A COMPREHENSIVE SCOPING AND ASSESSMENT STUDY OF … · agricultural systems. As recommended by the Food and Agriculture Organisation, national institutions and decision making must

A COMPREHENSIVE SCOPING AND

ASSESSMENT STUDY OF CLIMATE SMART

AGRICULTURE POLICIES IN MAURITIUS

30 April 2014

By

National Consultant: Prof Sunita Facknath

Collaborators: Assoc Prof Bhanooduth Lalljee

Mr Navin Boodia

University of Mauritius

April 2014

Commissioned by

The Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis

Network (FANRPAN)

ii

Executive Summary

Agriculture in the Republic of Mauritius must undergo significant transformation in order to

meet the related challenges of food security, sustainable livelihoods, and climate change.

Effective climate-smart practices already exist and could be implemented in the national

agricultural systems. As recommended by the Food and Agriculture Organisation, national

institutions and decision making must remain flexible while dealing with uncertainties of

potential climate change impacts, with iterative planning, participatory and systems-based

approaches, and strong stakeholder engagement.

The Republic of Mauritius has been proactive in tackling climate change issues. Although

there is no specific and separate CSA policy as such, many of the existing and proposed

agricultural policies, plans and activities include elements of CSA.

Apart from agriculture and food security, attempts are being made to incorporate climate

change (but not necessarily CSA) concerns gradually into other sectoral development

policies, plans and strategies such as water resources, tourism, land use, transport, health,

forest, infrastructure and coastal zone management to ensure sustainable development while

aiming at poverty reduction and social equity. However, the process is very slow, and

implementation so far has been inadequate, mainly due to financial constraints and

insufficient capacity at all levels. However, the concept of CSA has not been sufficiently

mainstreamed, and there are several important gaps.

There is a need to mainstream CSA into the policies and plans of other national sectors, as

well as to strengthen the necessary policy and institutional frameworks, and provide the

essential capacity, technical and financial resources for their implementation.

iii

Table of Contents

Executive Summary ii

List of Tables iv

List of Figures iv

List of Abbreviations v

1 Introduction 1

1.1. Country Overview 2

1.1.1. The Republic of Mauritius 2

1.1.2. Socio-Economics 2

1.1.3. National Emissions 2

1.1.4. Weather Systems 3

1.1.5. Climate Variability and Climate Change 3

1.2. Methodology 6

2 Farming Systems and CSA Technologies and Practices 7

2.1. Farming Systems 7

2.2. Climate-Smart Practices and Technologies 8

2.2.1. Mixed Cropping 8

2.2.2. Mulching 8

2.2.3. Adjusting Planting Dates to Rainfall 9

2.2.4. Crop Rotation 9

2.2.5. Pit Planting 9

2.2.6. Water Harvesting in Fields 10

2.2.7. Biological Control of Insect and Other Pests 10

2.2.8. Use of Other Traditional Knowledge for Pest Control

and Soil Improvement

10

2.3. Climate-Smart Programmes and Projects 11

2.3.1. Africa Adaptation Programme 11

2.3.2. Maurice Ile Durable 11

2.3.3. Food Security Fund 12

2.3.4. Capacity Building 12

2.3.5. Other Adaptation Projects 12

2.3.6. Other Mitigation Projects 12

2.4. Constraints and Challenges 13

3 Policies and Institutional Frameworks 14

3.1. Policies and Legislation 14

3.1.1. Conventions 14

3.1.2. Climate-Smart Relevant Policies and Plans 15

3.1.3. National Climate Change Adaptation Policy Framework

(NCCAPF)

17

3.1.4. Disaster Risk Reduction 18

3.1.5. Rainwater Harvesting Policy in Rodrigues 18

3.1.6. Climate Change Legislation 18

3.1.7. Comprehensive Africa Agricultural Development

Programme (CAADP)

19

3.1.8. Policy Gap Analysis 20

3.2. Institutional Framework 20

iv

3.2.1. Institutions 20

3.2.2. Institutional Gap Analysis 22

3.3. Gender and Social Equity in Climate Change Issues

23

4 Conclusions and Recommendations 23

4.1 Key Challenges to Implementing CSA

23

4.2. Opportunities to Implement CSA 24

4.3. Conclusions 24

4.3.1. Policies and Programmes 24

4.3.2. Institutions 24

4.3.3. Climate-Smart Technologies 24

4.3.4.Capacity Building 25

4.3.5. Financial Resources 25

4.4. Recommendations 25

4.4.1. Policies and Programmes 25

4.4.2. Institutional 27

4.4.3. Climate-Smart Technologies 27

4.4.4. Capacity Building 28

4.4.5. Financing 28

5 References 30

6 Annexes 34

6.1. Policies, Plans and Programmes Relevant to CSA 34

6.2. Details of Selected CSA-Relevant Policies and Programmes 36

6.3. Climate-Smart Agriculture Relevant Research Projects 39

v

List of Tables

Annex 6.1 Policies, Plans and Programmes Relevant to CSA 34

Annex 6.2 Details of Selected CSA-Relevant Policies and Programmes 36

Annex 6.3 Climate-Smart Agriculture Relevant Research Projects 39

List of Figures

Fig 1 Change in precipitation over the island of Mauritius 4

vi

List of Abbreviations

AAP Africa Adaptation Programme

AU African Union

BoI Board of Investment

CA Conservation Agriculture

CAADP Comprehensive Africa Agricultural Development

Programme

CO2 Carbon dioxide

CSA Climate Smart Agriculture

CSR Corporate Social Responsibility

EC European Commission

EU-DCP European Union - Decentralised Cooperation

Programme

FANRPAN Food Agriculture Natural Resources Policy Analysis

Network

FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation

FAREI Food and Agricultural Research and Extension Institute

GEF Global Environment Facility

GHG Greenhouse Gas

HFCs Hydroflurocarbons

ICT Information and Communication Technology

IDM Integrated Disease Management

INM Integrated Nutrient Management

IOC Indian Ocean Commission

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

IPM Integrated Pest Management

LULUCF Land Use Land Use Cover and Forestry

MCIA Mauritius Cane Industry Authority

MID Maurice Ile Durable

MMS Mauritius Meteorological Services

MoAFS Ministry of Agroindustry and Food Security

MoESD Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development

MoF Ministry of Fisheries

NCCAPF National Climate Change Adaptation Policy

Framework

NGO Non-Governmental Organisation

NPCS National Parks and Conservation Services

PFCs Perflurocarbons

SIDS Small Island Developing States

UNFCCC United National Framework Convention on Climate

Change

UoM University of Mauritius

1

1. Introduction

Climate variability and climate change is emerging as the most important challenge facing

development in Africa. There is already evidence that Africa is continuing to warm faster

than the global average (IPCC, 2007), and by 2100, increase in mean surface temperature will

range from 1.4°C to 5.8°C as compared to 1990, with a 10cm to 90cm rise in mean sea level

(AMCEN, 2011). With over 70% of the population being dependent on agriculture as a

source of livelihood, and about 97% of agriculture being rain-fed (World Bank, 2013), any

change in climatic patterns has far-reaching consequences for the economies of African

countries. Agricultural production and stability, and food security in many regions of Africa

will be severely compromised, with those that are already vulnerable being the hardest hit.

(Beddington et al, 2011; Cline 2007; Stern Review 2006).

The Republic of Mauritius is a Small Island Developing State (SIDS) and, in common with

other SIDS, is highly vulnerable to climate variability and climate change. A narrow resource

and livelihood base, high dependence on external markets and other exogenous forces,

increasing population, frequent extreme weather events, and the high risk of sea level rise,

make Mauritius (as other SIDs) particularly exposed to the vagaries of a changing climate.

Climate change-associated changes in temperature and rainfall are expected to shift

production ranges and seasons, pest, disease and weed patterns, modify crop phenologies,

change species composition and ecosystem boundaries, and modify the set of feasible crops,

all of which will affect production, prices, incomes and ultimately, livelihoods and lives.

Furthermore, climate change will worsen the water stress being currently faced by the

country. Inundation of low-lying lands will negatively impact agricultural and fishing

communities, coastal settlements and coastal tourism activities. Increased incidence of pests,

parasites, vector-borne and other diseases, heat-associated discomfort, and other climate-

related disorders will have significant negative consequences on human and livestock health.

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is an approach that can help reduce the negative impacts of

climate change on food supplies, livelihoods and economies, and increase the adaptive

capacity of farming communities to long-term climatic trends as well as to increasing

variability in weather patterns (Liverman, 2011; Speranza et al., 2010). Climate-smart

agriculture is not a single specific agricultural technology or practice that can be universally

2

applied; it is a combined policy, technology and financing approach that involves the direct

incorporation of climate change adaptation and mitigation into agricultural development

planning and investment strategies in order to enable sustainable agricultural development

under climate change (FAO 2010). It starts with site-specific assessments of the synergies

and tradeoffs between the multiple objectives of prioritizing food security, ensuring

sustainable livelihoods, and meeting the challenge of climate change, in diverse social,

economic, and environmental contexts; it aims to maximise benefits and minimise negative

trade-offs through appropriate adaptation options, while reaping potential mitigation co-

benefits. Therefore, CSA builds further upon the concept of sustainable agriculture, and uses

the ecosystem approach as well as principles of sustainable land and water management,

along with resource and energy use assessments, to make decisions on the appropriate site-

specific farming methods to use.

