A COMPARISON OF FORMAL AND STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES …/67531/metadc... · A COMPARISON OF FORMAL AND STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES IN THE CONCERTI GROSSI OF CORELLI'S OPUS VI AND VIVALDI'S

IC

A COMPARISON OF FORMAL AND STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES

IN THE CONCERTI GROSSI OF CORELLI'S

OPUS VI AND VIVALDI'S OPUS III

THESIS

Presented to the Graduate Council of the

North Texas State University in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

MASTER OF MUSIC

By

Euclid A. Hart, B. M. E.

Denton, Texas

August, 1968

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PageLIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . v

Chapter

I. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THECONCERTO GROSSO. . . . . .

The Temperament and Ideals of theSeventeenth Century

The Rise of Instrumental MusicThe Concerto PrincipleThe Emergence of the Concerto

Grosso

II. BIOGRAPHIES AND WORKS OF CORELLIAND VIVALDI . . . . . . . . . . 24

Corelli's LifeCorelli's WorksVivaldi's LifeVivaldi's Works

III. A COMPARISON OF FORMAL AND STRUCTURALPRINCIPLES IN THE CONCERTI GROSSIOF CORELLI'S OPUS VI AND VIVALDI'SOPUSIII . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Descriptive Information Pertainingto Corelli's Opus VI and Vivaldi'sOpus III

Structural Characteristics Pertainingto the Cycle

Form as Observed in Corelli'sIndividual Movements

Use of the Concertino by CorelliForm as Observed in Vivaldi's

Individual MovementsGeneral Comparison of StylesConclusion

BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

iii

LIST OF TABLES

PageTable

I. Corelli's Instrumental Works . . . . . . . 30

II. Corelli's Opus VI . . . . . . . . . . . 40

III. The Concerti Grossi of Vivaldi'sOpus III . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

iv

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1. Theme of "Allegro" (Finale) of Corelli'sConcerto Number 1 . . . . . . . . 53

2. Excerpt from "Adagio" of Corelli'sConcerto Number 5 . . . . . . . . 56

3. Excerpt from First Movement of Corelli'sConcerto Number 1 . . . . . . . . 58

4. Excerpt from First "Allegro" of Corelli'sConcerto Number 1 . . . . . . . . 59


6. Excerpt from "Minuetto" of Corelli'sConcerto Number10. . . . . . . . 61



9. Excerpt from Opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi'sConcerto Number 2 . . . . . . . . 66


11. Excerpt from Opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi'sConcerto Number8 . . . . . . . . 68

12. Excerpt from "Allemande" of Vivaldi'sConcerto Number 9 . . . . . . . . 70


14. Form and Description of Opening "Allegro"of Vivaldi's Concerto Number 5 . . . . 71

V

Figure Page



17. Closing "Allegro" of Vivaldi's ConcertoNumber 7 . . . . . . . . . . .* 78

18. Excerpt from First "Allegro" of Corelli'sConcerto Number5* . . . . . . . . 82

19. Excerpts from "Vivace" of Corelli'sConcerto Number 6 . . . . . . . . 83




23. Excerpt from "Pastorale" of Corelli'sConcerto Number8 . . . . . . . . 85

24. Excerpt from "Grave" of Corelli'sConcerto Number3 . . . . . . . . 86

25. Excerpt from Central "Allegro" of Corelli'sConcerto Number 1 . . . . . . . . 86

26. Theme of "Giga" of Corelli's ConcertoNumber 12 . . . . . . . . . . . 87



29. Excerpt from "Larghetto" of Vivaldi'sConcerto Number 10 . . . . . . . . 90

30. Excerpt from "Largo" of Vivaldi'sConcerto Number 1 . . . . . . . . 91

va-

CHAPTER I

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE

CONCERTO GROSSO

The Temperament and Ideals of the

Seventeenth Century

The study of any art work, whether it be music,

painting, or literature, can best be appreciated when

viewed against the background of the period which pro-

duced it. Although the concerti grossi of Corelli and

Vivaldi are the products of a later date, it is well that

the point of departure be the beginning of the seven-

teenth century.

With the fading of the Renaissance, and of its aspi-

rations and ideals, a new age was being born. Contrary

to the humanistic philosophy and tendencies of the Ren-

aissance, the new age sought the revival of medieval tra-

ditions. As the highly balanced, classical designs of

the Renaissance began to disintegrate, once again Gothic

elements and forms appeared. The search for a new aes-

theticism, influenced by the return of medieval and Goth-

ic elements, gave rise to that period in history referred

to as the Baroque.

1

2

The Baroque period in music is generally considered

to extend from the beginning of the seventeenth century

to the middle of the eighteenth century. Whether the term

itself comes from the Portuguese barroco, meaning an ir-

regular pearl, or from baroco, a scholastic syllogism, its

early use was synonymous with extravagance and bad taste.

Webster defines it, "fantastically overdecorative; gaud-

ily ornate." "Its application to the Fine Arts was based

on the opinion (Jacob Burckhardt) that seventeenth century

style in architecture and paintings was a debased Renais-

sance style."2 Although the works of this period are in

fact of the highest artistic qualities, the term has the

advantage of adequately describing certain characteristics

peculiar to the period and is therefore appropriate.

Historical metamorphosis is always the result of many

interacting forces, but no other single factor could have

affected the social and cultural life of the period more

profoundly than that of religion. Seeds sewn by the Refor-

mation and Counter Reformation of the sixteenth century

were in full bloom in the seventeenth century. The Thirty

Years War (1618-1648) initially began as a series of small

1 "Baroque," Webster's New World Dictionary of the

American Language, College Edition (Cleveland, 196277

p. 119.

2Willi Apel, "Baroque," Harvard Dictionary of Music

(Cambridge, Mass., 1962), p. 76.

3

wars waged for the freedom of religion. It was soon

transformed also into a political one, the conclusion

bringing about the end of European domination by the Haps-

burgs with the lead being taken by France and the cultural

reign of Louis XIV.

The Church, using every means at its disposal to

strengthen the Counter Reformation, did not neglect the

arts. Cathedrals were built to impress and keep the

faithful. The lean classic style of Renaissance archi-

tecture gave way in the Baroque to the revival and ex-

pansion of Gothic characteristics. Art and music were de-

signed to reflect the new vitality of the Church. "It is

interesting also, in reflecting the point of view of that

day, that a church must not only be a temple of worship;

it must also be a museum and concert hall. It should in

fact teach the pleasures as well as the Scriptures and

lead in all phases of thought."3 Religious ceremonies

were the ultimate in pomp and splendor, and the music ac-

companying these festivities was composed to overwhelm the

listener. The new temperament was reflected in the works

of Giovanni Gabrieli and the Venetian school with their

multiple choirs of voices and instruments. The old style

of Palestrina and the Roman school persisted for a few

3Leo Smith, Music in the Seventeenth and EighteenthCenturies (London, 193177 pp. 44-45.

4

decades into the seventeenth century, but it was a dying

art. The paintings of Michelangelo, El Greco, Caravaggio,

and other great figures of early Baroque art depict graph-

ically the new aesthetics of the period. "The magic en-

chantment and religious ecstasy of the beyond held El

Greco 's figures spellbound."4 Qualities that distinguished

the new styles in music and architecture had their paral-

lels in contemporary art works. The penchant for the co-

lossal, massive, and decorative is present in these works.

The element of contrast, the essence of the new music, is

seen in the effects of accented light and shadow in the

new art.

While the Counter Reformation was to a large degree

successful, the spirit of the Reformation pervaded the

seventeenth century. Coinciding with the politico-re-

ligious wars of the period were the struggles for freedom

of thought and the acceptance of scientific truth. De-

spite opposition from the Church, such as the condemnation

of Galileo by the Inquisition for heresy, it was an age

of experimentation, with gains being made in science by

such men asNewton, Bacon, and Leibnitz.

In the field of philosophy, the writings of Descartes,

Locke, and other leading philosophers laid the foundation

4 Paul Henry Lang, Music in Western Civilization (NewYork, 1941), p. 322.

5

for what is referred to as the "Age of Reason." "The

spirit of these times demanded the classification of every

problem either in the domain of the natural sciences or in

that of mathematic philosophy."5 This scientific attitude

is also prevalent in the arts and music. Composers were

also theorists. Many works were accompanied by expla-

nations of style and technique. Numerous newspaper arti-

cles appearing throughout the period testify to long-

standing feuds over style among followers of conflicting

music camps.

The Rise of Instrumental Music

During the sixteenth century there was, on the part

of composers, an inclination to establish a purely instru-

mental music independent of vocal polyphony. Although vo-

cal polyphony dominated the period, instrumental music be-

gan tentatively to take its place alongside it and combine

with it, as well as to assert itself independently of it.

