbite heavy

c. Often superficial by

design

d. “Emotions” emphasized

e. Coverage subject to

censorship of violence

and sexual content to

meet TV broadcast

standards

Newspapers

a. Offers more detail

than TV

b. More space for

coverage

c. Slowest to deliver

the news.

Internet News

a. Readers can often post

“comments” or feedback

on the stories for others

to see.

b. Personalization technologies

can change the “front page”

according to interests of

readers.

c. No “gatekeepers” حارس

to prevent access to البوابة

19

alternative viewpoints.

d. Unlimited amount of space

to publish.

2.11 Fields of Journalism مجاالت الصحافة

Political journalism is a broad branch of journalism that includes coverage of

all aspects of politics although the term usually refers specifically to coverage

of civil governments and political power.

Business journalism is the branch of journalism that reports on, analyzes and

interprets the economic and business changes that take place in a society. It

could include anything from personal finance and prices at the local market

and shopping malls, to the performance of business companies and economic

situation of the country.

Sports journalism covers many aspects of sports such as sports matches,

games, national, local and international sports news.

Science journalism reports information on science topics to the public.

Science journalists must understand and interpret very detailed, technical

information and put it into interesting reports that are comprehensible to

consumers of news media.

Investigative journalism: Journalists investigate and expose unethical,

immoral, and illegal behavior by individuals, businesses and government

agencies.

"Celebrity" or "people" journalism focuses on the personal lives of famous

people, or celebrities, including movie and stage actors, musical artists, and

other notable people in the entertainment industry.

Citizen journalism involves members of the public playing an active role in

the process of collecting, reporting, analyzing and spreading news and

information.

There are other types of journalism such as:

• Advocacy Journalism

• Community Journalism

• Environmental Journalism

• Fashion Journalism

• Online Journalism

• Service Journalism

• Video Journalism

• Trade Journalism

• Medical Journalism

• Arts Journalism

• Health Journalism

20

2.12 What is Yellow Journalism? ما هي الصحافة الصفراء

Yellow journalism is often associated with sensationalism or sensationalistic news.

Yellow journalism is when someone makes up news to attract readers. Tabloids الجرائد

are known for being sensationalistic. It is a newspaper of small format giving الشعبية

the news in condensed form, usually with illustrated, often sensational material.

Closely related to this is infotainment األخبار االمتاعية which is a type of media which

provides a combination of information and entertainment in order to enhance

popularity with audiences and consumers.

21

2.13 EXERCISES

1)- Check if the following statements are true (T) or false (F):

1. ______ News is no longer tied to a physical product such as the newspaper.

2. ______ The main goal of journalism is to convey information and opinion in

contemporary mass society.

3. ______ News agencies sell their services to newspapers only.

4. ______ Journalists including reporters, editors, broadcast presenters or

producers are the main transmitters of information and opinion in

contemporary society.

5. ______ News must provide a forum for public criticism and discussion.

6. ______ The good journalist helps the audience to make choices about issues of

public interests.

7. ______ Journalists often have to ask easy question and risk angering people.

8. ______ People trust a journalist who does not give facts.

9. ______ Yellow journalism always seeks the truth and deal with events and

issues seriously.

10. ______ The more local connections you can find, the less emphasis can be

given to the story.

11. ______ Journalists pick and choose who to interview in the way they choose

their friends.

12. ______ Journalists must be careless with people.

13. ______ Translations are not a credible source of news.

14. ______ Journalists never lie to their audience.

15. ______ What famous people do often makes good news.

2)- Fill in the blanks with an appropriate word:

[ celebrity journalism – yellow journalism – radio – stories – exclusive - science

journalism – conflicts – polite – accuracy – truth ]

1. Journalists need to be ____________________.

22

2. ____________________ focuses on the personal lives of famous people or

celebrities including movie and stage actors.

3. All journalists must aim for ____________________.

4. ____________________ and television programming sometimes follows up

on stories that appear in print media.

5. A good journalist should find __________________ that the world never have

been known about without the journalist’s work.

6. ____________________ is when someone makes up news to attract readers.

7. Journalism's first obligation is to the ____________________.

8. An ____________________ story is what the newspaper or journalist knows

or publishes only

9. ____________________ as a news source include wars, strikes, and

revolutions, and political power battles are considered hot topics for news

reporting.

10. ____________________ reports information on science topics to the public.

3)- Match the words in list (A) with words relate to them in list (B):

1. exclusive _____ a. Press

2. breaking _____ b. keepers

3. news _____ c. story

4. yellow _____ d. newspapers

5. broadcast _____ e. websites

6. online _____ f. media

7. investigative _____ g. media

8. Associated _____ h. news

9. tabloid _____ i. journalism

10. gate _____ j. journalism

4)- Provide a term for the following definitions:

1. _____________________ is the craft of conveying news, descriptive material

and opinion via a wide range of mass media.

23

2. _____________________ is what the newspaper or journalist knows or

publishes only.

3. _____________________ is a source of news whether it is a road traffic

offence, robbery, corruption, forgery or murder.

4. _____________________ is often associated with sensationalism.

5. _____________________ is a news distribution service that produces news

reports and sells their copy or video to subscribing media institution.

6. _____________________ is a type of media that provides a combination of

information and entertainment to enhance popularity with audiences and

consumers.

7. _____________________ report on current events and/or provide analysis and

opinion.

8. _____________________ includes coverage of all aspects of politics.

9. _____________________ involves members of the public playing an active

role in the process of collecting, reporting, analyzing and spreading news.

10. _____________________ is a website with regular entries of commentary,

descriptions of events, or other material such as graphics or video

5)- Complete the missing parts in the following sentences:

1. The main purpose of ____________________ is to provide citizens with accurate

and reliable information they need to function in a free society.

2. ____________________ magazines tend to target a specific audience such as

women and the youth and inform the reader about a variety of products or services.