1.1. Country Overview

1.1.1. The Republic of Mauritius

The Republic of Mauritius comprises the main island, Mauritius, and the Outer Islands of

Rodrigues, Cargados Carajos Archipelago (St Brandon) and Agalega Islands. The Republic

also claims sovereignty over Tromelin and the Chagos Archipelago which includes the Diego

Garcia atoll. The total land area of the Republic is 2,040 km2, with an Exclusive Economic

Zone of about 1.9 million km2, and an extended continental shelf of 400,000 km

2 jointly

managed with the Republic of Seychelles.

1.1.2. Socio-Economics

From a monocrop economy founded on sugarcane for sugar, Mauritius has today developed

into a vibrant, middle-income country with a diversified economy based on tourism,

manufacturing, offshore finance, services, and ICT. New and emerging sectors include

medical and educational tourism, and ocean-related activities such as mariculture, marine

bioprospecting, etc. Sugarcane production is being expanded to include power generation

from sugarcane residue (bagasse) and ethanol production, and special refined sugars.

1.1.3. National Emissions

3

The National GHG Inventory (2010) reports that the net Greenhouse Gas emissions in 2006

was 4,646 Gg CO2-eq, with CO2 being the major contributor (about 71%). The main sources

of GHG emissions in the energy sector are electricity generation, transport, manufacturing

and construction. Methane emissions (about 30%) are mainly from urban wastes, followed by

the agriculture sector. Emissions from nitrous oxide, HFCs and PFCs have been decreasing

over the years. In the agriculture sector, the 206 Gg CO2-eq emissions (4.2% of the total

national emission) are from enteric fermentation, manure management, agricultural soils and

field burning of agricultural residues (SNC, 2010). Of these emissions, agricultural soils

contributed the highest amount (59.6%) followed by the livestock sector (40.4%).

The LULUCF sector acts as a carbon sink with 117.6 Gg CO2 emissions and 303.7 Gg CO2

removals in 2006, representing 6% removal of total national emissions (SNC, 2010).

1.1.4. Weather Systems

Weather in Mauritius is influenced by South-East trade winds, which give the island a mild

and pleasant maritime climate throughout the year. The two seasons comprise of a warm

humid summer (mean maximum temperature of 29.2o C) extending from November to April

and a relatively cool dry winter (mean minimum temperature of 16.4o C) from June to

September. Average precipitation ranges from about 4,000mm on the Central Plateau to

about 800mm along the coast. Tropical storms (cyclones) occur during the summer months,

and are associated with very strong winds and heavy rains leading to localised flash floods.

The cyclone-associated rains serve as the main source of freshwater for the islands.

1.1.5. Climate Variability and Climate Change

The mean temperature in the country has been increasing by 0.16oC per decade; the minimum

temperature has been increasing at a higher level than has the maximum temperature.

Furthermore, summer temperatures have been observed to be increasing more rapidly than

winter ones and the number of days with maximum temperatures above the threshold value of

30oC is on the rise (SNC, 2010).

On the other hand, rainfall has been decreasing (Fig. 2) with an overall decrease of about 100

mm over the last 50 years or so. Rainfall pattern has also changed, with a delay in the onset

of summer rains and a longer dry season (3-4 months as opposed to the 2 months some

4

decades ago), and an increased occurrence of high-intensity rainfall events that cause flash-

floods and high run-off to the detriment of aquifer recharge.

It has been observed that tropical storms are increasing in strength (wind gusts between 234

and 299 km/h), with more frequent flood events. Mean sea levels have risen by 7.8 cm at Port

Louis and 6.7 cm at Rodrigues, compared to 1950, with a higher rate of increase during the

past 25 years (MMS, 2014).

Fig 1. Change in precipitation over the island of Mauritius (MMS)

In the agricultural sector, the Agricultural Productions Systems Simulator Model (APSIM)

predicts cane yield reductions of 34% - 48% and sugar yield reductions of 47% - 65% with a

10%-20% decrease in rainfall and a 2oC increase in temperature (SNC, 2010). Extreme

weather events like cyclones and drought have also been shown to reduce cane productivity

and sugar extraction rate depending on the timing, severity and duration of the extreme event,

as well as some carry-over effects. Climate change is also expected to change sugarcane

phenology, with higher vegetative growth to the detriment of sucrose accumulation, under

conditions of increased mean temperatures and a narrowing of the day and night temperature

amplitudes.

Climate change is expected to have similar impacts on crop phenology (greater vegetative

growth, decreased flowering intensity, shorter life cycles, etc.) and yields of vegetables and

other crops as well. Flooding of cultivated areas due to intense rainfall events and/or

5

flashfloods results in total destruction of vegetable production. Higher temperatures shorten

the life cycle of insect pests and vectors, resulting in a greater number of generations in a

season, increase incidence of vector-borne and other diseases, expand the geographical and

host ranges of agricultural pests and diseases, reduce success of biological control agents, and

shift the species composition and ecosystem dynamics of the area. With greater evaporation

and lesser recharge of underground aquifers, utilisable water resources are expected to

decrease by about 13% by 2050 (SNC, 2010).

Ramlowat (2009) showed that higher mean and extreme temperatures may reduce net

assimilation rates in potato plants at the end of the growing season, with decreased tuber

growth rates and lowered productivity due to the shorter crop cycles resulting in lower total

intercepted radiation. Jonsson (2011) showed that a 1°C increase in temperature and 10%

decrease in precipitation would negatively affect tomato production in Mauritius, with yields

dropping by 8.2% and 13.3% in short run and long run, respectively, in the eastern region of

the country.

Facknath (2009a) reported on the resilience of food security systems in Africa in the face of a

changing climate, in particular the impacts of climate change on food security and

biodiversity in the Indian Ocean Small Island Developing States (Facknath, 2009c), as well

as the challenges involved in finding sustainable solutions for climate-smart crop protection

(Facknath, 2011a,b,c; 2010; 2009b). The vulnerability of agriculture to climatic changes was

also analysed by the Acclimate project of the Indian Ocean Commission in 2011. This study

revealed that while there is currently no systematic approach for observing the impacts of

climate change in the non-sugar sector in Mauritius, the livestock and crop production figures

over the years have reflected the rising temperatures and reduced precipitation.

A national dialogue to increase awareness about climate change and its impact on Mauritian

agriculture and to propose and discuss stakeholders’ coping and adaptation strategies, was

organised in June 2010 jointly by the Mauritius Node of FANRPAN and the Faculty of

Agriculture of the University of Mauritius (UoM), was attended by more than 70 stakeholders

from the farming community, the public and private sectors, NGOs, academia.

6

The several surveys carried out on the perception of farmers on the impacts of climate

variability and climate change on their production systems, and their adaptation mechanisms

(Brizmohun-Gopaul et al., 2013; Boodhoo, 2011; Facknath and Lalljee, 2005) have shown

that about 92% of the farmers interviewed have noted changes in weather patterns over recent

years, with 81% to 87.8% reporting reductions in quantitative and qualitative crop yields.

Specific observations in the crop sector include: heat stress in plants, soil moisture deficit,

higher pest and disease incidence, loss of arable land, shift in vegetation zones increased

salinisation of coastal agricultural lands, and change in cropping zones for some crops from

lowlands to higher altitude (Attawoo, 2012). Observations in the livestock sector include:

heat stress in the animals, lowered feed quality, lowered feed intake, lower productivity,

lower milk production in cattle, reduction in live pig weight from about 100 pounds to 80-85

pounds per head, higher risk and incidence of swine flu and other diseases, higher risk of

introduction of new diseases, disturbed younger animals resulting in poorer livestock

production, physiological disturbances leading to delay in the onset of the reproductive cycle;

slower growth rate of animals; dehydration in animals due to higher temperatures, lowering

of meat quality and taste, emergence of diseases, and increased heat-related mortality in

poultry. The increasing temperatures have also led to lower fodder productivity in the

lowlands, resulting in a lowered carrying capacity for deer ranching (Brizmohun-Gopaul et

al., 2013; Attawoo, 2012).

The negative impacts of climate change on agricultural productivity and profitability may

lead to abandonment of cultivable areas, with further negative consequences such as soil

erosion, soil fertility loss, land degradation, increased siltation of freshwater bodies and the

lagoon in slopy areas, etc.

Some of the positive effects include an extension of the cropping zone for certain crop and

fruit species due to the rise in temperature (e.g. litchis and mangoes can now be produced at

higher altitudes than was previously possible), and production of off-season crops due to

seasonal variations with consequent changes in crop phenology and productivity (e.g. litchis,

mangoes, pineapples). This creates the possibility of higher prices in local and export

markets, and therefore higher farm incomes.

7

1.2. Methodology

The scoping study was developed through the following steps:

(i) Desk review of existing documents – relevant national strategy and action plans,

legislation and regulations, key project proposals and reports, research papers.

(ii) Scientifically designed surveys and interviews of farmers.

(iii) Key informant interviews with executive members of farmer cooperatives and

federations, extension staff, and policy makers.

(iv)Validation of scoping study with key local stakeholders at an international

symposium on Africa in Global Environmental Change held at the University of

Mauritius on the 7th

April 2014.

2. Farming Systems and CSA Technologies and Practices

2.1. Farming System

Agriculture in Mauritius occupies about 40% of the land area, being dominated by sugarcane.