Claudio Merulo (1533-1604), as well as other great Italian

organists, shook off the influence of the technique of vo-

cal composition and wrote in a style idiomatic to the in-

strument.6 The great instrumental music of St. Mark's,

5Ibid., p. 433.

6 The first idiomatic forms in keyboard music are the

toccata, intonazione and prelude. They are essentiallyrhapsodic and improvisatory in character.

6

culminating in the works of Andrea Gabrieli (1520-1586)

and his nephew Giovanni (1557-1612), began with vocal mu-

sic simply transcribed for instruments only. Neverthe-

less, the real birth of instrumental music is considered

to be the opening of the seventeenth century; the place,

Italy.

The chief problem facing composers of instrumental

music during this period was that of handling form. In

vocal music, variety and contrast could be achieved simply

by changing mood through the use of words. The text also

served as a basis for unification, bringing about a sense

of coherence throughout. Specifically, the problem of

instrumental writing was that of development, or achieving

extent. Some composers continued to write in the style of

the vocal motet or instrumental ricercare, depending on

successive points of imitation as a means of continuing.

Others indulged in sheer fantasy, experimenting with in-

strumental technique and other basic musical processes.

Although some of these works are worthy of merit, the

longer instrumental forms, being structurally weak and

vague, were generally abandoned in favor of shorter ones.

"Short movements consisting of an unbroken flow of tune

are more convincing than those that attempt to develop a

short phrase for any length of time."7

7 Philip Radcliffe, "Arcangelo Corelli and Antonio Vi-

valdi,'" The Heritaxe of Music, III (London, 1951), p. 56.

7

The introduction of dance music into the realm of art

music had much to do with the emergence of genuine instru-

mental music forms. Regularity of rhythm and the division

of phrases into periods, which were characteristics of the

dance, were assimilated into instrumental composition.

The structure of the period or sentence, consisting of

eight measures repeated with a different ending, consti-

tuted a small musical form in itself.

It soon became apparent to composers that by com-

bining these shorter movements, fashioned after the dance,

a larger cyclic form could be obtained.8 Along with the

variation principle, which arose out of the desire to

avoid mere repetition of the period, these dance movements

led to the formation of the suite, which in turn led di-

rectly to the overture and symphony. It is worthwhile to

note here that the period became the fundamental unit for

all instrumental and vocal forms for centuries to come.

Instrumental music of the early Baroque can be re-

duced to three types: compositionss based upon the

dance, (2)essentially experimental compositions, which are

idiomatic to the instrument and rhapsodic in character,

and (3)compositions based upon older vocal models. The

8 The idea of combining these dances was probably taken

from the sixteenth century practice of performing them in

pairs. The custom then was to have the first dance slow

and in duple meter (a stepped dance), and the second in a

lively triple meter (a lept dance).

8

third category is especially significant because it is the

source from which the sonata and fugue of the late Baroque

sprang. The ricercare and canzona were the instrumental

counterparts of the vocal polyphonic motet and the French

chanson respectively. In keyboard music the two forms

merged, and the fugue of the late Baroque was born. Of

more interest here, however, is the role of the canzona in

the development of instrumental ensemble music.

In the titles of chamber ensemble music, the canzona

was frequently referred to as "sinfonia" or "sonata." Ac-

cording to Manfred Bukofzer, there were two distinct types:

the many-voiced canzona and the few-voiced canzona. "The

many-voiced ensemble canzonas reached their highest devel-

opment in Venice where sumptuous polychoral compositions

for two to four choruses in a resplendent orchestration

were used for occasions of state."9 In these same canzo-

nas, echo effects foreshadowing the principle of the con-

certo are present.

Much more significant, however, is that the Baroque

sonata has as its direct source the few-voiced canzona.

Few-voiced sonatas, or canzonas, were written for from one

to four melodic instruments with continuo. 1 As Fontana,

9 Manfred Bukofzer, Music in the BaroqLue Era (New

York, 1947), p. 51.

1 0 The term sonata slowly replaced that of canzona as

influences of the dance and monody displaced the originalcanzona elements.

9

Castello, Bernardi, and other predecessors of Corelli be-

gan in the few-voiced sonatas to make use of concertato

elements which were already present in the many-voiced

canzona, "...the tenuous link between the ensemble canzona

and the concerto proper of the late Baroque period [was

established 3*1llThe trio sonata became the ideal medium

for Baroque chamber music and was cultivated especially in

Italy. The music centers of Modena, Venice and Bologna

were instrumental in developing two distinct types of

chamber music: music written for the Church (da chiesa),

and music written for the chamber (da camera). The two

differ from each other in that the chamber type more

closely resembles the dance whereas the church type is

characterized by a more developed contrapuntal texture.

In regard to the whole cycle, the chamber sonata consists

of a series of dance movements arranged in more or less

free fashion. The form of the individual movement is the

usual bipartite one. On the other hand, the cycle of the

church sonata consists of four or five movements, alter-

nating between slow and fast tempi. The first movement

could be slow or fast, but whatever the case, it is usu-

ally fugal.

The distinction between chamber sonatas and church

sonatas is relevent here because, as will be seen in

11 Bukofzer, op. cit., p. 55.

10

Chapter III, this is characteristic of the concerti grossi

of Corelli. Furthermore, Bologna, the greatest of the

three centers and the place of Corelli's training, was

chiefly responsible for the cultivation of instrumental

counterpoint, and this art is reflected in Corelli's

works. The importance of the trio sonata should not be

underestimated, since with the emergence of the concerto

grosso, it was assimilated bodily into that form as the

standard unit of the concertino.

Every art is dependent upon its means of expression,

hence it is no accident that the emergence and development

of instrumental music should coincide with a time when de-

cisive advances were being achieved in the art of in-

strument making. This is particularly true in the con-

struction of string instruments. The genius and crafts-

manship of Amati and his successors Guarneri and Stradi-

vari produced instruments whose quality and excellence

have not been surpassed to this day.

It is no wonder that composers were also experi-

menting with the technical possibilities of their in-

struments. The compositions of Biagio Marini (1595-1665)

and Andrea Falconieri (1586-1656) presuppose a high degree

of technical proficiency for their performance. Compa-

rable advancements in keyboard technique are evident in

the works of Merulo, Giavanni Gabrieli, and Frescobaldi.

But the preoccupation with acrobatic virtuosity by

11

composers reached such a peak that by the last quarter of

the seventeenth century there arose a need for a new bal-

ance, a new relationship between technique and expression,

so that technical proficiency would be a means and not an

end in itself.

The rapid growth of instrumental music form can be

attributed chiefly to the corresponding rise and assertion

of tonality. Through the compelling organization of to-

nality, composers were able to achieve longer, more stable

forms. The full realization of tonal harmony occurs

around 1680 and marks the beginning of the late Baroque.

The early seventeenth century is an important period

to the historical development of music. It saw the be-

ginnings of opera and oratorio, and from these forms

emerged the overture and vocal aria. The church orchestra

evolved the sonata and laid the foundation for a new in-

strumental art. The culminating form of this purely in-

strumental art was the concerto grosso.

The Concerto Principle

As the concerto grosso embodies the general prin-

ciples of concerto writing, it is first necessary to de-

fine concerto. The word comes from L., concertare, i.e.,

"to fight side by side," "tto compete as brothers-in-

arms." 12 While this definition implies the rivalry or

1 2Apel, "Concerto," Harvard Dictionary, p. 173.

12

opposition of forces, it also implies a concerted effort.

It is precisely this double connotation which contributes

to the vagueness of the term and its consequent misappli-

cation by composers through the years.

The term concerto, when viewed as a principle of

style, is more easily defined than when referred to as a

musical species. The reason for this is simple enough; as

a principle of style, the term has always implied the op-

position or rivalry of dissimilar bodies of instruments or

voices. As a designation for a certain musical species,

it has nevertheless been the source of much confusion and

ambiguity. Although the concerto principle is the primary

interest, first in order will be the examination of the

term as a designation for a musical species.

The term first appeared in the titles of vocal compo-

sitions, being used to distinguish those pieces supported

by an instrument, or organ, from those sung _a cappella.

This practice persisted through the Baroque period; as a

result, many masses and motets which employ as little as

one or two instruments to support the vocal forces have in

their titles such terms as concerto, concertare, and con-

certato.

Even in the area of purely instrumental music there

is no less confusion. According to Lang, "In the earlier

centuries, the term was synonymous with ensemble

13

playing."13 This undoubtedly accounts for the fact that

during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries many forms

such as string quartets, motets, madrigals, masses, and

cantatas have at one time or another been labeled concer-

tos by their composers. Considered in the light of the

following liberal connotation as put forth by Veinus, "two

or more instruments or voices performing together, i.e.,

in concert with each other,"14 these forms are justifiably

called concertos. However, when trying to ascertain the

form or structure of any given work, "the presence or ab-

sence of the name concerto, concertante is not decisive,

as various names, such as canzona, sonata, sinfonia, were

used without clear distinction for a variety of styles and

types."1 5

As stated earlier, the concerto principle as an el-

ement of style has always implied the opposition or rival-

ry .of dissimilar bodies of instruments or voices. Since

it is precisely this element of contrast that provides the

basis for the form of the concerto grosso, it is worth-

while to trace briefly the evolution of this principle.