3. The characteristics of journalist are: a. Alert and ordered

b. ______________________ c. ____________________

d. Polite e. _____________________

4. Print media generally include: a. ______________________

b. ______________________ c. ______________________

5. Materials as a source of news to the journalist can be :

______________________ or ______________________

6. Broadcast media refers to both _____________________ and

______________________

24

7. Journalist's first loyalty is to ______________________

8. ______________________ are known for being sensationalistic.

9. Journalism can be categorized in terms of the ______________________ it uses`.

10. Magazines can be classified into: a. ___________________________

b. ___________________________ c. ___________________________

6)- Explain the following statements:

1. Journalists should have a suspicious mind.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

2. The journalist plays an essential role in the society.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

3. Honesty is an important feature of journalists.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

7)- Correct the mistakes in meaning in each statement:

1. General Interest Magazines report on the business sector or professional

community.

_______________________________________________________

2. Internet News is the slowest to deliver the news.

_______________________________________________________

3. Newspapers are visually driven and sound bites are heavy.

_______________________________________________________

4. TV News has no 'gatekeepers' to prevent access to alternative viewpoints.

_______________________________________________________

25

5. Science journalism covers many aspects of sports such as sports, matches and

games.

_______________________________________________________

8)- Match these items with their suitable descriptions :

1. Trade Magazines

2. News Websites

3. Television

4. Business Journalism

5. Blog

_______ a. is a visual medium that requires pictures and video to help tell a story.

_______ b. report on business sector of professional community.

_______ c. often break news as well as recycle content from their print or broadcast

additions.

_______ d. It is a website with regular entries of commentary descriptions of event

or materials.

_______ e. interprets the economic and business changes that take place in a society

9)- Translate into the other language:

إن غياب الصحافة الحرة كصوت للتعبير عن آراء الشعب وطموحاته تعد انكاراً إليمانه بالحرية، فغياب -1

حضاري وحرمان الجماهير من إيصال آرائهم الى السلطات ملمح الصحافة النزيهة في بلد ما يعني غياب أهم

ومعتقداتهم .طموحاتهم والتعبير عن أفكارهم و

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

2- The only thing that affects people more than information is presentation. How

information is framed, what information is emphasized, and how it is distributed

contribute to our understanding of the world and how we develop as people. To

confirm this, journalism in all its forms affects our worldviews and perceptions.

_____________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

26

Unit Three

The Newspaper

الصحيفة

UNIT CONTENTS:

3.1 What is a Newspaper? ................................................................. 27

3.2 Sections of A Newspaper ………………………………………. 27

3.3 Types of Newspapers …………………………………………...27

3.4 Newspaper Departments ……………………………………….. 28

3.4.1 Editorial Department …………………………………………. 28

3.4.2 Business and Finance Department …………………………… 28

3.4.3 Technical Department ………………………………………….28

3.5 Different Jobs in the Newspapers ………………………………. 29

3.6 What is a News Bureau? What is a News Desk? ……………….29

3.7 The News Report ………………………………………………...30

3.7.1 News Report Structure …………………………………………32

3.7.2 Stylistic Features of News Reports …………………………….34

3.7.2.1 News Headlines ……………………………………………...34

3.7.2.2 News Lead …………………………………………………...35

3.8 News Selection Criteria ………………………………………….37

3.9 EXERCISES ……………………………………………………..38

27

Unit Three

The Newspaper

الصحيفة

3.1 What is a Newspaper?

The newspaper is the printed means of conveying current information. It is a

publication containing news, information, and advertising. Newspapers often have

articles on political events, crime, business, art/entertainment, society, health and

sports.

Most traditional newspapers also feature an editorial page االفتتاحية المقاالت صفحة

containing columns that express the personal opinions of writers. Supplementary

sections أقسام إضافية may contain advertising, comics, and coupons.

Newspapers are most often published on a daily or weekly basis, and they usually

focus on one particular geographic area where most of their readers live.

Despite recent setbacks in circulation and profits التداول واألرباح , newspapers are still

the most iconic outlet for news and other types of written journalism.

3.2 Sections of a Newspaper

Newspapers are usually divided into different sections such as international news,

local or national news, business and commercial news, arts and entertainment, sports,

etc. Each section covers a particular type of news.

International political events

Local/national events

Business

Culture

Sports

Opinions (either editorials, columns, or political cartoons)

Obituaries

Weather news and forecasts

Classified ads

Health

Newspapers also use photographs to illustrate stories; cartoons sometimes accompany

editorials to illustrate writing that is opinion rather than news.

3.3 Types of newspapers أنواع الصحف

Besides the contents, the newspapers also specialize in their type.

International newspapers الصحف الدولية

Weekly newspapers الصحف االسبوعية

Weekend or Sunday newspapers االسبوع عطلةصحف

National newspapers الصحف الوطنية

Local newspapers الصحف المحلية

28

3.4 Newspaper Departments األقسام االدارية في الصحيفة

Newspaper Management means to make sure that a publication meets its deadlines,

keeps contents, generates revenue and maintains its technical section. Any publication

or newspaper has three clear areas to manage:

3.4.1 Editorial Department قسم التحرير

The most important area of a daily newspaper is its editorial department. A large

circulation newspaper has to follow a service structure to make sure that the people

working in the editorial department are in a well-defined hierarchy.

The staff is generally divided into two categories:

1. Field Staff: The field staff consists of those who are assigned areas like crime,

politics, business, environment, or sports, or some who are assigned with

special reports on different subjects.

2. Newsroom Editorial Staff: The other part of the editorial staff is supposed to

manage the newsroom where it is taken care of every matter that is to appear

the next day. This part of the staff is supposed to write daily editorials,

articles, comments etc. All the staff is headed by an editor who is responsible

for what report or comment that is to appear in the paper.

Writing for a newspaper is not an easy task. The writer has to take into account the

policy of the paper, laws and regulations and the ethics which are generally observed

in a society.

3.4.2 Business and Finance Department قسم اإلدارة و المالية

Every media outlet needs management of its finances, the revenue it generates, and

the money it spends. For this, revenue generation, advertising and circulation

departments are established. The advertising department قسم االعالنات fixes rates of

different type and size of advertisements appearing on the regular pages or special

supplements. Ads are charged differently.