About 70% of the sugarcane sector is under corporate management, while the remaining 30%

is owned by some 22,000 small individual planters. The remaining 10% of the land is

cultivated with food crops, tea, tobacco, palm, fruit and flowers, by about 12,000 small

growers. In 2010, about 6,000 food growers cultivated around 7,570 ha of land for food crops

and fruits (mainly pineapple and banana) and produced about 110,000 tonnes vegetables and

fruits. Another 6,000 producers rear livestock for meat and milk. Forests cover about 25% of

the total land area. Forestry activities are restricted mainly to deer ranching and production of

Christmas trees (National Forest Policy, 2006).

The island of Rodrigues is mainly agricultural, producing maize, beans, onion, chilli, lime,

honey and meat. However, recent years have seen a decline in production mainly due to

8

water stress caused by decreasing rainfall, and increasing land degradation caused by

unsustainable management practices such as overgrazing by cattle, and construction on

slopes.

The farming system in Rodrigues is mainly rain-fed, while in Mauritius it is a mix of tropical

rainfed and irrigated. Cultivations are highly vulnerable to climate variability and climate

change-associated conditions such as higher temperatures, reduced precipitation and drought,

short periods of heavy rains and flooding, cyclones, and increased incidence of pests, disease

and weeds.

2.2. Climate-Smart Practices and Technologies

Farmers adapt to changing conditions through a combination of traditional practices and

modern techniques recommended by the Extension staff. Some CSA relevant practices are

described below:

2.2.1. Mixed Cropping

Farmers in Mauritius and Rodrigues often grow several crops together. In some cases, all the

different crops are food crops, while in some cases, farmers combine food crops with

ornamentals, e.g. onions with runner beans, coriander and marigold. This ensures some

harvest in the event of a failure of the main crop (ensures food security), and there are also

other benefits, such as reduced pest and disease attack, better utilisation of water and

nutrients, maintenance of a soil cover for a longer period of time (an adaptation to climate

change). The case of sugarcane is different in that planters ratoon a cane crop for up to 8 to

10 years before replanting. Intercropping with potato or maize or groundnuts is practiced only

in the virgin cane. However, after 8 to 10 years, planters normally allow a fallow period or

grow groundnuts or potato on the plots previously under sugarcane.

Mixed cropping systems tend to be more labour-intensive, and the high cost of labour in

Mauritius makes this system less attractive compared to monocropping, which is more

amenable to mechanisation. Another drawback is that cultivation guidance to farmers from

the Extension Services is in the form of specific crops, e.g. the Guide Agricole 2010,

published by the Food and Agricultural Research and Extension Institute of the Ministry of

9

Agroindustry and Food Security, explains the culture of 38 crops individually. There is no

specific guidance to farmers on the appropriate crop mixes to grow in mixed cropping

systems and the agronomic practices to follow.

2.2.2. Mulching

Farmers in some parts of Mauritius use sugarcane or maize stalks as mulch to prevent soil

erosion and maintain soil moisture. Although some farmers in Rodrigues use maize stovers as

mulch, most prefer to keep maize stovers to feed to cattle rather than as a soil cover. Research

on innovative mulches has identified banana leaves, coconut leaves, vetiver as organic

mulches as well as textile fabric (Facknath and Lalljee, 2013; Lalljee, 2012, 2013). Mulching

has been shown to reduce soil temperatures, retain moisture in the soil (which helps in water

conservation), prevent soil erosion, reduce incidence of pests and weeds, add to nutrients in

the soil, and increase yields (ensures food security as well as adaptation to climate change).

The organic mulch decomposes and gets incorporated into the soil, thereby adding to the

carbon pool in the soil (mitigation). However the shortage of organic mulch materials is a

drawback to this excellent climate-smart practice.

2.2.3. Adjusting Planting Dates to Rainfall

In Rodrigues, there is increasingly late onset of rains. Since maize and beans are only planted

after the first rains, the uncertainty about the onset of rains has led to farmers modifying their

farming practice to adapt to this situation. They prepare the land, but plant only when the

rains come. Late rains mean late planting, which shortens the growing season considerably.

This situation of uncertainty is not conducive to the adoption of good agricultural and CSA

practice. Although the Mauritius Meteorological Services provides rainfall forecasts for up to

one week in advance, there is nonetheless considerable variation in forecasting efficiency,

mainly due to the small size of the islands. Presently there is no source of advice to farmers

on the specific issue of adapting to the observed changes in rainfall patterns.

2.2.4. Crop Rotation

Although some farmers in Mauritius tend to specialise in one or two crops (e.g. sugarcane,

onions, potatoes, tomatoes, aubergines, or chillies) and grow the same crop(s) every season,

temporal and spatial crop rotation is practiced by a number of farmers. This practice

10

contributes to optimising the water and nutrient uptake from the soil thereby reducing the

need for fertilisers and irrigation, reduces incidence of pests and diseases thereby reducing

the need for pesticides, and overall increases the environmental and economic sustainability

of the farm. It is both an adaptation as well as a mitigation measure, and also ensures food

security. On the other hand, the high cost of farm labour can sometimes be a disincentive for

farmers to practice crop rotation.

2.2.5. Pit Planting

Farmers plant in depressions in the soil to collect and hold rainwater. This reduces the need

for irrigation, and helps in water conservation, and is a good adaptation strategy against water

stress.

2.2.6. Water Harvesting in Fields

Most farmers in Rodrigues, and several in the southeast coast of Mauritius, dig ponds in the

fields to collect rainwater and runoff from adjacent higher ground. These ponds provide water

for irrigation, preparing spray volumes for pesticides, and other farm activities for several

months in a year, and thereby reduce the use of river or municipal water. They are a

particularly useful adaptation measure during periods when there is no rain. One drawback to

this practice is the loss of field space to ponds, and which could have been planted with

crops. However, in sloping areas and arid regions, the benefits outweigh this small drawback.

2.2.7. Biological Control of Insect and Other Pests

Natural enemies have been introduced by the agricultural Ministry for several of the key pests

of sugarcane and food crops in Mauritius. As a result, there is no use of insecticides in

sugarcane fields, all insect pests being controlled by the introduced natural enemies. In the

non-sugar sector, several important pests (e.g. coconut beetle, leafminers, diamondback moth,

etc) are controlled using this approach, with varying degrees of success. Increasing

agricultural biodiversity and/or reducing use of synthetic pesticides is an important adaptation

practice. Biological control in Mauritius is not applied by farmers; it is institutionalised at the

level of the Ministry of Agroindustry and Food Security (for all crops, except sugarcane) and

11

the Mauritius Cane Industry Authority (for sugarcane). While this increases efficiency of

introduction and release of the natural enemies, as well as the bio-security aspect, it does not

involve the farmers sufficiently. The result is that many farmers are not aware of the role of

natural enemies in pest control and do not feel sufficiently involved in this activity to ensure

the survival of these natural enemies, e.g. through reducing their application of synthetic

insecticides, or using selective insecticides that do not kill the natural enemies.

2.2.8. Use of Other Traditional Knowledge for Pest Control and Soil Improvement

Farmers use several traditional methods as part of their agronomic practices, e.g. smearing

mixtures of plant oil on cattle for controlling stable flies, using mixtures of brown sugar and

vinegar to attract fruit flies to a trap, using stale beer to attract and kill snails, using rotting

fish heads, lights, and fluttering flags to keep away bats from damaging litchi, papaya, and

mango fruits (Facknath and Lalljee, 2005). For improving soil productivity, farmers

incorporate certain locally available materials to soil, such as wastes from the sugar industry

(scum, vinasse and ash), as well as sea weeds (in coastal regions). These, and other,

traditional (together with modern) agronomic practices help to reduce use of synthetic

pesticides and fertilisers and make agriculture more climate-smart.

2.3. Climate-Smart Programmes and Projects

2.3.1. Africa Adaptation Programme

Under the recent African Adaptation Programme (AAP), funded by the Government of Japan

Cool Earth Partnership for Africa, and implemented by the Ministry of Environment and

Sustainable Development, a number of projects were successfully completed, which included

integrating climate change into sectoral plans and strategies, sustainable utilisation in

agriculture of wastes (e.g. ash from sugarcane bagasse) from production of biofuels,

strategies for reducing fertiliser use, and awareness-raising and capacity building for dealing

with climate change. Annex 2 lists some of the CSA-relevant research projects. One major

output of the AAP was the setting up of a Climate Change Information Centre in 2012, under

the aegis of the MoESD and the University of Mauritius, which would act as the repository of

all climate change related data and information.

12

2.3.2. Maurice Ile Durable

The ‘Maurice Ile Durable’ (MID) vision of the Prime Minister, and now translated into the

MID Strategy and Action Plan, comprises of a number of policies and initiatives that promote

sustainable development. Developed following several nation-wide dialogues, and

consultations with a wide range of stakeholders, the participatory approach led to the

identification of a series of policy and strategic recommendations to make Mauritius a

sustainable island in line with the Brundtland three-pronged definition of sustainability

(economic, environment and social). One key goal of MID is to render Mauritius less

dependent on fossil fuels by enhancing energy efficiency and increasing the use of renewable

energy sources. Although its main thrust is mitigation, several of the activities funded under

the MID programme are climate-smart and have adaptation benefits, e.g.,

promoting water saving technologies such as drip irrigation, provision of free composters to

farmers and households, support to farming and other associations to

transit from conventional farming to ecological farming, promotion of low energy technology

(solar dryers and evaporative cooling) for agro-processing, etc.