As far back as the days of antiquity, the concertare

element was present in the alternating choruses of Greek

13 Lang, 2. cit., p. 364.

1 4 Abraham Veinus, The Concerto (New York, 1944), p. 1.

15 Apel, "Concerto," p. 173.

14

tragedy and the antiphons and responsoria of Gregorian mu-

sic. Although in these two instances the element of con-

trast is achieved simply by divided sections performing in

alternation, the concertare principle may also be manifest

in sections of contrasted style, register, or instrumen-

tation.

Palestrina, in his motet Assumpta est Maria, divided

the singers into four groups. In this work, the last sen-

tence is sung alternately by low and high choirs and fi-

nally altogether. In this case, the concertare principle

is exemplified by the contrasted sections of different

registers.

During this same period, Giovanni Gabrieli and others

of the Venetian school were making similar advances. The

tutti-solo contrast, so important to the later concerto

grosso, is a prominent feature in many of their ensemble

canzonas.

An eleven-voice canzona by Gabrieli so clearly setsa "tutti" in rondo fashion against a highly figur-ative "concertino" of a few instruments that it maybe called the first realization of the concertogrosso principle. Another canzona, in which Gabri-eli assigned the echo optically to the organ, fore-shadows the solo concerto.

In his instrumental sonatas, Gabrieli pitted choirs

of high brass against those of low brass. This practice

became commonplace throughout Italy.

16 Bukofzer, o. _cit., p. 51.

15

In Venice at St. Mark's, at Bologna and St. Petronio,and several other churches in Rome and elsewhere,the musicians were placed in facing galleries abovethe chancel bays or in transepts. Each side had itsorgan, and when other instruments such as cornets andtrombones were associated with one vocal choir andstrings with anot r there was opportunity for bril-liant concertato.

Soon after the death of Palestrina, Ludovico Viadana

published his Ecclesiastical Concertos. In this important

work, Viadana is not only recognized as being one of the

first composers to use figured bass, but, of equal signi-

ficance,

Viadana pared the concerto principle down to one,two, three, and four voices singing to an instrument(organ); and in so doing cleared the field for a mo-nodic, rather than the polyphonic style, introducingthe possibilities of pitting a solo voice (ratherthaj8a massed chorus) against an instrumental tut-ti.

It remained for Monteverdi to go one step further. After

Viadana had written for solo voice with organ accompa-

niment, "Monteverdi brought the meaning of the word still

closer to instrumental practice by liberating the solo

voice as a virtuoso part alternating with a relatively

full orchestral tutti." 1 9

The fact that these advances in vocal music had great

influence on the techniques of instrumental writing is

1 7 Arthur Hutchings, The Baroque Concerto (London,

1961), pp. 34-35.

18 Veinus, cit., p. 3.

19 Ibid., p. 7.

16

without question. It was merely a matter of transferring

these principles to instrumental forms.

It could be said that the entire seventeenth century

was devoted to the exploration and development of the con-

certo principle. The element of contrast was foremost in

the mind of the composer and can be attested by its pres-

ence in practically all instrumental and vocal forms. The

device of tossing a phrase back and forth between solo

instruments and tutti was widespread and can be found in

overtures, suites, and church cantatas, and occasionally

in sonatas and sinfonias of the period. Examples of con-

certo-like instrumentation are found in many instrumental

ensemble works, especially the canzoni. Lully inserted

episodes for a trio of solo wind instruments in some of

the dances for his operas. Similarly, various elements of

the concerto can be found in overtures to Venetian operas,

which were performed on occasion as independent ins tru-

mental sonatas. Clearly the time was ripe for the ap-

pearance of that form which more than any other employed

the principles of concerto writing, the concerto grosso.

"The concerto grosso, in its broadest definition, in-

cludes any composition written for a group of solo in-

struments contrasted with a larger mass of tutti in-

struments."20 In the above definition, the term concerto

2Ibid.,p. 32.

17

grosso is obviously used to describe a particular musical

species. It also has, however, another connotation, as

does the term concerto. Any group of instruments regarded

as a single unit within a larger orchestral body may be

called a "concerto." Of the two unequal choirs, the

larger group is called the large concerto, i.e., the con-

certo grosso, or the ripieno, meaning literally "full."

The smaller group is known as the small concerto, i.e.,

the concertino, or principal. "The interplay of these two

unequal choirs, to each a unit in itself, is the basis for

the form or species called the concerto grosso."2 1

The instrumentation of the concertino unit is usually

two violins and a thorough bass (violoncello and harpsi-

chord) with one performer on each part. This is the out-

lay of instruments used by Corelli, and as such is referred

to as the "Corellian concertino." However, the concertino

could conceivably consist of any other combination of in-

struments. The ripieno is a small string orchestra,

consisting of four parts: two violins, viola, and bass

with several players on each part. Later works occasion-

ally employed wind instruments: trumpets, oboes, flutes,

and horns.

Although many works, in principle, are truly concer-

ti gross according to the above definition, few in

21 Ibid., p. 14.

18

actuality are referred to as such.

Such composers as L. Gregori, G. Torelli,G. Valentini, and A. Corelli actually used the term

concerti grossi in their titles, but after a while

the full title was dropped in Italy, and its use by

Geminiani and Handel, as well as by later Italians

than Corelli who were not composing for Italy itself,

usually implied Corelli's outlay of instruments - it

was normally discarded for flute, oboe and solo vio-

lin concertos and retained only with the Corellian

concertino. It was never used by Vivaldi, whose

famous collections bore literary titles - L'estro

armonico, La stravaIanza, I cimento and so o when

they did so they were simply called concerti.

Even today, "people rarely refer to concertos by Albinoni,

Vivaldi or the Marcellos as concerti grossi, nor is it

usual so to designate concertos by Bach and other Germans

whose concerto movements were modeled on those of the Ve-

netians." 23

Another problem of terminology, or more precisely of

classification, arises when trying to decide whether cer-

tain works are truly concerti grossi or solo concertos

for more than one instrument. The placing of these works

in either category depends solely on definition. With

Corelli, the problem is simplified, for, as Veinus puts

it, "his concerto grosso is strictly defined as adivtsion

betw n chotrs,"24 that is, the smaller choir performs as

a group and not as individual soloists. In the case of

~Hutchings, 2. cit., p. 92.

23 Ibid., p. 135.

2 4Veinus, p. cit., p. 32.

19

Vivaldi, however, the decision would not be so simple,

since in many of his concertos the concertino disinte-

grates and each performer at one time may be a soloist

where the others serve simply as a background. When this

happens, it is debatable whether the form is a concerto

grosso or a solo concerto for more than one instrument,

which proves nothing more than that the concerto grosso

may be narrowly defined in more than one way.

The Emergence of the Concerto Grosso

One task of the music historian has always been the

assignation of credit to the composer or those composers

contributing to, or responsible for, the emergence of new

forms or genres. In regard to the creator of the concerto

grosso which first appeared in the last two decades of the

seventeenth century, there has been some confusion. In-

deed, several composers have on occasion in the past been

given this honor.

The reliance on publication dates has been the pri-

mary source of the confusion. Corelli's Opus VI, pub-

lished posthumously, bears the publication date 1714.

Perhaps this is the reason H. C. Colles claims Torelli as

the true inventor of the form with a concerto da camera

(1686) for two violins and bass.25 If one relies simply

25Marion Bauer, Music Through the A (New York,1932), p. 130.

20

on the dates of publication, the concerti grossi of Ales-

sandro Scarlatti, Lorenzo Gregori, and Valenti also pre-

cede those of Corelli. Even Vivaldi's L'estro Armonico,

IIl, containing concerti grossi much more advanced

than those of Corelli, has as its publication date the

year 1712. Further investigation is obviously necessary

in order to do justice to Corelli and his position rel-

ative to the concerto grosso.

Although it was 1712 before Corelli deemed his

VI ready for publication there is considerable evi-

dence they were in existence a long time before. Georg

Muffat (1653-1704) states that he heard concerti grossi

of Corelli in Rome as early as 1682.26

In the preface to his concertos published at Passau

in 1701 (Ausserlesener mit Ernst und Lust, gemengterInstrumental Musik..., Muffat tells us he started

to write them at Rome - where he was staying in 1682 -

after having heard "with astonishment some symphonies

of Signor Arcangelo Corelli, which were very beau-tiful and vyy well performed by a good company ofmusicians.ti

On the testimony of Muffat, Bukofzer states:

"...they represent in fact the earliest known examples of

the concerto grosso."28 On the basis of the date 1682,

26Muffat, a significant composer himself, developed

the German type of concerto grosso.