Ads which appear brief and usually in one column are called classified ads, while

other ads are called display ads. The circulation department قسم التداول is

responsible for the distribution of the newspaper. The accounts department قسم

in the business section is supposed to be taking care of disbursement of الحسابات

salaries to the staff, purchase of components of machines, paper, ink and the transport.

This department also helps the company to maintain its audit reports تدقيق حسابات .

3.4.3 Technical Department قسم الشؤون التقنية

The technical department is responsible for printing the newspaper. It is mainly

concerned with managing any technical issues efficiently and in a timely matter.

29

3.5 Different jobs in the Newspapers الوظائف المختلفة في الصحيفة

Reporter مراسل is one type of journalists. They write reports as a profession

for publication in the newspaper. Reporters find sources for their work, their

reports can be either spoken or written, and they are often expected to report in

the most objective and unbiased way to serve the public good.

Investigative reporters مراسلون استقصائيون are employed by newspapers,

magazines and television networks. Investigative journalism الصحافة

involves getting to the bottom of stories about politics, crime and االستقصائية

various scandals. Necessary characteristics include the ability to differentiate

fact from fiction and being a resourceful researcher.

Foreign correspondents مراسل أجنبي are employed by a media organization in

one country and stationed in a foreign country. They often cover government,

religion, situations of political conflict and are frequently placed in dangerous

environments.

Sports journalists report on popular sports for the radio, newspaper, and even

online.

Online journalists focus on the 24/7 news cycle that’s available on the web;

these journalists need to be fast.

A columnist is a journalist who writes pieces that appear regularly كاتب العمود

in newspapers or magazines and other publications.

The editor المحرر (also known as editor-in-chief رئيس التحرير or executive

editor المحرر التنفيذي) is involved in the news process from the beginning to

the end. He selects the content for the newspaper.

Managing Editor مدير التحرير is the person who supervises and coordinates

the newspaper's editorial activities. He or she generally manages budget,

staffing and scheduling for a publication and is second in command after the

executive editor.

Copy Editor محرر الطبعة is the person who edits the copy to improve

formatting, style, grammar, spelling and accuracy of the text.

A photographer is a person who takes photographs using a camera. A

professional photographer uses photography to make a living whilst an

amateur photographer does not earn a living and typically takes photographs

for pleasure and to record an event, place or person for future enjoyment.

3.6 What is a News Bureau? What is a News Desk?

A News Bureau المكتب الصحافي is an office for gathering and distributing news. It may

describe geographic location or scope of coverage. For example, many mainstream

30

media outlets maintain a bureau in Washington DC, London, Cairo, Amman or Gaza

to cover “stories”.

A News Desk خباراألفريق refers to the location(s) within a media outlet where

reporters receive their assignments and the coordination of news stories begin. For

example, the New York Times has local news desks, as well as national, foreign,

sports, business, arts and entertainment and culture desk.

A News Desk is an interdisciplinary team that:

leads all editorial processes,

decides on content (topic, quantity, quality, point in time),

is responsible for the graphic presentation

all relevant sub-processes for the publication process are integrated.

3.7 The News Report التقرير اإلخباري

Reporting is a careful process that involves collecting facts and checking them

carefully for accuracy. Journalists sometimes witness stories first-hand, but more

typically they learn the details from others who have experienced something directly

or who are experts in the topic. That information is reinforced or corroborated by

additional sources and checked against documentary evidence in public records,

reports, or archives.

31

The information a journalist collects should answer questions that are commonly

known as the five Wh’s and an H questions: who, what, where, when, why, and how.

Depending on the complexity of the story, a reporter might ask those questions in

several different ways:

WHO: Who is involved in this story?

Who is affected by it?

Who is the best person to tell the story?

Who is missing from this story? Who has more information about this?

Who is in conflict in this story? Do they have anything in common?

Who else should I talk to about this?

WHAT: What happened?

What is the point of this story? What am I really trying to say?

What does the reader need to know to understand this story?

What surprised me? What is the most important fact I learned?

What is the history here? What happens next?

What can people do about it?

WHERE: Where did this happen?

Where else should I go to get the full story?

Where is this story going next? How will it end?

WHEN: When did this happen?

When did the turning points occur in this story?

When should I report this story?

WHY: Why is this happening? Is it an isolated case or part of a trend?

Why are people behaving the way they are? What are their motives?

Why does this story matter? Why should anyone read it?

Why am I sure I have this story right?

HOW: How did this happen?

How will things be different because of what happened?

How will this story help the reader, listener, or viewer? The

community?

How did I get this information? Is the attribution clear?

How would someone

Reporters use both primary and secondary sources وثانويةمصادر رئيسية when

reporting news stories. A primary source could be an interview with a person who

has direct experience of an event or topic, or an original document related to that

32

topic. The journalist as eyewitness الصحافي كشاهد عيان is also considered a primary

source.

A secondary source might be a written report based on the original document. In the

case of a fire, for example, the person whose house burned down would be a primary

source. This also includes the firefighter who had been involved in putting out the

fire. But the press release issued by the fire department the next day would be a

secondary source.

Whatever sources you use to research the background of a story, it is critical to

consider the validity or credibility of the source. These days, anyone can design a

professional-looking Web site, or arrange to send an e-mail that looks authentic but is

really a hoax. Just because you can find it online does not mean that it is true.

Therefore, journalists need to verify the source of all information to determine

whether this information is credible enough to use in a news story.

3.7.1 News Report Structure

A news report generally consists of the following parts:

1. Headline: It must be understandable without sub headings and images.

2. Lead states the report’s or story’s basic facts: who-what-when-where-why. It

has a maximum of one or two paragraphs used to sell the story.

3. Development is where the lead information is discussed and detailed here. It

has short sentences with one paragraph containing only one idea.