2.3.3. Food Security Fund

In 2008, Government set up of a Food Security Fund (FSF) to the tune of MUR 1 Bn (over

USD 33 million) with a view to assist the crop, livestock and fisheries sectors to, inter alia,

develop coping strategies to increase climate resilience, through projects such as introduction

of new crop varieties, setting up of climate-related crop insurance schemes, mechanization of

farm activities, research on sustainable agricultural technologies, provision of efficient and

effective institutional support and services, capacity building of farmers, etc.

2.3.4. Capacity Building

Capacity building projects include training organized in 2012 by the Technical Centre for

Agricultural and Rural Cooperation ACP-EU (CTA), Wageningen University (Netherlands)

and the University of Mauritius on carbon balance appraisal of AFOLU projects and policies

using the EX-ACT scoping tool developed by FAO. Another project by CTA and the UoM

involved training of farmers and other stakeholders on the use of Web 2.0 tools for real time,

efficient and rapid information and knowledge dissemination. This tool has its relevance for

13

early warning systems, and other communication and collaboration among farmers, between

farmers and extension personnel, between researchers and extension personnel, and a host of

other stakeholders. Training of farmers on specific topics such as use of soil and water

salinity meters has also been carried out by the MoESD under the AAP.

2.3.5 Other Adaptation Projects

Other projects have been the regional ePRPV: Elargissement et Pérénisation du Réseau de

Protection des Végétaux, and the regional Initiative Régionale Agro-écologie Changement

Climatique (IRACC), which is another regional project funded by the Indian Ocean

Commission, and involving the Indian Ocean islands and the Tanzanian province of

Zanzibar.

2.3.6. Other Mitigation Projects/ Activities

Since the year 2000, various mitigation measures have been implemented at country level,

e.g.

Reforestation of about 770 hectares of state forest lands including some 20 hectares of

degraded mountain slopes, which represent more than 1 million new trees.

Planting of some 100 000 trees and ornamental seedlings under the National Tree

Planting Campaign.

Reduction in the volume of timber exploited.

Setting-up of endemic gardens in schools to enhance sink capacity and promote

awareness about climate change mitigation and adaptation.

Planting of mangroves as a CO2 sink.

Increasing the energy conversion efficiency of sugarcane bagasse as biofuel.

Shift to energy-efficient appliances and buildings.

Promotion of solar water heaters through financial incentives to households.

Installation of four wind turbines in Rodrigues.

Flaring of landfill gas.

Partial replacement of sodium vapour lamps for street lighting with energy saving

lamps.

Phasing out of HFCs and PFCs.

14

Replacement of household incandescent bulbs with energy saving lamps.

2.4. Constraints and Challenges

There are no full-scale, integrated climate models developed specifically for Mauritius. Most

models are downscaled from global climate models, and hence lack the degree of resolution

needed for more meaningful predictions on climate impacts, which can help focus research

towards site-specific adaptation/mitigation measures. Furthermore, research on the technical

issues of climate change and agriculture is presently limited, and there is therefore

insufficient local, scientifically-generated data and knowledge on CSA. As a consequence,

Extension Services are not sufficiently equipped to disseminate research findings to farmers

to support their adaptation strategies. Moreover, uptake of research by end-users is limited

since the benefits of new technologies or approaches are not validated for the local context,

and not sufficiently demonstrated to them.

The following recommendations have been proposed for climate change mainstreaming and

adaptation in the crop sub-sector (MoESD et al., 2012):

Introduce and develop improved (drought and heat tolerant, early-maturing, disease and

pest-tolerant, high yielding) crop varieties; and strengthen phytosanitary measures for

crop production;

Carry out countrywide assessments to determine regional vulnerability of the sector to

climate change elements in areas prone to drought, floods, and soil erosion;

Promote organic farming, Integrated Pest Management (IPM), Integrated Nutrient

Management and Good Agricultural Practices (GAP), which combines technologies,

policies and activities aimed at sustainable crop protection, enhancing agricultural

production and food security and safety, protecting the environment and preventing

degradation of soil and water quality.

Research on planting of forest trees with high carbon sequestration ability to mitigate

climate change and protection of water catchment areas and watershed management,

with economic value for use in the timber industry;

Promote water conserving crops and production technologies such as mulching and

intercropping, soil fertility conservation measures, drip and micro sprinkler irrigation

15

methods and planting of water efficient crop cultivars, short cycle crops, minimum

tillage, hydroponics and fertigation;

Diversify crop production;

Promote agro-processing particularly to cater for women entrepreneurs in the food

sector;

Introduce protected crop production methods such as greenhouse farming;

Introduce agroforestry systems for climate change mitigation, food security and soil

conservation;

Promote post-harvest technologies that reduce post-harvest losses; and

Adopt an agro-ecological approach to agriculture and food production

3. Policy and Institutional Frameworks

3.1. Policies and Legislation

3.1.1. Conventions

The Republic of Mauritius signed and ratified the UN Framework Convention on Climate

Change (UNFCCC) in June 1992 which came into force for the country in 1994. The first

related action of the Government was the preparation of the Climate Change Action Plan in

1998, which highlighted the high vulnerability of the country to climate change as a Small

Island Developing State, and the need to reduce GHG emissions and increase sink capacity.

This Plan could not be fully implemented at the time due to insufficient technical know-how,

inadequate trained manpower, and shortage of funds. The Plan is presently being reviewed

and updated.

3.1.2. Climate-Smart Relevant Policies and Plans

The term CSA was coined fairly recently, and gained popularity after the 2011 UN Climate

Change Conference in Durban. Hence it is unlikely that there would be CSA-specific policies

and legislation in Mauritius, as would be expected in other countries as well. Instead, major

agriculture policies are broad-based and designed for food security and agricultural

productivity in the nation, rather than for climate-smartness per se. Notwithstanding this fact,

most policies for sustainable development include CSA-relevant measures. In Mauritius, the

16

term CSA does not appear in any of the agriculture-related strategy and action plans;

however, a number of the development plans do have elements of CSA, even if not clearly

stated as such. Some adaptation actions are included in the following:

(i) The Sugar Sector Strategic Plan (1999-2005).

(ii) Non Sugar Sector Strategic Plan (2003-2007).

(iii)Strategic Options in Crop Diversification and Livestock Sector (2007-2015).

(iv) The Food Security Strategic Plan (2008-2011).

(v) A Blueprint for a Sustainable Diversified Agri-Food Strategy for Mauritius (2008-

2015).

While all these plans have their specific thrusts relevant to the country’s need at the given

point in time, the underlying principles of all the plans involve the reorientation and

modernization of the sugar and non-sugar agricultural sectors, the need to ensure food

security through improving self-sufficiency of key crops, promotion of sustainable

agricultural technologies such as the use of environmentally-friendly methods for soil health

and fertility management (mulching, green manures, composting, etc) and pest and disease

control (biological control, botanical pesticides, trap crops, coloured insect traps, etc), the

development of innovative production methods, novel product development, strengthening

services required for commercial production of crops and livestock, ensuring sustainable

development, improving diet and health of the nation, and increasing resilience to internal

and external drivers of change (e.g. climate change, market forces, etc). All of these are in

one way or another linked to adaptation and mitigation to climate variability and climate

change.

In spite of the relatively minimal amount of GHG emissions from the Republic of Mauritius,

and in spite of being a non-Annex 1 party, the Government has been proactive in putting in

place a number of mitigation strategies. Some of these are an inherent part of the

development plans and laws of allied sectors such as land, transport, environment,

biodiversity, tourism, energy, health, and are compatible with the CSA framework, including

both adaptation and mitigation strategies that impact directly and indirectly on agriculture.

The key ones include:

17

The National Environment Policy (2007) establishes a clear policy framework and sets

appropriate environmental objectives and strategies, including for conservation of habitats

and ecosystems, protection of native fauna and flora, and agrobiodiversity, and

enhancement of crop and animal production for food security.

The Multi Annual Adaptation Strategy (2006-2015) outlines action for the sugar industry

for product diversification and energy cogeneration, and promoting agroforestry.

The Environment Protection Act (2002) has been amended to provide, inter alia, for the

setting up of a Multilateral Environmental Agreement (MEAs) Coordinating Committee

to ensure better mainstreaming of all MEAs into sectoral and national policies. This

includes several climate change related issues, e.g. banning burning of agricultural

residues to reduce CO2 emissions and to promote their conversion into composts which

can be used in lieu of inorganic fertilizers, reducing traffic congestion which is one of the

main causes of high level of CO2 emissions in the transport sector, converting waste into

electricity to reduce methane emissions, etc.

The National Forest Policy (2006) includes measures to enhance sink capacity through

reforestation and better management of existing forests. This can also contribute to

preventing soil erosion, maintaining soil fertility through nitrogen fixation and nutrient

recycling, etc. and hence contributing to agricultural productivity and climate-smartness.

The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (2006-2016) recommends, inter alia,

the protection of agrobiodiversity through habitat management, sustainable land

management, and reduction in the use of agricultural pesticides, all of which have

implications for GHG emissions..

The Country Paper on the Health Sector (2006) identifies some measures that will help to

cope with climate change issues, e.g. strengthening the on-going surveillance system for

the control of vector-borne and communicable diseases.