27 Marc Pincherle, Corelli, His Life, His Work,

translated by Hubert E. M. Russell (New York, 1956),p. 121.

2BBukofzer, p. cit., p. 223.

21

Corelli's concerti grossi do indeed precede those of his

contemporaries mentioned above; still, Corelli cannot be

regarded as the inventor of the genre. According to Pin-

cherle, "Allessandro Stradella, who died in 1682, has

left us perfect models of concerti grossi in his two Sin-

fonie a piu Instrumenti."2 9

Publishing dates, however, can be of much value; in

respect to Vivaldi's OpusI I, consider the following

passages:

It will not be possible to place Vivaldi in theclass where he belongs until the circumstances underwhich he worked are clearly known and until we pos-sess the exact chronology of his compositions.Given the revolution which transformed the style ofinstrumental music between 1700 and 1750, his laterconcertos (if one agrees with Torchi that their dateis 1740-50) presuppose for their author a notabletalent of adaptability, but unparalleled musicalgenius if they are to be placed at the beginning ofthe eight 5 nth century, as everything now seems toindicate.

Pincherle resolves the question in a later publi-

cation.

In the beginning of the eighteenth century when thesymphony and the concerto were being evolved, a dif-ference of a few years greatly alters the per-spective. At the time when the Red Priest was justbeing discovered, Luigi Torchi, in an article in theRivista Musicale Italiana (1899), dates the publi-cation of L'Estro armonico as 1740-1750 (actually itdates from 1712); in so doing he made Vivaldi a

29 Pincherle, Corelli, p. 122.

30 Marc Pincherle, Rassegna musicale, Nov. 1929,cited in Olga Rudge, "Vivaldi," Grove's Dictionar of Mu-sic and Musicians, Vol. IX, (New York, 1954), p. 28.

22

follower of J. S. Bach, Handel, Tartini, Locatelli,and Leclair, all of whom were actually in his debtto some extent. On the other hand, Fausto Torre-franca in his article on Vivaldi in the Enciclo-edia Italiana (1937) relies on a daring interpre-tation of the catalogues of the Dutch publishersRoger and Le Cene, and antedates Vivaldi's firstconcertos by some ten years; this falsifies theirrelationship to the concertos of Torelli and Arcan-gelo Corelli among others, thus deprivg these com-posers of a part of their originality.

It is of course possible to say that the full real-

ization of the concerto grosso occurs first in the works

of a single composer; but with all due respect to that

composer, the concerto grosso is more accurately the re-

sult of experimentation on the part of many, as has been

seen in the previous pages concerning the rise of instru-

mental music and the concerto principle.

Concerning Corelli's position in regard to the con-

certo grosso, "All the elements were at hand, essays in

the genre had been extensively undertaken by artists of

standing....."32 Although Corelli is not the creator of

the concerto grosso, he is recognized as a stabilizing

force in the history of instrumental music.

Music of the seventeenth century was generally in a

state of transition. This period witnessed the breakup

of a tradition which had been essentially vocal, and the

beginnings of "absolute music." The strict counterpoint

31Marc Pincherle, Vivaldi, Genius of the Baroque,translated by Christopher Hatch (New York, 1957), p. 64.


23

of the Renaissance was being replaced more and more by

accompanied monody and there was a growing awareness of

the implications of major-minor tonality. Instrumental

forms had been more than roughed out and great advances

in instrumental techniques had been accomplished. Still,

the state of music was in many ways restless and un-

settled.

So that about 1675 the need made itself felt in allspheres - form, texture, technique - of a factor ofunification, and, at least provisionally, of sta-bilization, (the time to get organized on a solidfoundation) and of a model who would compel recog-nition on the part of all those scattered pioneers- a chef d'ecole. At that opportune moment enteredthe musician competent above aH others to assumethis role: Arcangelo Corelli.

3 3 Ibid., p. 16.

CHAPTER II

BIOGRAPHIES AND WORKS OF

CORELLI AND VIVALDI

Corelli's Life

Arcangelo Corelli was born on the 17th of February,

1653, in Fusignano, an old city in the diocese of Faenza.

In considering Corelli's life, it is necessary to dis-

tinguish between those facts which are historically true

and those which are simply conjecture.

In regard to Corelli's youth, a reliable source is

Crescimbeni, a colleague of Corelli at the Accademia dci

Arcade. According to Crescimbeni, Corelli received his

first instruction in music from a priest in Faenza. From

there, he studied at Luzo and then at Bologna, where he

became so involved in the violin that he remained for four

years and decided to make music his profession. His pro-

gress in those years was so rapid that it did not go

without notice, and in 1670 when he was just seventeen he

was accepted by the Accademia Filarmonica.

While at Bologna, Corelli studied violin with Gio-

vanni Benvenuti and Leonardo Brugnoli; they, in turn, had

studied with Ercole Gaibara, founder of the first Bolo-

gnese School of violin. Until recently, historians had

24

25

designated Bassani as the teacher of Corelli, but as Pin-

cherle points out, "The old Bassini," or rather Bassani,

"would have been thirteen years old when Corelli entered

on his eighteenth year."1

Corelli was in Bologna from 1666 to 1670. In 1675

he came to Rome, but during the five-year interim, there

is no evidence to account for his movements. According to

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Corelli traveled to Paris. In his

Lettre sur la Musigue francaise of 1753 he states: "Lully

himself, alarmed by the arrival of Corelli in France, has-

tened to have him expelled from France, which was all the

more easy for him in so far as Corelli was the greater

man and in consequence less of a sycophant than he."2

Other historians and biographers of Corelli have followed

up with much elaboration the imaginary journey of Corelli

to Paris. But, as Pincherle states:

The futility of trying to prove that Corelli didjourney to Paris is obvious from the facts: nosearch of the archives has ever revealed anything;contemporary newsheets are silent on the subject,although they were never niggardly with details ofthe arrival of a foreign musician, such as Westhoff,at Paris; and two musicians - Francois Couperin andGeorg Muffat - who wrote much on their art and whoprofessed the liveliest admiration for Lully and forCorelli, never made the least reference to an

1 Pincherle, Corelli, p. 21-22.

2 Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Lettre sur la Musique fran-caise, 2nd ed., 1753, p. 45, cited in Pincherle, Corelli,p. 23.

26

encounter between them. 3

Pincherle further suggests that all of the confusion

may well be the result of a reading error on the part of

Rousseau, or his copyist mistaking Corelli for Cavalli.

For in 1660, Cavalli had indeed traveled to Paris, and

being esteemed as the first operatic composer of the con-

tinent, could have easily provoked Lully into intriguing

against him for his departure.

According to Padre Martini, after Corelli left Bolo-

gna he spent a short while in Fusignano, then traveled to

Rome where he studied counterpoint with Pietro Simonelli,

who was responsible for his becoming an accomplished com-

poser. However, there is no proof of his presence in Rome

until 1675 where his name is included as third violinist

on a list of musicians employed by the church of Saint-

Louis-des-Franais for the festival of Saint Louis. The

festival is an annual occurence and in 1676 his name ap-

pears as second violinist. The following year there is no

mention of him, but in 1678 he is found again as second

violinist. A second disappearance takes place from 1679

to 1681, however, on January 6th, 1679, in Rome, he con-

ducted the orchestra of the Teatro- Capranico in a work,

Dove e amore e pieta, by his friend Bernardo Pasquini.

Subsequent correspondence by him in Rome serves to indicate


27

that his stay there was prolonged. In the summer of the

same year one of his journeys to Germany supposedly took

place. However, there is no proof of this. Frequent

searchings through the archives, including a recent inves-

tigation by the late Dr. Alfred Einstein, have yielded not

the slightest evidence that this journey took place.

In 1681, Corelli is again in Rome and it is there

that he published his first work of trios, dedicating them

to Christina of Sweden.

The following year Corelli can again be found at the

church of Saint-Louis-des-Francais. It is worth noting

here that from this time to 1708 he participated in the

Festival of St. Louis as head of the violin section. The

list for 1709 is missing but in 1710, Matteo Fornari, his

close friend and pupil, is first violinist and Corelli is

no longer mentioned.

In 1687, Corelli conducted an orchestra of 150 strings

in the performance of a cantata by Alessandro Guidi, and

later that year was hired by Cardinal Panfili as music

master in the Panfili palace. He lived there in the pal--

ace until 1690 with his good friend Fornari, and his ser-

vant, Bernardino Salviati.