The most common news structures of a news report are the following:

1. Inverted Pyramid الهرم المقلوب : Many news stories begin with the most

newsworthy information, following a traditional story structure. The “inverted

pyramid” form puts the most important information at the top, followed by

other information in descending order of importance. This shape is useful

when reporting important or breaking news and when timeliness is important.

Lead

Development

Context

33

2. Hourglass الساعة الرملية : It begins in a similar fashion, with the most

important information — but after a few paragraphs, it takes a turn and

becomes a narrative, usually told in chronological order.

3. Diamond الماسة : A reporter using this structure would begin with an

anecdote, introducing a character whose experience illustrates what the story

is all about. The small story would then broaden out to show its wider

significance. Toward the end, the reporter would return to the individual

character’s story as a way of concluding the narrative.

34

3.7.2 Stylistic Features of News Reports

Good news writing is concise, clear, and accurate. This sounds simple enough, but

it’s actually quite challenging. Generally speaking, news stories have shorter

sentences and paragraphs than most other types of writing. Each paragraph contains

one main idea. A new paragraph begins with a new idea, character, or setting.

Journalists use simple, direct language that is easy to understand, with more nouns

and verbs than adjectives and adverbs. Well-written news stories are not vague,

ambiguous, or repetitious, because every word counts.

In addition, good writers always make an effort to choose the most appropriate

words to convey what they mean. Reporters routinely consult dictionaries and

reference books to make sure the words they choose really mean what they think they

do. Because they write stories for a general audience, journalists also try to avoid

jargon — specialized language or technical terms unfamiliar to most people.

3.7.2.1 News Headlines

The news headline is one of the most important elements of a news report. A good

headline will grab your attention and make you want to keep reading. It will tell you

what the article is about. Headlines serve several functions:

1. attract the reader’s attention

2. summarize the story

3. help set the tone of the newspaper

4. define the situation

A catchy headline عنوان جذاب can generate lots of traffic to an article, regardless of

the quality of its content. This is because the headline will show up in internet search

engines, and people will click on anything that seems like it would be interesting,

funny, or dramatic.

A journalist is always careful about my headline. He or she wants the headline to be

something that would make the read want to read the article. Therefore, news

headlines should be written in a style that fulfils these functions. They should be

short, dramatic and easy to understand. The following guidelines should be followed

when writing a news headline:

1. Headlines usually use lots of abbreviations such as CIA, UN, IMF, BBC

UNESCO Conference opens in Amman

USA will continue relief work in Syria despite dangerous conditions

2. Headlines generally omit articles and verb to be

the Opposition claims the government is responsible for the crisis

35

3. The simple present verb tense is used whether it is about something that is

happening, something that happens repeatedly, or something that happened

in the past so as to accentuate the element of timeliness.

China launches space satellite

Fat babies cry less, says doctor

Obama meets Iraqi officials today

4. The present progressive is used especially to describe something that is

developing but the auxiliary is deleted

Britain heading for new crisis

Israel seeking to legitimize colonies

World getting colder, say researchers

5. If the action in the news story is in the future, then use the INFINITIVE,

or verb “to be” will be used in the headline

President to visit Egypt

Jordan to host World Economic Forum

6. If the action in the news story is in the passive voice, it will be used as

such in the headline, yet without verb to be

15 were killed in a plane crash in Lebanon

7. If numbers are to be included in the headline, they are included as figures

to save space

83 die in plane crash in London

7 killed in shooting in Washington school

3.7.2.2 News Lead الفقرة االفتتاحية

The beginning of a news story is known as the lead. It is the most important part of

the news report:

1. It consists of one or two paragraphs, often no more than 30 words.

2. It opens with a brief, sharp statement of the story’s essential facts.

3. It limits itself to the central idea that introduces the topic and major

contents of the story.

4. Almost all newspaper stories start off by answering most of these

questions: Who - What - When - Where - Why - How.

Consider the following lead examples:

Three members of one family (WHO) were killed (WHAT) last night (WHEN) in

Gaza (WHERE) when their car was hit (WHY) in the road by a big truck and caused

it to overturn pinning its occupants beneath it (HOW)

Activist Killed in Gaza An Italian pro-Palestinian activist has been kidnapped and killed by Islamic militants

in Gaza. The body of Vittorio Arrigoni was found in an abandoned house in Gaza on

Friday following his abduction by militants, a Hamas official said.

36

US strike kills American al-Qaida cleric in Yemen

In a significant new blow to al-Qaida, U.S. airstrikes in Yemen on Friday killed

Anwar al-Awlaki, an American militant cleric who became a prominent figure in the

terror network's most dangerous branch, using his fluent English and Internet savvy to

draw recruits for attacks in the United States.

Ban Ki Mon visits London

U.N. Secretary General, Dr Ban Ki Mon, arrived in London yesterday on a 48 hour

official visit to the U.K. This is the first visit by Dr. Ban Ki Mon since he assumed his

post as a U.N. secretary General on the first of this month. The U.N. official did not

make any statement upon his arrival at Heathrow Airport coming from Paris.

Many news leads can be written in different ways. Each lead type is determined by

the type and amount of information included and the emphasis the writer puts on

certain information or ideas. There are different types of news leads the most

important of which include:

1. Declarative lead: This lead starts with a source declaring or stating something.

Verbs like "declare", "say", "state", announce" are often used to convey the

declarative function of the lead.

President Mahmoud Abbas Friday said political negotiations will be the

responsibility of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and not of the

unity government the two main political factions, Fatah and Hamas, had

agreed on.

2. Quotation lead: This lead type starts with a quoted statement placed within

quotation marks, followed immediately by the source. This is used to highlight

important statements made by prominent people whose statements are

reported exactly.

"Saudi Arabia is committed to a just, comprehensive and lasting peace in the

Middle East," Saudi Foreign Minister Prince Saud Al-Faisal said last night.

3. Summary lead: This is the most common lead type which is used to briefly report

the main elements of the news, leaving the details to the latter part of the

report.