18

The Long Term Energy Strategy (2009-2025) sets a target of 35% of renewable energy

sources in the national energy profile by the year 2025.

The Mauritius Strategy for Implementation, National Assessment Report (2010) analyses

initiatives taken, progress made, and constraints encountered.

3.1.3. National Climate Change Adaptation Policy Framework (NCCAPF)

This framework aims to integrate climate change in the future development policies of the

country, i.e. ensuring sustainable national development while preventing/ reducing damage to

human settlements and infrastructure, and loss of lives and also increasing resilience of the

key economic sectors to the negative impacts of climate change through capacity building

and providing an enabling environment. The NCCAPF establishes national policy for the

coming 20 years, proposes coping strategies and an action plan for the next decade, and

establishes a financing plan for the next three years.

The Framework consists of a National Climate Change Adaptation Policy, a Climate Change

Adaptation Strategy and Action Plan, a Climate Change Adaptation Investment Program,

and a few project concepts in key specific areas such as agriculture, water, fisheries and

tourism. The NCCAPF will also help to facilitate access to international financing plans,

such as the Green Climate Fund and the Adaptation Fund of the United Nations. It will be

accompanied by the Climate Change Bill, to be presented to Parliament soon.

3.1.4. Disaster Risk Reduction

Climate risk analysis for the Republic of Mauritius predicts an increase in the intensity and

frequency of extreme precipitation events, even if the total annual precipitation remains

constant or increases only slightly. The recently developed Strategic Framework and Action

Plan for Disaster Risk Reduction has estimated that 19-30 km2 of agricultural land, 5-70 km

2

of built-up land, 2.4-3 km of motorway, 18-29 km of main roads and 68-109 km of secondary

roads could be exposed to flood hazards in the island of Mauritius, while in Rodrigues island,

19

0.5-0.6 km2 and 0.4 km

2 of agricultural and built-up land, respectively, would be prone to

flood hazards.

A National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Centre has recently been set up under

the Prime Minister’s Office, which has the mandate of monitoring implementation of the

Strategic Framework and Action Plan for Disaster Risk Reduction. As part of the Disaster

Risk Reduction and Management strategy of the Government, profile maps have been

developed that indicate areas highly prone to flooding, landslides and coastal inundation, and

which will help in designing sound urban and rural land use planning. The coastal inundation

vulnerability assessment will help to ensure that development on coastal zones will be better

protected against sea level rise and more resilient to climate change.

3.1.5. Rainwater Harvesting Policy in Rodrigues

The rain water harvesting system in Rodrigues was promoted in 1992 through the

construction of concrete tanks into which rain water from the roofs of buildings was

channeled. The rainwater harvesting structure regulations have been drafted under the

Building Act (1919) and applied to commercial and public buildings. Rainwater harvesting

complements smallholder irrigation and may be used for supplementing rain fed agriculture

by increasing soil moisture or creating runoff storage. Although a common feature in

Rodrigues, rainwater harvesting in Mauritius has yet to become as popular. While awareness

exists about the importance of harvesting and collecting rainwater, there is generally

inadequate interest to install related devices and accessories, mainly since the problem of

water shortage is not as acute in Mauritius as it is in Rodrigues.

3.1.6. Climate Change Legislation

A Climate Change Act is in the process of being developed. The main thrust of this proposed

Act is to make Mauritius climate-resilient and adopt a low-carbon development pathway in

line with the overarching Government objectives of developing a green economy. The

proposal has also been advocated as part of sustainable development within the Maurice Ile

Durable (MID) project. The key benefits are:

Visibility - The enactment of a Climate Change Act will give a strong signal showing

Mauritius’ commitment to the issue of climate change. The proposed Act will better

20

prepare Mauritius for actual and forthcoming obligations to the UNFCCC, while serving

as a model in terms of managing climate change related issues.

Climate-resilient development - Implementation of the provisions of the proposed Act

will require any development to factor climate-resilience into their design and thus enable

savings in terms of costly maintenance or retrofitting of infrastructures.

Branding - In the wake of major global crises (economic, energy and fuel) and more

demanding markets and tourist preferences, Mauritius stands to gain by positioning itself

to better respond to these changes, attract niche tourist markets, and increase its

competitiveness through branding as a sustainable low-carbon and climate-resilient

tourist destination.

Enhanced attraction for financial support - Another challenge ahead for Mauritius is to

continue mobilizing funds for adaptation and mitigation projects which are usually capital

intensive projects. The new legal and institutional framework will increase the visibility

of Mauritius in the international scene and help to attract financial and human capital.

The Climate Change Act has been finalized at the level of the Ministry of Environment and

Sustainable Development, and is presently in the process of being vetted by the State Law

Office. The next step would be the promulgation of the Act.

3.1.7. Comprehensive Africa Agricultural Development Programme (CAADP)

In African countries, agricultural development and investment strategies are being developed

and promoted under the Comprehensive Africa Agricultural Development Programme

(CAADP) under the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD). The main

objective of the CAADP, which has as its main pillars – Sustainable Land and Water

Management, Market Access, Food Supply and Hunger, and Agricultural Research - is to

assist African countries reach a higher path of economic growth through agriculture-led

development and attainment of at least 6% annual sectoral growth. Albeit slowly, Mauritius

continues to engage with the CAADP process.

3.1.8. Policy Gap Analysis

In spite of the above listed policies, strategy and action plans, there is currently insufficient

penetration of climate change into the policy instruments of other sectors that can impact on

agricultural production, e.g. land allocation and land management, water management,

21

biodiversity protection and conservation. Part of the reason is the long time taken to convert

proposed strategies and actions into appropriate regulations and/or legislation, and part is

insufficient capacity for implementation. Mainstreaming climate concerns into other policies,

development programmes and management strategies is therefore the first step in making

Mauritian agriculture more climate-smart. This will help in improving the resilience of

agriculture and enhance its capacity to deal with conditions associated with climate

variability and change and hence reduce the vulnerability of agriculture to changing climate.

Mauritius has not yet signed the CAADP Compact but the buy-in process started in 2010 and

a focal person has been appointed. Mauritius is in the process of preparing for the launch of

CAADP and signing of the Compact.

Agricultural research and extension programmes have not incorporated climate change

sufficiently into their research and extension agendas, in particular the impacts of climate

change on production and on farmers’ livelihood. The imperative of climate change requires

building capacity of extension services to make planning decisions and technology choices

and to disseminate climate change related information efficiently, as well as capacity building

of farmers to empower them to adopt new ideas and technologies for CSA.

There are no incentives from Government to farmers to adopt appropriate and efficient CSA

measures and technologies. While farmers develop their own coping strategies to face the

challenges of climate variability to their livelihoods, there are no measures in place to reward

sustainable agricultural practices such as mixed cropping, mulching, reducing use of

synthetic fertilisers and pesticides.

3.2. Institutional Framework

3.2.1. Institutions

Adaptation to climate change requires proper institutional structures and support, which

includes inter alia defining adequate national policy and legislative frameworks, assigning

and coordinating responsibilities to Governmental structures (MoESD et al., 2012). The

Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development is the focal point of the UNFCCC

22

and, in March 2010, created a Climate Change Division to spearhead and coordinate

activities associated with adaptation and mitigation to climate change.

Other institutions/organizations involved in climate change related issues in the agricultural

sector include:

The Mauritius Meteorological Services which provides weather information, forecasts,

and seasonal weather patterns. Furthermore, agro-meteorological stations have been set

up as part of an Agricultural Decision Support System in seven different regions, namely

Wooton, Richelieu, Flacq, Plaisance, Plaine Sophie, Reduit, and Barkly, to provide real

time, national level weather and climate data to planters and other stakeholders, e.g.

researchers, water managers, etc.

The Ministry of Agro-Industry and Food Security (MoAFS) provides technical and

advisory services to the non-sugar agricultural community, e.g., pesticide spraying of fruit

trees, sale of seeds and seedlings, etc. The National Plant Protection Office of the MoAFS

screens, and if needed, quarantines, imported plants and plant products for pests and

diseases.

The Food and Agricultural Research and Extension Institute (FAREI) of the MoAFS is

responsible for research, development and extension services to the non-sugar agricultural

sector. It also provides training and awareness-raising of farmers on climate change

issues.

The Mauritius Cane Industry Authority conducts research on climate change effects on

sugarcane production.

The University of Mauritius undertakes teaching (both formal and informal), research,

outreach, and consultancies on climate change effects and adaptation, particularly with

respect to land use/land cover, soil health and fertility, crop production, crop protection,

agricultural extension, agricultural economics, human health.

The Development Bank of Mauritius (DBM) provides soft loans for agricultural projects.

23

Main stakeholders, including the vulnerable groups need to have a voice in policy

advocacy related to climate change. Mauritius has a particularly dynamic body of NGOs,

several of which are active in issues related to climate change. Although not specifically

working on CSA, a few are involved in agricultural projects that have elements of CSA,

some of them with the help of funds made available by major international donors under

various development schemes, such as the GEF-SGP, EU-DCP, EDF, etc.

The private sector too is increasingly taking a more active role in social and

environmental issues, mainly under the stimulus of Government’s requirement for the

private sector to devote at least 2% of its profits to Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)

activities. Several large companies have contributed to environmental and biodiversity

projects, although there are few related to agriculture.