When Alexander VIII (Ottoboni) became pope, one of

his first acts was to nominate his nephew, Pietro Ottoboni,

as Cardinal of San Lorenzo e Damaro and Vice-chancellor of

28

the church. The young Cardinal, having immense resources

at his disposal, made the most liberal use of them in his

patronizing of the arts. Artists, writers, and musicians

flocked around him in order to gain his favor. The con-

certs at the chancellery were famous and the best of Roman

society attended them. Musicians dedicated their works to

him believing it would insure their success and fortune.

But from the outset, Corelli was surely the Cardinal's

favorite. He became the Cardinal's first violinist and

director of music and lived in the palace itself. His

material well-being thus secured, he was able to devote

himself entirely to his music. The leisurely life he led

is evident from a study of his music. In contrast to the

composers who were forced to produce one or two operas a

season, or half a dozen concertos a week, Corelli's rela-

tively few works are highly polished, owing to the fact

that he spent years revising and perfecting his art.

In 1694, Corelli published his fourth set of trios,

dedicated to Cardinal Ottoboni. With each new publication

of his works, his fame continued to grow, so that by 1700,

with the publication of his hera Quinta, his only set of

sonatas for solo violin and bass, he was, "by unanimous

consent esteemed the greatest composer of instrumental

music in the world."4 In 1706, he was accepted as a

4bid., p. 33.

29

member of the Accademia dei Arcadi, the most exclusive soci-

ety in Italy, and found himself among such celebrated men

as Alessandro Scarlatti and Bernado Pasquini.

In 1710 Corelli no longer appeared in public, and by

the end of 1712, feeling very ill, he confined himself to

his quarters in the Palazotto Ermini, a lodging he had

rented at the same time he became a resident in the Cardi-

nal's palace in order to store his personal belongings and

paintings.

Corelli died during the night of the 12th of January,

1713. Cardinal Ottoboni, wishing to show the world in

what esteem he held Corelli, bore the entire expense of a

very lavish funeral and had him buried in the Church of

Santa Maria della Rotunda (the Pantheon) the tomb itself

being in the chapel of St. Joseph.

Corelli's Works

Corelli's place in the history of music is the result

of six books of instrumental music. His leisurely life

afforded him the opportunity to polish these works until

he deemed them ready for publication. Because his works

are few in number, it is convenient and appropriate to

list them here. A description of these works and a list

of their publication dates is given in Table I.

30

TALE I

CORELLI'S INSTRUMENTAL WORKS

Opus Number Publication DescriptionDate

I 1681 12 Trio Sonatas - Church type

II 1685 12 Trio Sonatas - Chamber type

III 1689 12 Trio Sonatas - Church type

IV 1694 12 Trio Sonatas - Chamber type

V 1700 12 Solo SonatasFirst six - Church typeSecond six - Chamber type

VI 1714 12 Concerti GrossiPublished Nos. 1-8 - Church typeposthumously Nos. 9-12 - Chamber type

It will be noticed that in the publication dates of

the first four works, they are separated by an interval of

four years. There is an interval of six years between

Opus IV and OpV, and fourteen years between Opus V and

pus VI. Actually, Opus VI was published the year fol-

lowing the composer's death. Of all this, Pincherle states,

"The older he became, the more anxious was Corelli, by then

a prisoner of his fame, to offer only works of an

31

irreproachable finesse to the public.,,5

Vivaldi's Life

Although much of Vivaldi's life is still shrouded in

mystery, some facts have been uncovered recently through

diligent investigation or by chance discoveries. The ex-

act date and place of Vivaldi's birth are still not known,

but based on the age requirements of various stages in his

ecclesiastical career, the date of birth is now considered

to be 1678 or shortly before. It is generally presumed

that he was born in Venice, where his father Giovanni Bat-

tista was a prominent violinist.

Vivaldi's musical training began with his father, but

he also studied with Giovanni Legrenzi.6 Trained for the

priesthood as a young man, he received his minor orders in

1693 and ten years later was ordained a priest. Because

of his red hair he is often referred to as il Prete Rosso,

or the Red Priest. One year after he was ordained, how-

ever, ill health forced him to relinquish his priestly

duties. From this point on he devoted himself to music.

The greater part of Vivaldi's life was spent in Ven-

ice where he was employed by the Ospedale della Pieta, or

the Hospital of the Pieta. Established originally in the

5 lbid., p. 120.

6 Giovanni Legrenzi (1626-1690) was a celebrated com-poser and noted teacher.

32

fourteenth century as a pious institution for illegitimate

and orphaned girls, the Pieta later adopted the teaching

of music as a main part of its curriculum. The success of

the program was so great that by the beginning of the

eighteenth century the institution was famous as a musical

conservatory.

Vivaldi is first mentioned in the Pieta's records in

1704 for payment of services rendered. This marked the

beginning of a career with the institution that was to

last until 1740. In 1709 he was appointed to the post of

violin teacher and in 1716 he became maestro de concerti,

or director of the orchestra. The latest entry, however,

may refer to a re-election to that post since he had al-

ready used the above title on many of his works published

earlier.

From 1718 to 1722 Vivaldi does not appear in the re-

cords of the Pieta. Some historians surmise that his

three years of service as maestro de concerti to the Land-

grave of Hesse-Darmstadt at Mantua may have taken place

during this period. If this is true, his duties at Mantua

did not, however, exclude the possibility of his returning

periodically to Venice since several of his operas were

performed there during those years. According to the tes-

timony of Edward Wright, an Englishman who traveled

through Italy from 1720 to 1722, Vivaldi actually

33

participated in some of the performances. "It is very

usual," wrote the traveler, "to see priests play in the

orchestra. The famous Vivaldi, whom they call the Prete

Rosso, very well known among us for his concertos, was a

topping man among them at Venice."7

In 1723 Vivaldi is again listed in the records of the

Pieta and also in 1724 and 1725. But from 1725 to 1735

there is nothing. It is presumed that this is the period

during which his foreign travels took place. In his let-

ter to the Marquis Guido Bentivoglio of 1737, 'Vivaldi

writes: "for over fourteen years we have traveled to-

gether in many European cities."8 Further evidence in-

dicating that Vivaldi was abroad during this period is a

document uncovered in the Venetian archives by Rudolfo

Gallo. In brief, it states that Vivaldi's father, Gio-

vanni Battista, in September of 1729, asked for permission

to leave the ducal chapel for a year or so in order that

he might accompany his son to Germany. The records of

these peregrinations are vague, but it is known that he

did return occasionally to Venice for the purpose of

staging one or another new opera.

7Pincherle, Vivaldi, p. 44.

81E. Stefanie, Sei lettere di Antonio Vivaldi, trans-

lated by 0. Rudge, The Listener(October, 1936), cited inRudge, "Vivaldi," Grove's Dictionary, IX, p. 27.

34

For the period of 1725 to 1728, there are various

accounts of his presence in Rome, Vienna, and his native

Venice. According to Marc Pincherle, Vivaldi in 1727

directed a concert of his works in Venice as part of the

festivities given by the French ambassador in honor of the

birth of the royal princesses of his country. The Mercure

de France describes the concert as follows: "a very beau-

tiful instrumental concert, which lasted nearly two hours;

the music for this as well as for the Te Deum was by the

famous Vivaldi."9 On the basis of the French newspaper

article, some historians have implied that Vivaldi trav-

eled to France. However,

No record is known of the composer's presence inParis, but French connections are indicated indi-

rectly by the words of two cantatas which seem tohave been written for some ceremonies of the Frenchcourt: "La Gloria Himeneo" for the wedding of thefourteen-year-old Louis XV to the Polish princessMarie Leczinska; the other, "La sena festeggiante,"

is not so easily dated -1 &he works would seem to

apply best to Louis XIV.

For the following three years, 1728-1731, there is a

total lack of information concerning Vivaldi's whereabouts.

The lack of dramatic output during this period suggests

the possibility that the composer was either ill or abroad.

Referring back to the document of 1729, wherein Giovanni

Battista asks for a leave of absence from the ducal chapel,

9 Pincherle, Vivaldi, p. 47.

1 0 Rudge, "Vivaldi," Grove's Dictionary, IX, p. 27.

35

it is possible that Vivaldi's stay at Mantua may have oc-

curred at this time. But in 1732, his dramatic output

again resumes and continues until 1739. During these

years his operas appeared at the rate of one or two a

year and were performed in Venice, Florence, Verona, and

Ancona.

In 1735, he was again in the employment of the Pieta

with the stipulation that he carry on "with no idea of

leaving any more as has been his practice in past years."11

It is appropriate here to point out the change of attitude

on the part of the officials at the Pieta. In 1723, "he

[Vivaldi] had become famous, a man to be reckoned with.