An Italian pro-Palestinian activist has been kidnapped and killed by Islamic

militants in Gaza. The body of Vittorio Arrigoni was found in an abandoned

house in Gaza on Friday following his abduction by militants, a Hamas

official said.

4. Explosive lead: This lead is used to report events characterized by violence, war,

destruction and human or material losses or disasters.

Israeli occupation forces last night attacked a number of Palestinian targets in

northern Gaza and Rafah in response to five homemade rockets that landed in

southern Israel.

37

3.8 News Selection Criteria معايير اختيار الخبر

1. Impact التأثير : A good news story is one that has a big effect on a large number of

people. That is, an event or an issue may get published if it has a big impact on

thousands of people. For example, a bomb explosion that killed three people in Gaza

City is more likely to get published that an explosion in India.

2. Proximity القُرب المكاني : This news selection relates to the geographical location of

the event such that something that happens in one's home country is more newsworthy

that an event happening in another country. For example, in the UK, an incident that

involves 1 dead Briton is worth 5 dead Frenchmen, 20 dead Egyptians, 500 dead

Indians and 1000 dead Chinese.

3. Negativity السلبية : Bad news is more exciting than good news. Bad news receives

more attention because it shocks us and creates discussion. For instance, "what should

be done about crime”?

4. Unusualness الغرابة: We are drawn to unsual or straneg events that draw our

curiosity. For example, if a dog bites a man, that's not news. But if a man bites a dog,

that's news.

5. Prominence الشهرة: Stories about rich, powerful, famous or infamous people

receive more attention and are more likely to become news.

6. Timeliness الحداثة : It refers to how recent an event is. For many people, news

media are important sources of information because they keep them abreast of events

happening nationally and internationally.

7. Relevance الصلة: Audiences with different socio-cultural, political and ethnic

backgrounds relate to the outside world in different ways. For instance, events such as

the Muslim Brotherhood winning a big majority in Egyptian elections or the

Afghan’s Taliban seizing a major city in fight with US forces are more relevant and

therefore may make news than the Sri Lankan Government imposing new taxes.

8. Human Interest قصة اإلنسانية ال : People are interested in other people. Everyone has

something to celebrate and something to complain about. We like unusual stories of

people who accomplish amazing things in their lives or handle a life crisis because we

can identify with them.

9. Conflict الصراع : Information has conflict if it involves some kind of disagreement

between two or more people or parties. Conflict and tension is more interesting than

peace.

38

3.9 EXERCISES

1)- Check if the following statements are True (T) or False (F):

1. _____ Newspapers often have articles on political events, crimes ,business or

entertainment.

2. _____ The headline will show up in internet search engines.

3. _____ Newspapers are most often published on daily or weekly basis.

4. _____ Journalists choose the most appropriate words to convey what they

mean.

5. _____ Newspapers usually focus on one particular geographic area where

most of their readers live.

6. _____ Inverted Pyramid is useful when reporting important or breaking news,

when timeliness is important.

7. _____ Reporters report the least objective and unbiased way to serve the

public.

8. _____ Credibility or validity of the source is critical to consider in searching

for stories.

9. _____ Online journalists need to be fast in their reporting.

10. _____ Journalist as an eyewitness can't be considered as a primary source.

11. _____ All relevant sub-processes for the publication process are integrated.

12. _____ News Bureau describes geographic or scope of coverage.

2)- Provide a term for the following definitions:

1. ___________________ is the printed form of conveying current information.

2. ___________________ is used to make sure that a publication meets its

deadlines, keeps contents, generates revenue and maintains its technical

section.

3. _____________________ is a person who edits the copy to ensure formality,

style, grammar, spelling and accuracy of the text.

4. _____________________ is a journalist who writes pieces that appear

regularly in newspapers or magazines and publications.

5. _____________________ consists of those who are assigned areas like crime,

politics, business, or someone who is assigned with special reports on different

subjects.

6. _____________________ is supposed to manage the news room where it is

taken care of every matter that is to appear next day.

39

7. _____________________ reports on popular sports for the radio, newspaper

and even online.

3)- Complete the missing parts in the following sentences:

1. The most important area of a daily newspaper is its _____________ section.

2. A news report generally consists of three parts:

a. ____________________ b. ___________________ c. ___________________

3. Reporters use the ___________________ and _____________________ sources

when reporting news stories.

4. _____________________ generally manages budget, staffing and scheduling for a

publication.

5. Most traditional newspapers also feature an ___________________ page

containing columns and express the personal opinion of writers.

6. Newspapers use _____________________ to illustrate stories.

7. Any publication or newspaper has three areas to manage:

a. ___________________ b. ___________________ c. ___________________

8. Newspapers are divided into various sections such as International,

_____________________, art, _____________________ and

_____________________ news.

9. The editorial staff is generally divided in two categories:

a. ______________________________ b. ____________________________

10. Reports can be either _____________________ or _____________________

4)- Fill in the blanks with the appropriate word:

[ headline – Investigative Journalism – accounts department – secondary source

– News Desk – amateur photographer – managing editor – foreign

correspondent – columnist – hourglass ]

1. _____________________ structure of news report begins with the most important

information then start being a narrative. It is usually told in a chronological

order.

2. _____________________ is supposed to be taking care of disbursement of salaries

to the staff .

3. A _____________________ must be understandable without subheadings and

images.

40

4. _____________________ might be a written report based on the original

document.

5. _____________________ involves getting to the bottom of stories about politics,

crimes and various scandals.

6. A _____________________ is employed by a media organization in one country

and stationed in a foreign country.

7. _____________________ refers to the locations within a media outlet where

reporters receive their assignments and the coordination of stories begins.

8. _____________________ is the person who supervises and coordinates the

newspaper's editorial activities.

9. _____________________ is a journalist who writes pieces that appear regularly in

newspapers or magazines and other publications .