The written and visual media is also an important actor in the implementation of activities

related to climate change, e.g. for awareness-raising of the general public as well as for

education of farmers.

3.2.2. Institutional Gap Analysis

The current institutional capacities and relationships are insufficient to provide effective

solutions to the effects of climate change in the agricultural sector. There is inadequate

capacity within relevant institutions, and insufficient collaboration between researchers and

end-users, and research information does not reach farmers in a timely manner (Brizmohun et

al., 2012). Unlike in other countries, private sector funding of research in non-sugar

agriculture is practically negligible. Data availability and data sharing is an important issue

that needs to be addressed. Presently, environmental (including climate change and CSA)

data and information are kept with the original data generator, data collector, or recipient of

data. This means that the data and information is scattered all over the country - in the various

Ministries, Universities, other public bodies, parastatal organizations, NGOs, in the form of

hard copies, electronic storage files, office files, websites, etc. There is also a large amount

of “grey literature” among researchers, academicians, NGOs, etc. which is not available in

the public domain, and which, if made available, could provide new, supplementary or

confirmatory information to existing data.

24

Although research in Mauritius on climate variability and climate change issues has been

ongoing since many years, many of the projects undertaken were limited in scope and scale,

and undertaken in isolation, preventing their effects from being widespread, cohesive and

sustainable.

3.3. Gender and Social Equity in Climate Change Issues

Unlike in other African countries, the gender disparity is much less in Mauritius. While it is

true that the majority of field labour in the sugar sector is female, there is little gender

discrimination in the non-sugar sector. In general, women field workers are paid less than

their male counterparts, however that is due to the relatively less strenuous workload

allocated to the women. At other levels, such as extension officers, researchers, academics,

technicians, there is hardly any gender discrimination. The Ministry of Gender Equality,

Child Development and Family Welfare have carried out workshops, sensitization campaigns

and training of trainer courses on gender and climate change, on mainstreaming climate

change into community programmes, on the gendered national and local vulnerability and

strategy, etc. One outcome of one such event was a draft Action Plan on how trainees will

share what they have learned with their peers, and how government officials will develop

follow-up actions in view of mainstreaming gender in climate change.

4. Conclusions and Recommendations

4.1. Key Challenges to Implementing CSA

Although there has considerable progress in the country with respect to expertise, technical

skills, trained manpower, awareness at various levels, and opportunity for funds, there is still

much more to be done at all these levels.

This study noted that the lack of financial support and knowledge are the main barriers for

technology development and implementation in Mauritius, which corroborates the findings of

the Technology Needs Assessment (2012) for climate change adaptation and mitigation in the

food crop and livestock subsectors. Furthermore, the aversion to risk taking and resistance to

25

change attitude noted among the farming communities are other important hurdles to the

implementation of appropriate CSA measures.

4.2. Opportunities to Implement CSA

The political will and commitment to ensure climate-smart development in the country is an

important positive attribute to the further development and promotion of CSA in Mauritius.

The global interest in CSA, and the various funding programmes available, provide

opportunities for incorporating and mainstreaming CSA into national policies, strategies and

action plans, to strengthen capacity and infrastructural needs of various stakeholders. The

Republic of Mauritius is well poised to be able to tap these opportunities. The coming into

force of the Climate Change Act and implementation of the National Climate Change

Adaptation Policy Framework would help to accelerate CSA in the near future in the

Republic of Mauritius.

4.3. Conclusion

4.3.1. Policies and Programmes

In spite of the considerable progress made in recent years, there is insufficient penetration of

climate change policies in the policies and plans of other sectors. CSA is not specifically

addressed in the agricultural and other sectoral policies and plans. Even where legislation and

policies in related sectors exist, there is inadequate implementation and enforcement, e.g.

legislation to reduce pollution in water bodies, legislation to reduce illegal tapping of water,

policies for rainwater harvesting, wastewater reuse for irrigation, composting, reducing use of

synthetic pesticides and fertilisers, etc.

4.3.2. Institutions

There is insufficient intra-institutional coordination and little inter-institutional interaction

with respect to sharing of resources, data, information, which results in duplication of work,

fragmentation of responsibilities, and non-optimisation of available resources.

4.3.3. Climate-Smart Technologies

26

Implementation of CSA is site-specific and needs to be developed locally. Any transfer-of-

technology must be accompanied by adjustment to, and validation for, the local context.

However, local research and development in CSA technologies is inadequate, due to

insufficient capacity and funds, and poor farmer awareness of climate change issues and

appropriate adaptation strategies. CSA-relevant technologies and activities are not

sufficiently promoted nor incentivised.


Capacity for efficient local R & D is inadequate at all levels. Farmer groups are not equipped

to participate fully and meaningfully in development of CSA-technologies. Insufficient field

demonstration plots/farms results in poor research uptake by farmers, partly due to incapacity

and unwillingness of farmers to adopt recommended technologies, and partly due to a certain

lack of confidence in the results of theoretical, undemonstrated research results.

4.3.5. Financial Resources

Insufficient financial resources at all levels remain a major constraint to the development and

adoption of CSA. The success of CSA for sustainable development depends upon the extent

to which financing and other resources can be made available to researchers, extension

services, local farmers and farming communities, and policy makers. Currently there are no

financial instruments to ensure CSA development. Furthermore, farmers are not adequately

climate proofed through insurance and/or other financial schemes.

4.4. Recommendations

4.4.1. Policies and Programmes

Developing and promoting CSA must be built on existing policy instruments, with

rationalisation of policies, plans and programmes for greater efficiency and coverage. The

principle and practice of CSA must be mainstreamed in sectoral, trans-disciplinary and

national development plans and integrated within the wider context of sustainable

development. There is a need to foster inter-linkages between different sectoral policies,

and to ensure appropriate representation of all the sectors that have relevance to CSA.

27

Policies and plans must be enforced and implemented. Standards and indicators

(social, economic and environmental) for CSA must be built into plans for monitoring

and evaluating progress and for greater transparency and accountability.

Farmers practising CSA must be supported through economic and in-kind incentives,

such as subsidies, insurance schemes, farm inputs, alignment of market information

strategies, etc in the relevant climate change and disaster risk management policies and

strategies.

Some specific recommendations for CSA include:

Developing appropriate land management plans to prevent land degradation from

erosion and unsustainable agricultural practices, e.g. community land use planning.

Restricting certain environmentally-sensitive areas to CSA agriculture only, e.g.

Conservation Agriculture.

Identifying and incentivising farmers to put relevant sections of their land for drainage

and flood protection.

Introducing legislation for safe wastewater use for irrigation.

Enforcing legally binding Code of Practice for CSA.

Developing water pricing systems that incentivise good practices in agriculture.

Developing and implementing strategies, action plans, management plans,

programmes, guidelines, delivery and operational systems, along with their

appropriate legal framework, for specific sectors, e.g. :

A national Pest Risk Analysis and Integrated Pest Management strategy.

A national Integrated Disease Management strategy.

A national Integrated Nutrient Management strategy.

A national action programme for sustainable management of forests.

A national strategy for conservation of agro-biodiversity.

An integrated waste management strategy, which includes composting as a

major component.

Monitoring impact of unsustainable agricultural activities, and taking appropriate

corrective actions (legal, technical, financial).

28

Developing and implementing the concept of Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES)

and the Polluter Pays Principle (PPP).

Encouraging, through appropriate policies and plans, intra- and inter-institutional/

sectoral collaboration and sharing of data, information and resources.

Adopting a participatory democratic approach for decision-making, with good

governance, transparency and accountability at all levels.

4.4.2. Institutional

Institutional arrangements must be reviewed to encourage greater synergies in terms

of resource and data sharing, in particular in and among sectoral line agencies,

education, research, extension and communication for development services.

Community-and locally-based networks and associations (e.g. forest-user groups,

agricultural and fisheries cooperatives, community networks and media) must be

strengthened for better management and delivery of services for CSA, and to facilitate

locally appropriate adaptation measures, including community-based agriculture.

Multi-stakeholder partnerships among public and private sectors, non-governmental

organizations and communities at all levels must be strengthened for R & D in CSA.

4.4.3. Climate-Smart Technologies

A farmer participative, and evidence-based approach must be adopted in order to ensure

farmer buy-in for CSA and for long term agricultural sustainability and food security.


29

Developing and promoting crop varieties and animal breeds that are capable of

adapting to CSA.

Developing and promoting innovative methods of rainwater harvesting and storage.

Promoting the use of Integrated Pest Management, and Integrated

Nutrient Management approaches among farmers.

Promoting the use of appropriate irritation techniques for optimising water use, e.g.

micro-irrigation.

Protecting and managing agrobiodiversity in a sustainable way.

Encouraging composting of agricultural and municipal wastes.

Encouraging the use of renewable energy for agricultural activities.

Reinforcing gene banks and setting up in-situ conservation of local fruit and vegetable

varieties, and animal strains.

Validating and promoting traditional knowledge (traditional crop varieties, locally

adapted animal breeds, pest control, trap crops, storage practices, etc).

Promoting production and marketing of local, endemic, underutilized fruit and

vegetable species (jambos, jamblon, jamalac, tamarin, carambole, breadfruit, grenade,

fig, jackfruit and others), while maintaining a balance between food security and

biodiversity protection.