The asylum had recourse to his talents as often as pos-

sible, but it gave him license to subordinate his teaching

to the needs of his career as a dramatic composer and a

touring virtuoso.1"1 2

In 1737, as Vivaldi was preparing to go to Ferrara

for the purpose of staging one of his operas, the Cardinal

of that city forbade his admittance on the grounds that he

was a priest who failed to say mass. The incident is con-

sidered to have prompted Vivaldi into a final decision to

leave Venice. A popular anecdote perpetuated by many biog-

raphers until recent times relates that Vivaldi was

Pincherle, Vivaldi, p. 49.

1 2 Ibid., p. 46.

36

suspended from his priestly duties because he was in the

habit of leaving the altar while celebrating mass in order

to jot down a musical idea. Actually, the story was in

circulation in Vivaldi's lifetime and in an attempt to set

the record straight, although he failed to do so, he wrote

to one of his patrons to ask for help. Part of the letter

reads as follows:

It was twenty-five years ago that I said massfor what will be the last time, not due to inter-diction or at anyone's behest, as His Eminence canappraise himself, but by my own decision on accountof an ailment that has burdened me since birth. WhenI had barely been ordained a priest I said mass for ayear or a little more. Then I discontinued sayingit, having on three occasions had to leave thefltarwithout completing it because of this ailment.

Although Vivaldi undoubtedly made many trips outside

Italy during his lifetime, a trip to Holland in 1738 is

the only one of which there is factual information. The

purpose of the trip was to organize the musical part of a

spectacle celebrating the centennial anniversary of the

theatre of Amsterdam. The officials of the theatre,

wanting to put a composer of European reputation in

charge, called on Vivaldi to do the job.

Pincherle has recently found in the records of the

Pieta a document showing payment for a number of Vivaldi's

works. "On May, 1740, he [Vivaldi] received the sum of

13Letter from Vivaldi to Marquis Guido Bentivoglio,November 16, 1737, cited in Pincherle, Vivaldi, p. 17.

37

seventy ducats, twenty-three lire, for a series of twenty

concertos. One gets the impression that, on the verge of

quitting his position at the Pieta, he was selling off

pieces that formed part of a previously constituted repos-

itory."14 After the above mentioned date, Vivaldi is no

longer mentioned in the archives of the Pieta.

Until recent years, it had been generally presumed

that Vivaldi died in Venice sometime around the year 1743.

In 1938, investigation by Rudolfo Gallo yielded the exact

time and circumstances of the composer's death. Vivaldi

died in the parish of St. Stephen, Vienna, and was buried

on July 28, 1741, in a cemetery for indigents. Although

the composer had achieved immense fame and a relatively

high standard of living during his lifetime, he died al-

most a pauper.

He was entitled only to the Kleingleuth, or ringingof the bells for the poor, which cost two florinsthirty-six, to six pallbearers, and to six choirboys;whereas a nobleman buried by night had the knell atfour florins twenty, eight pallbearers, twelve choir-boys, and six musicians, with t-e rest in keeping, theexpenses totaling 102 florins.

Vivaldi's Works

In contrast to the works of Corelli which are rela-

tively few in number, the volume of Vivaldi's output is

1 4 Pincherle, Vivaldi, p. 52.

15 Ibid., p. 53.

33

immense. Considering the fact that during the eighteenth

century there was a constant public demand for new music,

and it was not unusual for the ordinary composer to turn

out one or two works a week, Vivaldi is still deemed to

have been a very prolific composer. As part of his work

assignment at the Pieta,

A deliberation of the Congregation for 1723 notesthat Vivaldi is to furnish two concertos a month,and even during absences from Venice he was to sendthem, if he did so, "carriage paid",.... Two motetsa month and masses and vespers for Easter and for thefeast of the Visitation were required from themaestro coro, a p gt also held by Vivaldi duringGasparini's absence.

Although Vivaldi is noted today primarily for his

important role in the development of instrumental music,

he was also very successful in the realms of opera and

sacred music. He was commissioned to write forty-nine

operas, most of them for Venice. As to his instrumental

works, the latest estimate amounts to 554 pieces: 75 sona-

tas or trios; 2 organ pieces; 23 sinfonie; and 454 con-

certos. These figures represent only those works in

existence today, and of these, many are not available in

print.

16 Rudge, "Vivaldi," p. 27.

A detailed list of Vivaldi's works by Marc Pin-cherle can be found in Rudge, Grove's Dictionary of Music,IX, pp. 30-32.

CHAPTER III

A COMPARISON OF FORMAL AND STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES

IN THE CONCERTI GROSSI OF CORELLI'S

OPUS VI AND VIVALDI'S OPUS III

Descriptive Information Pertaining to Corelli's

Opus VI and Vivaldi's Opus III

In an effort to facilitate the discussion of Corelli's

music, the concerti grossi, their constituent movements,

and descriptive information are shown in Table II on pages

40 and 41.

Corelli's 2us _VI is comprised of twelve concerti

grossi. The first eight are of the church type, and are

assembled under the title: Concerti grossi con duoi altri

Violini, Viola e Basso di Concerto Grosso ad arbitrio,che

si potranno radoppiare *.. Opera Sesta Parte Prima. The

last four are called Concerti da camera and are entitled:

Preludii, Allemande, Corrente, Gighe, Sarabande, Gavotte

e Minuette .. Parte seconda per Camera. The fact that

the church concertos are in the majority is explained by

their extensive use and popularity in religious ceremo-

nial; sometimes two or three of them were played during

an office.

39

40

TABLE II

CORELLI'S OPUS VI

04-)

4 LNQ(D 4 (4) 0 40()r

0 S- 0Schemai: 00 0z A Zw

M* S** F*** S F F

Largo Largo Allegro Largo llegro llegroAllegro

I D 6 AdagioAllegroAdagioAllegro .Adagio

M F S F

Vivace Allegro Grave AllegroAllegro

2 F 4 Adagio .VivaceAllegroLargo-andante

S3 F S F F .

mino Largo Allegro Grave Vivace llegro

F S F F4 D 4 WSO "

Allegro Adagio Vivace Allegro

5 B-flat

5F

Allegro

F S F4 a a -- --

Adagio Allegro Largo Allegro

*Mixed movement

***Fast movement

**Slow movement

S .

.

41

TABLE II -- Continued

04-1)

S. 4 (1) 4 a)a 0 r-IO a

0 Q a) Schema

U 0:

6 5 s F S F F6 SF55

Adagio Allegro Largo Vivace Allegro

F F S F F

7 D 5 Vivace Allegro Andante- Allegro Vivacelargo

M F M F F S

Vivace Allegro Adagio Vivace Allegro Largo8 G 6 Grave Allegro (Pasto-

minor Adagio rale)

S F F F S F

9 F 6 Prelu- Alle- Cor- Gavotte Adagio minu-dio manda rente . etto

S F S F F F10 C 6

Prelu- Alle- Adagio Cor- Allegro minu-dio manda . rente . etto

S F S S S F

11 B- 6 Prelu- Alle- Adagio Andante Sara- igaflat dio manda . largo banda

S F S F F

12 F 5 Prelu- Allegro Adagio Sara- Gigadio . . banda .

42

In the church concertos, the following terms are used

to designate movements: Grave, Largo, Adagio, Andante,

Allegro, Vivace, Presto, and Minuetto. There are also two

tempo marks which occur only within movements: largo

andante and andante largo. The first is a largo slightly

more spirited, and the second is an andante more retarded

than usual. The movements of the chamber concertos are

designated by the same terms that appear in the title. In

addition, there are four adagios, an andante largo, and

two allegros. The presence of these latter terms affirms

the fact that the second group, in reality, tends toward

a compromise between genres of the church and the chamber.

Similarly, some of the allegro movements in the church

concertos are in the spirit of the dance although they are

not designated as such.

In regard to the tempi of the dance movements, the

Allemandes and gavottes are always allegro; the correntes

and minuetti are always vivace; the gigues are allegro or

vivace; and the sarabandes are vivace or andante.

What is immediately obvious in these concerti is thatthe dance movement had become conventionalized.Originally the title of the dance was itself a pre-

cise indication of the tempo: the sarabande wasslow, the gigue quick, the corrente moderato, - theallemande solemn and imperious, and so forth. Noweach name of a dance is followed by an indication oftempo and we figd sarabandes marked vivace and alle-mandes allegro.

1 HenryPrunieres, A New History of Music (New York,1943), p. 245.

43

Concerning the tonality of the concerti grossi, rel-

atively few keys are employed. Numbers 2, 6, 9, and 12,

are in F major; numbers 1, 4, and 7, are in D major; num-

bers 5 and 11 are in B-flat major; number 10 is in C ma-

jor; number 3 is in C minor; and number 8, famous as the

"Christmas Concerto," is in G minor.

The concerti grossi of Vivaldi's s III, their con-

stituent movements, and descriptive information are shown

in Table III on page 44.