5)- Discuss the following statements:

1. In a newspaper there are different jobs.

_____________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

2. Editorial Department is the most important area in a daily newspaper.

_____________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

3. A Newspaper has various types.

_____________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

4. Reporters depend on many sources to get credible information.

_____________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

41

5. Headlines serve several useful functions.

_____________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

6) - Match the words in list (A) with words relate to them in list (B):

1. classified ____ a. criteria

2. foreign ____ b. bureau

3. primary ____ c. editor

4. news ____ d. sections

5. copy ____ e. sources

6. selection ____ f. ads

7. inverted ____ g. newspapers

8. national ____ h. correspondent

9. supplementary ____ i. management

10. newspaper ____ j. pyramid

7)- Choose the news selection criteria that apply to the following news items:

[Impact – proximity - unusualness – prominence – relevance – conflict – human

interest]

1. Fifteen people were killed and 25 were injured when a suicide bomber went into a

police station in Kandahar, Afghanistan. One of the dead soldiers was an American.

2. A car accident occurred on the local highway. Ten people, including a mini-van

filled with kids coming back from a field trip, were killed and 25 were injured. Traffic

was stopped on both ends of the highway for five hours due to the accident.

3. A fire claims the life of a family of five. Twelve firemen are injured while fighting

the blaze and police are investigating it as possible arson case.

4. Israeli occupation forces last night attacked a number of Palestinian targets in

northern Gaza and Rafah in response to five homemade rockets that landed in

southern Israel.

42

5. Fifteen people were killed yesterday in a plane crash over the eastern side of the

Lebanese capital Beirut.

6. Syria's opposition held a meeting in Damascus on Sunday to call for a peaceful end

to President Bashar Assad's regime, after months of fighting in which thousands have

been killed.

7. A 5-year-old boy was the only survivor of an Egypt-Air plane crash yesterday.

Authorities said that 115 passengers were killed in the accident.

8. Hollywood actress Angelina Jolie visited a Syrian refugee camp in Baghdad and

met senior government officials Saturday on a visit to Iraq in her role as United

Nations Goodwill ambassador.

8)- Identify the news selection criteria in each of the following news examples:

1. Israeli occupation forces last night attacked a number of Palestinian targets in

northern Gaza and Rafah in response to five homemade rockets that landed in

southern Israel.

News criteria: ______________________ __________________________

2. Fifteen people were killed yesterday in a plane crash over the eastern side of the

Lebanese capital Beirut.

News criteria: ______________________ __________________________

3. Palestinians waited on Tuesday to cross into Egypt as the Rafah border crossing

reopened for travelers leaving the Gaza Strip for the first time in nearly a month.

News criteria: ______________________ __________________________

4. Syria's opposition held a meeting in Damascus on Sunday to call for a peaceful end

to President Bashar Assad's regime, after months of fighting in which thousands have

been killed.

News criteria: ______________________ __________________________

5. Sudan has ordered the blocking of access to the YouTube website to prevent people

watching a film that insults Prophet Mohammad, a senior government official said

Wednesday.

News criteria: ______________________ __________________________

6. A military vehicle was hit by an explosion as it traveled along a road in Turkey on

Tuesday, according to local officials and state media.

News criteria: ______________________ __________________________

43

7. A 5-year-old boy was the only survivor of an Egypt-Air plane crash yesterday.

Authorities said that 115 passengers were killed in the accident.

News criteria: ______________________ __________________________

8. A 32-year-old Palestinian woman was detained in East Jerusalem on Sunday

morning after she tried to stab an Israeli police officer, police said.

News criteria: ______________________ __________________________

44

Unit 4

Mass Communication Theories

نظريات االتصال جماهيري

UNIT CONTENTS:

5.1 Media Theories: Past and Present…………………………………45

5.1.1 Authoritarian Media Theory …………………………………….45

5.1.2 Libertarian Media Theory (Free Press Theory) ……………….. 45

5.1.3 Social Responsibility Media Theory ……………………………46

5.1.4 Democratic-Participant Media Theory ………………………… 47

5.2 Mass Society Theories: Effects Theories ………………………...47

5.2.1 Hypodermic Needle or Magic Bullet Theory …………………. 48

5.2.2 Two-Step Flow Theory ……………………………………….. 48

5.2.3 Agenda Setting ………………………………………………… 49

5.2.4 Frame Analysis Theory ……………………………………….. 49

5.2.5 Uses and Gratifications Theory ……………………………….. 50

5.3 EXERCISES …………………………………………………….. 52

45

Unit 4

Mass Communication Theories

نظريات االتصال جماهيري

4.1 Media Theories: Past and Present

The goal of all media theories is to explain relationships between media and people,

that is, between individuals, societies and cultures. They often aim to explain the

media's influence or "effects" on people.

Media scientists have often discussed how much influence the media have on people's

opinions. People tend to selectively read what they already agree with and to

rationalize their preformed opinions in the face of contrary arguments. Experimental

evidence seems to indicate that the mass media have little power to change people's

opinions on issues for which they already have formed a strong opinion, but they have

a profound influence when it comes to setting the agenda on certain issues.

In what follows, we present the most important media theories which have been

significant in helping to explain the structure of media systems and how they operate

in relation to society and mass communication.

4.1.1 Authoritarian Media Theory نظرية االعالم السلطوي

This is the oldest of the press theories. It advocates the complete domination of media

by a government for the purpose of forcing the media to serve the government; and

the media are forbidden to criticize the government or its functionaries.

The media in an authoritarian system are not allowed to print or broadcast anything

which could undermine the established authority, and any offense to the existing

political values is avoided. The authoritarian government may go to the extent of

punishing anyone who questions the state's ideology.

4.1.2 Libertarian Media Theory (Free Press Theory) نظرية االعالم التحرري أو نظرية

الصحافة الحرة

It prescribes that an individual should be free to publish what he or she likes and to

hold and express opinions freely. It sees the press as a 'free market place of ideas’

Govt.

Media

46

That is, all ideas should be put before the public, and the public will .السوق الحرة لألفكار

choose the best from that ‘market place’.