Promoting urban and rural kitchen gardens and roof gardens.

Developing strong ancillary activities, e.g. a professional apiculture industry for

benefits in crop production, composting for the provision of inexpensive, good quality

compost as a supplement to synthetic fertilisers.

Improving food processing and storage facilities for off-season consumption and for

export.

Conducting research on novel crops for import substitution, reducing foreign

exchange loss, job creation, ensuring food security in the context of a changing

climate and/or extreme events.


Capacity must be strengthened at all levels for all aspects of CSA, including policy

development, monitoring and evaluation, R & D, service delivery, investments, etc.

30


Reinforcing national and regional capacities for plant, forest, animal health and food

safety and improve monitoring and control of variations in pests, diseases and food-

borne illnesses, related to climate change.

Enhancing national capacity to access financial resources available for technology

development and transfer, investments and capacity development for CSA.

Strengthening R & D on CSA issues.

4.4.5. Financing

Given that available financing, current and projected, are substantially insufficient to meet

climate change and food security challenges faced by the agriculture sector, there is a need to

synergistically combine financing from public and private sources, and to explore innovative

options to meet the investment requirements of CSA.

To be effective in channelling fast-track financing to agriculture, financing mechanisms must

take sector-specific considerations into account.


Making CSA one of the investment priorities for potential entrepreneurs.

Combining financing from public and private sources, and exploring innovative

options to meet the investment requirements of CSA, e.g. using revenues from taxes

on GHG emissions to subsidise CSA projects.

Exploring regional opportunities to further CSA.

Encouraging agricultural practices that lend themselves to carbon trading, e.g.

agroforestry, especially on marginal lands or lands that will be removed from the

sugar sector.

Exploring CDM options through clustering of several small related activities or

partnering with regional actors for a regional CDM project.

31

5. References

AMCEN, 2011: Addressing Climate Change Challenges in Africa; A Practical Guide

Towards Sustainable Development. 272 pp.

Atawoo M. A. (2012). Overview of the impact of climate change on the non-sugar

agricultural sector in Mauritius and strategies for adaptation. Agricultural Research and

Extension Unit.

Beddington J, Asaduzzaman M, Fernandez A, Clark M, Guillou M, Jahn M, Erda L, Mamo

T, Van Bo N, Nobre CA, Scholes R, Sharma R, Wakhungu J. 2011. Achieving food security

in the face of climate change: Summary for policy makers from the Commission on

Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change,

Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). Copenhagen, Denmark. 20 pp.

http://www.ccafs.cgiar.org/commission.

Brizmohun-Gopaul R and Mr Hardowar, 2011. on “Climate Change adaptation measures for

Mauritian Agriculture: Stakeholder’s perspective”. Climate Change Awareness Week,

University of Mauritius.

Brizmohun-Gopaul R, A Ruggoo, S Facknath & S Hardowar, (2013). A Situational Analysis

of Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation for Agriculture in Mauritius. Research Project

Report. University of Mauritius. Réduit. 72 pp.

Facknath S., (2012a). The Ecosystem Approach to water management: A sustainable option

in the context of Climate Change. Scientific Conference of the NASAC-KNAW

Collaboration Initiative on Water Management Issues in Africa. Mauritius. 28th – 31st March

2012.

Facknath, S. (2009a). Climate Change and Resilience of Food Supply Systems. Keynote

address, International Workshop of Experts on Global Environmental Change (including

http://www.ccafs.cgiar.org/commission

32

Climate Change and Adaptation) in Sub-Saharan Africa. Pretoria, South Africa. 9th - 11th

February 2009.

Facknath, S. (2009b). Effect of temperature rise on agricultural pests, on their control by

pesticides and on efficacy of biological control systems. International Workshop of Experts

on Global Environmental Change (including Climate Change and Adaptation) in Sub-

Saharan Africa. Pretoria, South Africa. 9th - 11th February 2009.

Facknath, S. (2009c). Les Changement climatique et son impact sur la sécurité alimentaire et

la biodiversité dans les îles de l’Océan Indien. Keynote address, Colloque Internationale sur

La Securite Alimentaire et Qualite des Aliments. CIDEFA/ UoM. Mauritius. June 2009.

Facknath, S. (2011a). Climate change impacts on crop pests and their natural enemies –

implications for food security and environmental sustainability. Scientific Conference of the

NASAC-KNAW Collaboration Initiative on “The Impact of, and Adaptation to, Climate

Change in Relation to Food Security in Africa”, Nairobi, Kenya. 23rd -25th February 2011.

Facknath, S. (2011b). Climate Change Impacts on Insect-Host Plant Interactions. Fourth

International Conference on Plants and Environmental Pollution, 8-11 December 2011,

Lucknow, India.

Facknath, S. (2011c). The influence of inter and intraspecific interactions between Liriomyza

trifolii and Liriomyza huidobrensis on the insect-plant relationship with their potato host

(Symposium on Insect-Plant Interactions, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 2011).

Facknath, S. 2011. The Adaptation Dynamics of Agriculture to Climate Change. Climate

Change Awareness Week, University of Mauritius.

Facknath, S. and Wright, D. J. (2010). Climate change effects on agricultural pests: the

response of Liriomyza huidobrensis to drought-stressed potato plants. University of Mauritius

Research Journal 16. 266-280.

33

Facknath, S. The Challenge of Finding Sustainable Solutions for Climate-Smart Crop

Protection. Climate-Smart Agriculture, Wageningen Oct 2011.

Facknath S. and Lalljee, B. (2005). Indigenous/Traditional knowledge from Mauritius for

Sustainable Agriculture. In : Sustainable Agriculture-Issues in Production, Management,

Agronomy and ICT (eds. A. Bandyopadhyay, K.V. Sundaram, M. Moni, P.S. Kundu, M.M.

Jha). Northern Book Centre, New Delhi, India. 147-164.

FAO (2010). “Climate-Smart” Agriculture Policies, Practices and Financing for Food

Security, Adaptation and Mitigation. Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome, Italy. 49 pp.

IOC - Indian Ocean Commission., (2011). Etat des vulnérabilités et mesures d'adaptation à

Maurice. Evaluation Qualitative. Available at : http://www.acclimate-oi.net/etude-

vulnerabilites-adaptation-maurice

IPPC (2007). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis

report. World Meteorological Organization and United Nations Environmental Programme,

Geneva.

Jonsson, M., (2011). Impact of Climate change on Agriculture in Mauritius: A

socioeconometric study on Mauritian Farming.

Kurukulasuriya, P., Mendelsohn, R., Hassan, R., Benhin, J., Diop , M., Eid, H.M., Dinar, A.

(2006).Will African agriculture survive climate change. World Bank Economic Review, 20,

367–388.

Lalljee, B. (2013). Mulching as a mitigation agricultural technology against land degradation

in the wake of climate change, Thailand, 2013.

Lalljee, B. 2012. Mulching as an adaptation strategy for climate change in the island of

Rodrigues, Mauritius. India, 2012.

http://www.acclimate-oi.net/etude-vulnerabilites-adaptation-maurice

http://www.acclimate-oi.net/etude-vulnerabilites-adaptation-maurice

34

Liverman, D. (2011). Informing adaptation (World Resources Report)

http://www.worldresourcesreport.org/responses/informing-adaptation

Luximon. Y. and Nowbuth. M. D., (2010). A Status of Food Security in Mauritius in face of

Climate Change. European Water 32, 3-14.

MMS, 2014. Mauritius Meteorological Services. http://metservice.intnet.mu/climate-

services/climate-change.php

MoESD, Ministry of Agro Industry & Food Security, Ministry of Fisheries, Ministry of

Tourism and Leisure, and Rodrigues Regional Assembly, (2012). Mainstreaming Climate

Change Adaptation in the Agriculture, Tourism and Fisheries Sectors in the Republic of

Mauritius and the Water Sector in particular for Rodrigues in the context of the AAP,

Agriculture Sector, Draft Baseline Assessment Report. 114 pp.

National Forest Policy, 2006. Forestry Service, Ministry of Agroindustry and Fisheries,

Republic of Mauritius.

SNC, 2010. Second National Communication under the UNFCCC. Republic of Mauritius.

120 pp.

Speranza, C., Kiteme, B., Ambenje, P., Wiesmann, U., & Makali, S. (2010). Indigenous

knowledge related to climate variability and change: Insights from droughts in semi-arid

areas of former Makueni District, Kenya. Climatic Change, 100, 295–315.

Statistics Mauritius (2012). National Inventory of GHGs. Digest of Environment Statistics.