Vivaldi's OpIu II, L'estro armonico, is one of his

most famous works. The title has often been translated:

"Musical Rapture," "The Composer's Inspiration," and "Har-

monic Whim." Like Corelli's s VI, L'estro armonico

also contains twelve concerti. They were first published

in two sets of six. Of the twelve concerti, four, num-

bers 3, 6, 9, and 12, are solo concerti. The remaining

eight are concerti grossi and are shown in Table III

along with their numerical designation. In regard to

these eight concerti, only two, numbers 2 and 11, conform

to the type favored by Corelli, where the concertino is

made up of two violins and 'cello. Numbers 5 and 8 em-

ploy two violins in the concertino; numbers 1 and 4 use

four violins; and finally, four violins and 'cello are

exhibited in numbers 7 and 10.

It has already been pointed out that Corelli main-

tained the distinction between concerti da chiesa and

44

TABLE III

THE CONCERTI GROSSI OF VIVALDI'S OPUS III

0

QIH OH ) zC

u Schema

, o o io o

F_ _ _ _ _ _ F.I D 3 4F

violins Allegro Largo e Allegrospiccato

2 S F S F

2 G 4 violin3s2 G 4 i Adagio e Allegro Larghetto Allegrominorl with sict

i cello piccato

S F S-F

4 E.3Andante Allegro Adagio-minor violins assai allegro

5 A 3 2 F S Fviolins Allegro Largo Allegro

4 S F S-F

7 F 3 violins Andante Allegro Adagio-

- -cello-allegro

F S F

8 A 3 2 Allegro Larghetto Allegrominor violins e

spiritoso

4 F S F10 B 3 violins Allegro Largo- Allegro

minor with larghetto_'cello

2 F S F

11 minor 3vih ns Allegro- Largo e Allegro

'cello adagio- spiccatoallegro

45

concerti da camera. In Vivaldi's concerti, no such dis-

tinction exists. There can be found, however, certain

features in some of these works which are characteristics

of the concerti da chiesa. These characteristics will be

discussed later. For now, let it suffice to mention that

during the first two decades of the eighteenth century the

two styles, music for the church and music for the chamber,

coexisted. But the two styles were gradually merging, each

influencing the other. Moreover, the chamber style came to

include not only movements of dance origin but movements

derived from other forms as well. Thus, in the titles of

many collections of concerti, it became the custom to not

specify their usage. L'estro armonico is one of these, and

in these concerti the fusion of the two styles is apparent.

Although Corelli's concerti grossi outnumber the con-

certi grossi of O III, Vivaldi employs more keys. In

fact, each concerto is in a different key. It is also of

interest that a minor key is the choice for five of the

eight concerti.

The comparison of structural and formal traits in the

concert grossi of Corelli's O pusVI and Vivaldi's s III

will proceed in the following manner: first, the cycle as

a whole will be taken up; next, the individual movements

will be considered. Finally, in each instance of compar-

ison, Corelli's music will be dealt with first.

46

Structural Characteristics Pertaining

to the Cycle

Corelli's Cycle

In regard to the number of movements in Corelli's

concerti grossi, there is a slight difference between the

cycles for the church and those for the chamber. On the

average, five movements are used in the church concerti.

Numbers 1 and 8 consist of six movements, and numbers 2

and 4 employ four movements. In the chamber concerti num-

bers 9, 10, and 11 are comprised of six movements, and the

last one, number 12, uses a five-movement scheme. Al-

though Stradella and Torelli offered him many examples of

the tripartite construction, allegro-adagio-allegro, Corel-

li was not at all influenced by this plan. In this re-

spect, the concerti grossi are unprogressive.

The movements are separated from each other by the use

of a double bar and the appearance of a term denoting tem-

po. In the chamber concerti the term is either one de-

noting tempo or one that is a dance title. The demarcation

of movements is not precise since in the mixed movements

the constituent sections are divided very often in the

same manner. Moreover, although there is a slight pause

between most of the movements in performance, some flow

directly into the following one. The most pointed example

of this is the "Pastorale" of the 8th concerto. It is

47

joined to the preceding movements by a unison G tied over

the double bar.

In regard to the order of movements, the church con-

certo may start with either a slow or fast movement. The

last movement is always fast with the exception of the

"Pastorale" of the 8th concerto. There is no set pattern

to the middle movements, but a slow movement is always

present. In the chamber concerti, the first movement is

always a preludio, and the last movement is either a giga

or a minuetto. Like the church concerti, there is no

standard scheme as far as the middle movements are con-

cerned. Some have more dance movements than others, and

in all of them can be found an allegro or an adagio, or

both. It is well to mention here that the earlier

movements are generally more contrapuntal than the later

ones indicating that consideration may have been given to

the listener's concentration, which is greater at the be-

ginning of a work.

As to tonality, each concerto has all of its movements

in the same key with the exception of the slow movement.

Of the two concerti written in the major mode, numbers 1

and 5 have two slow movements. In these instances, the

first one is in the tonic key and the second is in the

relative minor. The relative minor key is always used for

those having one slow movement. In regard to the two con-

certos in the minor mode: number 3 in C minor has its

48

slow movement in F minor, or in the minor of the subdom-

inant; the other, number 8 in G minor, has its "Adagio" in

E-flat. Also, the tonal relationship of the last movement

or "Pastorale" to the preceding movement is the parallel

major. With the exception of the "Adagio" in E-flat,

which ends in the tonic key, all the slow movements writ-

ten in a key other than the one of the cycle end with a

Phrygian cadence. The tonal unity in these concerti was

to remain the law of the genre.

On the other hand, contrast between adjacent movements

is always present. Even in the 9th concerto, where three

fast movements are found side be side, there is a distinct

contrast in meter, style, and ideas.

Vivaldi's C

Vivaldi's cycle differs from Corelli's cycle in that

the tripartite plan or the fast-slow-fast scheme is the

one most often used. Only three, numbers 2, 4, and 7,

employ four movements. In these, the first movement is

slow followed by two allegros enclosing a slow movement.

Since this plan follows the old concerto da chiesa pat-

tern, they are very often referred to as such. In num-

bers 4 and 7, however, the slow adagio functions as a

bridge passage and therefore veils an underlying three-

movement structure.

49

Vivaldi's movements are demarcated in the same man-

ner as Corelli's movements. A double bar and the tempo

designation are always present. The only difference is

that Vivaldi's movements are on the average slightly

longer and are also more independent of one another. The

only exceptions are the two central adagios of numbers 4

and 7 which are transitory in character. But in these two

instances, the double bar is also present.

The tonal unity which is characteristic of Corelli's

cycle is also present in Vivaldi's concerti grossi. All

of the fast movements are in the key of the cycle, and,

though it is an exception, the slow central movement of

number 5 is in the major key of the cycle. As to the

inner slow movements of the other concerti, varying tonal

relationships exist. The slow movement of concerto 1 is

written in the relative minor and ends in the relative

minor. The central slow movement of number 2, like that

of number 11, is in the same minor key as the cycle, and

also ends in the same key. The slow movement of number 8

begins and ends in the minor mode of the subdominant. The

bridge-type adagio of number 4 in E minor begins in E mi-

nor but cadences in the minor of the dominant. A rather

startling tonal relationship is present in concerto number

7 in F major. The short adagio here begins with an E-flat

major chord and, by a series of modulatory chords, ends on

a D minor chord or the relative minor of the cycle's key.

50

As in Corelli's concerti, adjacent movements are al-

ways contrasted either by change of meter, change of tem-

po, or by mood.

Form as Observed in Corelli's Individual Movements

Before discussing the types of formal structures ex-

hibited in Corelli's individual movements, it is desirable

here to describe briefly the usual formal consequences of

the two basic kinds of writing in the Baroque. At one ex-

treme is the purely fugal or contrapuntal style. This

style evolves a texture that is continuous and most often

results in a movement without repetition signs. The most

usual result of this style is a monothematic cursive form.

At the other extreme is the purely homophonic style. This

style results in movements which are more sectional and

symmetrical, and employ repetition signs. The most usual

structural result of the homophonic style is a polythe-

matic, integrated, hierarchic design. The extent to which

the generative processes in music depart from either of

these two poles is generally considered to be the best way

of observing form in the Baroque.2

In Corelli's concerti grossi, the combined influences

of the formal polyphony and the new homophonic style are

present. Consequently, the forms of his individual

2 William S. Newman, The Sonata in the Baroque Era

(Chapel Hill, 1959), p. 82.

movements vary. It is not within the scope of this paper

to describe the form of each and every movement in &

VI, rather, the intent is to focus only on principal ones,

which in point of fact embrace numerous intermediary

types. The examples referred to are representative of

the various formal structures found in OpusVI. The dis-

cussion on form of Corelli's movements will follow this

order. Firstly, the fast movements will be considered;

secondly, the slow movements; and finally, the mixed

movements.