In the libertarian system, attacks on the government's policies are fully accepted and

even encouraged. Moreover, there should be no restrictions on import or export of

media messages across the national frontiers. Moreover, journalists and media

professionals ought to have full autonomy within the media organization. It also

advocates that the press be seen as partner in progress with the government in the

search for truth, rather than a tool in the hands of government.

The illustration below shows that there is no explicit connection between the

government and the media in the libertarian theory

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

4.1.3 Social Responsibility Media Theory نظرية المسؤولية االجتماعية لإلعالم

This theory states that the media can be used by anyone who has an idea to express

but they are forbidden to invade private rights or disrupt social structures. It

emphasizes the freedom of the press and places responsibility on the media

practitioners to abide by certain social standards, community opinion and professional

ethics.

It calls on the media to become the voice of all the people – not just elite groups or

groups that had dominated national, regional or local culture in the past. It also points

out that the media, in carrying out their obligations, must adhere to the highest ethical

standards.

The basic principles of Social Responsibility Theory, as summarized by McQuail

(1987), include:

To serve the political system by making information, discussion and

consideration of public affairs generally accessible.

To inform the public to enable it to take self-determined action.

To protect the rights of the individual by acting as watchdog over the

government.

To serve the economic system; for instance by bringing together buyers and

sellers through the medium of advertising.

To preserve financial autonomy in order not to become dependent on special

interests and influences.

According to this theory, there are certain responsibilities that the media must work to

achieve:

Media Govt.

Media Govt.

47

1. Fulfill certain obligations to its communities.

2. Set standards of professionalism, truth, accuracy and objectivity

3. Work within the framework of the law.

4. Avoid giving out information that might lead to crime, violence, or civil

disorder.

5. Represent the diversity of our culture and give various viewpoints.

4.1.4 Democratic-Participant Media Theory

This theory advocates media support for cultural pluralism التعددية الثقافية at a

grassroots level. The media are to be used to stimulate and empower pluralistic

groups. Its basic principles can be summarized as follows:

1. It calls for development of innovative “small” media that can be directly

controlled by group members. In other words, the existing bureaucracy,

commercialization and professional hegemony in media system should be

broken down to allow or guarantee easy media access to all potential users and

consumers.

2. It condemns the commercialization and monopolization of privately owned

media and the concentration and bureaucratization of government-owned

media.

3. It calls for greater attention of the media to the needs, interests and aspirations

of the audience in a political society.

4. It calls for pluralism in the place of monopolization, decentralization and

localization in the place of centralization.

5. Media conglomerates -be replaced or mixed with small الكبرى االعالم شركات

scale media enterprises.

4.2 Mass Society Theories: Effects Theories نظريات التأثير

There are a number of theories that differ in the extent of media's effects on viewers

and listeners. Some theories support extremes and the middle view on this:

Yes, the media impact us as the media make people powerless to resist

messages the media carry.

No, the media do not have a direct effect on audience since the media are

just one of many influences including opinion leaders, one's prior held beliefs

and the influence coming from family, friends and peers.

Yes and No! somewhere in between! The theory recognizes that the media

are not all-powerful in their influence, but understand that under certain

circumstances they can have a very strong effect.

In what follows, we review the most important media effects theories which were

instrumental in explaining the effect of mass media on audiences.

48

4.2.1 Hypodermic Needle or Magic Bullet Theory نظرية االبرة تحت الجلد أو الرصاصة

السحرية

It is one of the earliest theories that stated that mass media was highly influential. It

was started by the Frankfurt School, a group of German Marxists in the 1930’s. They

observed how Hitler used Propaganda to influence the nation. The Communists in the

Soviet Union had a similar impact. The theory holds the following principles:

1. The media is like a syringe that injects ideas and attitudes into people’s minds,

as a doctor shoots a hypodermic needle into a patient.

2. Audiences passively receive the information transmitted via a media text,

without any attempt on their part to process or challenge the information.

3. people are simply “targets,” and are powerless to resist influence

4. Media messages penetrate people’s minds and instantly and directly create

associations between strong emotions and specific concepts.

5. This theory is no longer widely held.

4.2.2 Two-Step Flow Theory نظرية التدفق على مرحلتين

This theory holds that media messages analyzed, interpreted and passed on by opinion

leaders first. Ideas flow from mass media to opinion leaders قادة الرأي and from them

to the less active sections of the population. The mass public الجمهور gets information

via these opinion leaders. These opinion leaders may include:

Political leaders

Experts

Celebrities

Community or religious leaders

Educators

Media analysts

Journalists

49

Opinion leaders serve as powerful channels in the flow of information. Opinion

leaders may have more direct access to the media and/or better media literacy than the

masses. They have credibility with individuals that the mass media may lack.

4.2.3 Agenda Setting نظرية ترتيب األولويات

The mass media determines the issues that are regarded as important at a given time

in a given society. That is, the media is significantly more than a provider of

information and opinion, but it is also successful in telling the audience what to

think about. The pattern of news coverage of a particular topic helps to determine

what the public perceives as important. In other words, the media sets the agenda.

The theory was developed by Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw in the late 1960s.

McCombs and Shaw argued that the “Mass media have the ability to transfer the

salience of items on their news agendas to the public agenda.” As they put it: “We

judge as important what the media judge as important.”

The theory holds that “Media agenda” determines the “public agenda”. That is what's

covered and emphasized in news becomes what people say is important to them.

Some prominent issues that the media focuses on include:

Foreign policy

Law and Order

Fiscal Policy

Public Welfare

Civil Rights

It is often argued that the people who have a willingness to let the media shape their

thinking are the most likely to be affected by the agenda-setting function of the media.

In addition, those who have a high need for orientation or very curious to know are

most likely to be affected by the agenda-setting function of the media.

4.2.4 Frame Analysis Theory نظرية اإلطار

Framing التأطير is the shaping of views and discussions through selective choice of

facts, themes and words. The sender makes the selection. Framing creates the context

in which the discussion occurs.