World Bank. 2013. Turn Down the Heat: Climate Extremes, Regional Impacts, and the Case

for Resilience. A report for the World Bank by the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact

Research and Climate Analytics. Washington, DC. 254 pp.

http://www.worldresourcesreport.org/responses/informing-adaptation

http://metservice.intnet.mu/climate-services/climate-change.php

http://metservice.intnet.mu/climate-services/climate-change.php

35

6. Annexes

6.1. Annex 1. Policies, Plans and Programmes Relevant to CSA

Policy

Sector

Name of Policy Year

Approved or

In force

Responsible

Ministry

Land Environmentally Sensitive Areas 2010 MoESD*

National Invasive Alien Species

Control Strategy and Action Plan

2010 NPCS

(MoAFS)

National Action Plan for Sustainable

Land Management

Presently in

draft form

Forestry

Services

(MoAFS)

Planning and Development Act 2004

National Parks and Reserves

Regulations

1996

NPCS

Village Local Government Act 2003

Forestry National Forestry Policy 2006 Forestry

Services

(MoAFS)

Forests and Reserves Act 1983

Forestry

Services

(MoAFS)

Agriculture Climate Change Adaptation Policies

For The Sugar Cane Sector

MCIA

National Climate Change Adaptation

Policy Framework

2013 MoESD

Sugar Sector Strategic Plan 2003-2007 MoAFS

Non Sugar Sector Strategic Plan 2003-2007 MoAFS

Mauritius Chemical Fertiliser Act MoAFS

The GMO Act 2006 MoAFS

Multi Annual Adaptation Strategy;

Action Plan

2006-2015 MoAFS

Blueprint for a Sustainable Diversified

AgriFood Strategy for Mauritius

2008-2015 MoAFS

Strategic Options in Crop

Diversification and Livestock Sector

2007-2015 MoAFS

Food Security Strategic Plan 2008-2011 MoAFS

Livestock Potential for Sustainable Aquaculture

Development in Mauritius

2007 BoI

Aquaculture Master Plan 2007 MoF

36

Rodrigues Rainwater Harvesting Policy (under

the Building Act)

RRA

Cross-cutting Climate Change Act (under review at

State Law Office)

MoESD

Maurice Ile Durable Policy, Strategy

and Action Plan

2013

MoESD

Disaster Risk Reduction Strategic

Framework and Action Plan

2013 NDRRMC

(PMO)

Environment Protection Act 2002 MoESD

National Biodiversity Strategy and

Action Plan

2006-2015 MoESD

National Environment Policy 2007 MoESD

*MoESD: Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development

MoAFS: Ministry of Agroindustry and Food Security

MoF: Ministry of Fisheries

BoI: Board of Investment

RRA: Rodrigues Regional Assembly

MCIA: Mauritius Cane Industry Authority

NPCS: National Parks and Conservation Services

NDRRMC: National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Centre

PMO: Prime Minister’s Office

37

6.2. Annex 2. Details of Selected CSA-Relevant Policies and Programmes

Title of document Salient features Action areas

Climate change Action

Plan (1998)

Highlighted the high

vulnerability of the country to

climate change as a SIDS

The Action Plan highlighted the

importance of reducing GHG

emissions and increasing the

sink capacity.

Initial National

Communication to

UNFCCC (1999)

Major impacts of climate

change on agriculture were

identified as:

Change in physiology of

crop plants and weeds.

Sea level rise on

agricultural land

Adjustments will depend on the

nature of impacts. The adoption

of new technologies and

management systems will play a

key role in adaptation.

Technology Needs

Assessment (2004) –

Ministry of Environment

Various technologies are being

adopted by the agricultural

sector to attain sustainability.

Research on CO2

fertilisation effects

Research and capacity

building are needed to

focus on proper remedial

measures.

National Capacity Self-

Assessment (2005)

The primary objective of the

NCSA project was to identify

national priorities and capacity

building needed to address

national as well as global

environmental issues, in

particular, to enhance the

capacity of Mauritius to meet

its commitments under the

three Rio Conventions.

Research on the impact of

climate change on

hydrological cycle and on

fresh water availability.

Research to quantify

vulnerability and

adaptation of sugarcane and

other non-sugar crops to

climate change and the

possible change in yield

should be taken into

consideration.

Research on the diffusion

of agrochemical and other

nutrients.

Mauritius

Meteorological Services

(2009)

The science of climate change

is followed by the Mauritius

Meteorological Service

(MMS).

Various climatic changes are

being observed and research is

required to better understand the

changes occurring and better

predict climatic changes.

UNFCCC (2010) Adaptation measures put in

place in the agricultural sectors:

A Blueprint for a Sustainable

Diversified Agri-food Strategy

for Mauritius, 2008-2015

addressing the food security by

enhancing self-sufficiency

Some of the key adaptation

strategies/ measures for

agriculture include:

The need for introducing

new varieties of cultivars;

The shifting of regions

where actual crops are

38

status of a number of strategic

crops in the short to medium

term.

grown to higher elevations

with cooler temperatures.

Food Security Fund

Strategic Plan (2008-

2011)

The FSFSP has suggested a

RISK and CATASTROPHE

INSURANCE Scheme (RaCis).

This scheme / insurance should

cover losses of priority crops

(already identified crops) as

well as goat, cattle and pigs.

All the measures proposed in

the FSFC strategic plan aim at

increasing the production of

food commodities locally in

order to strengthen the food

system and decrease the net

food import bill which is

increasing drastically over the

years.

UNDP- African

Adaptation Programme

Project Document

(2010-2013): Supporting

Integrated and

Comprehensive

Approaches to Climate

Change Adaptation in

Africa – The Republic

of Mauritius

The AAP intends to build

capacity to understand, analyse

and react to future climate

change impacts within

Mauritius.

The recent activities carried out

by AAP are as follows:

Trained 10 representatives from

ministries, the national

meteorological agency and

academia on climate analysis

Mainstreamed climate change in

the development processes

under the Capacity Building on

Climate Resilient Policies Road

Map

Supported the development of

the National Environmental

Policy and Food Security Fund

Strategic Plan, as well as water

storage and water harvesting

strategies

Undertook economic evaluation

of ecosystem services and

socio-economic assessment of

climate change.

Mauritius Environment

Outlook (2011)

Critical assessment of the

environmental state and trends

and links them to policy action

to serve as a decision support

tool.

Increasing pressures on land

resources along with

unsustainable practices has led

to overuse and degradation.

Maurice Ile Durable

Project

The MID project is an

opportunity to define a shared

vision of sustainability and to

develop strategies to reduce

vulnerability to natural hazards.

MID initiative will increase the

preparedness of Mauritius to

adapt to climate change as far as

possible; this will involve

mainstreaming adaptation to

39

climate change at the policy

level, leading to concrete

actions at the operational level.

The Other Migrants

preparing for change,

International

Organisation for

Migration (2011)

Climate change will further

increase uncertainty and

exacerbate weather-related

disasters, drought, biodiversity

loss, and land and water

scarcity and affects Small

Islands Developing States

(SIDS) disproportionately

compared to the Continents.

The impacts of climate changes

have already been felt in other

countries such as Maldives,

where communities had to be

migrated to other parts of the

archipelagos.

40

6.3. Annex 3. Climate-Smart Agriculture Relevant Research Projects

Some of the key completed/ongoing CSA-relevant research projects include:

Date Title of Project Funding

Source

Implementing

Organisation

2009-

2013

Modeling the effect of large-scale circulation

patterns and other factors on the water level in

reservoirs in Mauritius: A hydroinformatics

approach.

AAP* MoESD

2009-

2013

Use of compost by farmers as an adaptation

strategy for climate change

AAP MoESD

2009 Assessing the impacts of climate change on the

phenology of native Mauritian plants.

AAP MoESD

2009-

2013

Climate change and Agriculture: Impacts and

Vulnerability Assessment

AAP MoESD

2009-

2013

Assessing the potential of using coal ash and

bagasse ash as inorganic amendment in the

composting process of municipal solid wastes:

Improvements in compost quality for agronomic

application.

AAP/

MRC

UoM

2009-

2013

Developing a decision support system for

agriculture based on real time agro-

meteorological data to provide national level high

quality climate data to a range of sectors namely

agriculture, water management, researchers and

farmers.

AAP MoESD

2009-

2013

Enhancing resilience of planters through

provision of salinity meters.

AAP MoESD

2009-

2013

Planting of mangroves on the East Coast. AAP MoESD

2012-13 Safe and sustainable utilisation of coal/bagasse

ash in agro-ecosystems as soil amendment and for

crop protection

AAP/

MRC

UoM

2012-15 Development of decision support simulation tools

based on scientifically validated

indigenous/traditional and conventional

knowledge for increasing agricultural production

and food security in Africa in the context of a

changing climate

AU/EU UoM

2012-15 Understanding the chemical and biological effects

of mulching used for improving soil health and

fertility in the context of climate change to reduce

sediment and agrochemical leaching

IAEA UoM

2012-14 Global islands’ vulnerability research, adaptation,

policy and development

CDKN UoM

2009-11 Sustainable agricultural practices for improving EU-IOC- UoM

41

soil health and fertility, and crop protection, in

the context of climate change to reduce use of

synthetic fertilisers and pesticides in the South

East region of Mauritius

RecoMap

2007-9 Turning a waste into wealth – use of vinasse as an

organic fertiliser for reduced GHG emissions

MRC UoM

2008-9 Sustainable agricultural practices for improving

soil health and fertility, and crop protection, in

the context of climate change to reduce

agrochemical use in Rodrigues.

EU-DCP UoM

*AAP: Africa Adaptation Programme for Climate Change

AU: African Union

CDKN: Climate Development Knowledge Network

DCP: Decentralised Cooperation Programme

EU: European Union

IOC: Indian Ocean Commission

IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency

MMS: Mauritius Meteorological Service

MRC: Mauritius Research Council

MoESD: Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development

UoM: University of Mauritius

..................................................... End of Document ...........................................................

Documents

A COMPREHENSIVE SCOPING AND ASSESSMENT STUDY OF … · agricultural systems. As recommended by the Food and Agriculture Organisation, national institutions and decision making must