50

A frame is the central organizing idea for news content that supplies a context, and

suggests what the issue is through the use of:

selection

emphasis

exclusion

Elaboration

Framing is often made through the following:

1. Choosing the news angle

2. Selecting the sources (and avoiding others)

3. Formulating the headline, the lead of a news story and selecting the visual

image

4. Choosing which facts are deemed newsworthy and reportable and which ones

are made contestable or irrelevant.

5. Culture bound narratives: formulating a new episode in a longer and well

known story.

4.2.5 Uses and Gratifications Theory نظرية االستخدامات واإلشباعات

The theory of Uses and Gratifications focuses on the uses to which people put

media and the gratifications they seek from that use. That is, the audience actively

uses the mass media to seek gratification of a variety of needs. The needs most

commonly identified are:

Information (i.e. knowing what is going on in the world)

integration and social interaction (we use the media to find out more

about the circumstances of other people perhaps through empathy or

sympathy)

personal identity (we may watch television for models for our

behaviour. For instance - we may identify with soap characters or their

situations)

Diversion (i.e. entertainment and escapism).

51

There are four basic assumptions that underlie the theory:

1. People are active & choose what they want to watch & why.

2. The media compete with other sources for need gratifications.

3. People are aware of their media use, interests and motives.

3.1 People choose media that suit them

3.2 People choose media that fulfill needs, are useful, and are

pleasurable to them

4. Value judgments of the media can only be assessed by the audience.

52

4.3 EXERCISES

1)- Check if the following statements are True (T) or False (F):

1. _____ Theories do not differ in the extent of media effect on viewers and

listeners.

2. _____ Opinion leaders serve as a powerful channel in the flow of information.

3. _____ The goal of all media theories is to explain relationship between media

and people.

4. _____ The media in an authoritarian system are allowed to print or broadcast

anything which could undermine the established authority.

5. _____ Media are more than a provider of information and opinion.

6. _____ The authoritarian government may go to the extent of punishing anyone

who questions the state's ideology.

7. _____In the libertarian Media theory, there should be no restrictions on the

media and flow of ideas.

8. _____ The Social Responsibility Media Theory serves the economic system.

9. _____ In the Democratic Participant Theory, commercial and professional

hegemony in media system should be broken down.

10. _____ There is an explicit connection between the government and the media

in the Libertarian Theory.

2)- What is the theory that matches each of the following principles:

1. _________________________ Value judgments of the media can only be

assessed by the audience.

2. _________________________ What is covered and emphasized in the news

becomes what people say is important to them.

3. _________________________ Media messages are analyzed, interpreted and

passed on by opinion leaders first.

4. _________________________ People are simply “targets,” and are powerless

to resist media influence.

5. _________________________ It calls for pluralism in the place of

monopolization, decentralization and localization in the place of

centralization.

6. _________________________ To preserve financial autonomy in order not to

become dependent on special interests and influence.

7. _________________________ It advocates that the press be seen as partner in

progress with the government in the search for truth, rather than a tool in the

hands of government.

8. _________________________ Media messages penetrate people’s minds and

instantly and directly create associations between strong emotions and specific

concepts.

53

3)-Match words in group A with words that suit in Group B:

1. cultural _____ a. setting

2. free _____ b. leaders

3. social _____ c. bullet

4. agenda _____ d. press

5. opinion _____ e. identity

6. magic _____ f. interaction

4)- Complete the missing parts in the following sentences :

1. _________________________ believes that media is like a syringe that

injects idea and attitudes into people's mind.

2. The Libertarian Media Theory sees the media process as a

_________________________ of ideas.

3. Opinion leaders include ____________________, experts,

_______________________ and ________________________.

4. In the Libertarian system, attacks on the government politics are fully

____________________ and even encouraged.

5. Media focuses on many issues such as __________________, law and order,

and _________________________.

6. _________________________ emphasizes the freedom of the press and

places responsibility on the media practitioners.

7. Audience's needs in the Uses and Gratification Theory include information,

__________________, personal identity and ______________________.

8. A frame suggests what the issue is through the use of selection,

_______________________ and _____________________.

9. The Social Responsibility Theory protects the rights of the individuals by

acting as _________________________ over the government.

10. ______________________ calls for the development of innovative media that

can be directly controlled by group members.

11. The Democratic Participant Theory condemns the commercialization and

monopolization of _________________________.

12. ______________________ is the central organizing ideas for news content

that supplies a context.

54

5)- Correct the mistakes in the following sentences:

1. Libertarian Media Theory calls for pluralism in the place of monopolization,

decentralization and localization in the place of centralization.

2. In the Democratic-Participant Theory audiences passively receive the

information transmitted via a media text.

3. Ideas flow from opinion leaders to mass media in the Two-Step Flow Theory.

4. The public sets the Agenda in the Agenda Setting Theory.

5. Diversion is using the media to find out more about the circumstances of other

people perhaps through empathy or sympathy.

6. Libertarian Theory is the oldest of the press theories.

6)- Write short notes on the following:

1. Discuss the basic principles of Social Responsibility Theory.

_____________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

2. Clarify the assumptions that underline the Uses and Gratification Theory.

_____________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

3. Mention some basic principles of the Democratic Participant Theory.

_____________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

4. Magic Bullet Theory

_____________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

55

7)- Translate the following into the other language:

1- Media scientists have often discussed how much influence the media have on

people's opinions. People tend to selectively read what they already agree with and to

explain their pre-formed opinions in the face of contrary arguments.

_____________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

2- Experimental evidence seems to indicate that the mass media have little power to

change people's opinions on issues for which they already have formed a strong

opinion, but they have a profound influence when it comes to setting the agenda on

certain issues.

_____________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

تعد نظرية المشاركة الديمقراطية أحدث إضافة لنظريات اإلعالم وأصعبها تحديدا، فقد برزت هذه النظرية من . 3

أشكال جديدة في تنظيم وسائل اإلعالم، فالنظرية قامت واقع الخبرة العملية كاتجاه إيجابي نحو ضرورة وجود

. كرد فعل مضاد للطابع التجاري واالحتكاري لوسائل اإلعالم المملوكة ملكية خاصة

_____________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

56

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