The Fast Movements

Several of Corelli's fast movements are written in

the strictly fugal style.3 An example of this type is the

second "Allegro" of the 7th concerto. In this movement,

there is no return to the initial subject, rather there is

a continuous spinning forth of a contrapuntal texture

based on the opening measures. The musical process in-

volved is referred to as Fortspinnung and results in a

monothematic cursive form. In other fast fugal movements,

Corelli rounds off the form by partially restating the

subject literally as in the central "Allegro" of concerto

number 1, or by returning to a similar texture as in the

second "Allegro" of concerto number 5. These movements

3By "strictly fugal" is meant there are no sectionsof homophonic conception.

52

are without repetition signs. A rare case in point where

repetition signs are employed in a fugal allegro is the

first "Allegro" of concerto number 8 in G minor. This

movement consists of two sections with each section re-

peated. The second section begins on the dominant of the

tonic minor. The movement, therefore, is dependent upon

the bipartite or binary form of the suite. It should be

emphasized that a fugal movement of Corelli hardly cor-

responds to the classical concept of "fugue." With Corel-

Ii, the term is used in reference to a procedure rather

than a strictly determined formal structure.

Other allegros that are not fugal dispense with repe-

tition signs but achieve symmetry by restating the theme

near the middle of the movement. The "Allegro" (finale)

of the 1st concerto exemplifies this type.4 The movement

begins with only the two violins of the concertino stating

the theme in thirds and can be seen in Figure 1 on page 53.

A literal restatement of the following theme occurs

in measure 241. It is interesting to note that when the

theme is restated, it begins on the middle of the measure,

as opposed to the initial statement where it commences on

beat one.

4 This movement illustrates the influence of dancemusic on the church style, as it is in reality a Giga.

53

Vi~ol. 0 -46.. a s it aa a

IIVF

mop'*IPF ff I r Id

Am

Ida11, low a lei is. AM

46-&-g-li! El t" ano -ftm C. ar. v

Fig. I--Theme of "Allegro" (finale) of Corelli'sconcerto number 1.

An extension of this formal principle can be seen in

the first allegro movements of concertos 6 and 12. In

these movements, Corelli employs the da-capo form, with

a clearly set off middle section. They are, however,

fully written out, and are without repetition signs. In

the 6t concerto, the first 24 bars are repeated literally

prior to the final cadence. In the 12th concerto, the

first 15 bars are repeated literally before dissolving

into a coda section which is 13 bars in length.

Among the fast movements which are divided by a

repetition sign, certain ones do not at any time reintro-

duce the initial motive; but the second section is in

every case similar to the first either in rhythm or

54

scoring. An example of this type is the "Vivace" of con-

certo number 3. The structure of this movement is an

asymmetrical binary form. Other movements in the asym-

metrical binary form begin their second repetition with

the theme in the dominant key. As always, the movement

ends in the tonic key, but in the second section the theme

is never heard in the tonic.

More evolved movements restate the theme after the

intermediary development which begins after the repetition

sign. Examples of this type are the final "Allegro" of

the 6i concerto and the "Allegro" preceding the "Pastorale"

of the 8 concerto. These movements can be construed as

rounded binary forms.

Finally, in the "Allegro" of concerto number 2, there

is a development section in the dominant key which is

clearly derived from the opening theme, after which it is

followed by a recapitulation of the entire opening theme

in the tonic key. This example differs from the previous

two in that the former have intermediary sections only

similar to, but not clearly derived from, the opening

theme. Also, in these two examples the theme is restated

only partially rather than in its entirety. The structure

of the latter is also a rounded binary form.

55

The Slow Movements

Like Corelli's fast movements, the slow ones also

exhibit varying styles of writing. One major difference,

however, is the total absence of repetition signs.

Some of the slow movements are written in the fugal

style throughout. The resulting structure of these

movements is a monothematic cursive form. An example of

this kind is the "Grave" of concerto number 2. A similar

type of movement starts out fugally but during the devel-

opment section approaches a homophonic or note-against-

note idiom. At the end of this type of movement there is

usually a brief reference to the initial motive, thus es-

tablishing a more rounded form. An example of this type

is the "Largo" of concerto number 6. Other slow movements

of similar form are obviously in a mixed style; an example

of this is the "Adagio" of the 5tb concerto where the in-

struments of the concertino proceed imitatively but are

supported at times by homophonic chords. This is shown in

Figure 2 on page 56.

Several of the slow movements are in the homophonic

style. The resulting structure of this type is the song

form or ABA form, and can be seen in the "Largo" of con-

certo number 1. The B section in this movement is melod-

ic. Another example exhibiting the ABA form is the "Pas-

torale" of the 8th concerto. In this case, the B section

is comprised of sequential development. The brief adagios

56

0

4)

4-)

01(W

0r-

I

Viol.

II

Vla.

Vc.Cb.

Fig. 2--Excerpt showing mixed style of "Adagio" ofCorelli's concerto number 5.

separating the allegros of the 9th, 10th, and 11th concertos

are not movements in themselves, but serve only as bridge

passages.

I

AOL

AWL

AN

t IL lk Amma -%a

IF

Rio

a RLAb

CC 1661 Amp

;a Im x - a

A"" if I ILL

57

The Mixed Movements

The mixed movements consist of fast and slow sections

in alternation. Some of these movements have obvious sym-

metry. The mixed movement preceding the "Vivace" of con-

certo number 8 is constituted of three sections. The

first section is an adagio of 8 measures; the second

section is an allegro of 13 measures, which is then fol-

lowed by a repetition of the same adagio, this time with

an extension of 4 bars. This structure can be construed

as an ABA form. Others, however, are much more capricious

with their alternation of fast and slow tempi, and defy

standard formal classification. An example of this type

is the mixed movement of concerto number 1. It is con-

stituted as follows: largo (11 measures), allegro (8

measures), adagio (2 measures), allegro (6 measures),

adagio (1 measure), allegro (8 measures), and adagio (3

measures).

Use of the Concertino by Corelli

Corelli's concertino consists of two violins and vio-

loncello. The concerto grosso or ripieno is composed of

two violin parts, a viola, and a bass part. In addition,

each group has its figured bass, realized by harpsichord

or organ. When the two ensembles are performing together

there are rarely more than four parts present, due to the

fact that the violin and bass parts in both ensembles are

58

identical. This can be seen in Figure 3.

I

Viol.

II

Vc.

Viol.

Via.

Vc.Cb.

nI~

0,

4

0u

0

Sri

Fig. 3--Excerpt from first movement of Corelli's

concerto number 1 showing identical violin and bass parts.

An exception to this is seen in Figure 4 on page 59.

In this instance, the violoncello has a running sixteenth

note figure instead of merely doubling the bass as it

normally does.

ANN& AD

Sam-

OF

--Xy- a I IF

SWAMM

LON now"aws"Wo wo

P4,

W up is AFAft- ##a, A j M

ir

rl

'WPMNP IjFWW

Ala

M I i wo

WF

#

Jim Asp_-II #AWLAOP-M%-JLM%6--Jlp- _M&AftU SIC 99

A -It

59

IL

Viol.

Vc.

Viol.

IIl

Vla.

Vc.Cb.

-L - A A- -0

Fig. 4--Excerpt from first "Allegro" of Corelli'sconcerto number 1 showing the presence of more than fourparts.

Corelli makes use of the concertino in various ways.

Using concerto number 10 as an example, the concertino is

treated in the following manner. In the "Preludio" the

two choirs perform simultaneously throughout, with the ex-

ception of a one-measure segment which occurs twice during

the movement, wherein only the concertino is heard. In

0

-)

0u

0q4(3)

o'H

A6 - 0 .AOL

v Tr- 11

WEE

-A3 jkm- g 1 -1 -5 -RUP, I

A A- A 0 A 0 0 's +0JW-Pr or I a a -3 1 a I I

Alp AL lka AskAas IF

moo"

AsAn lk IV man"

wr

n IL Ar m.df

A

loom

AM

lit,

0- i

60

the following two movements, the "Allemande" and "Adagio,"

the two choirs perform simultaneously throughout. In the

next movement, the "Corrente," the concertino predomi-

nates, with the ripieno serving only as a light accom-

paniment. In the following "Allegro," the ripieno some-

times enters for a measure at a time in alternating meas-

ures, and at other times it joins in and accompanies for

several measures at length. Finally, in the concluding

"Minuetto," a symmetrical balance between the concertino

and the whole ensemble is achieved by giving the concer-

tino a phrase for a number of measures and having it re-

peated by the whole orchestra.

In regard to the relationship of parts within the

concertino, various methods of treatment can again be ob-

served. The concertos written in the older style employ

the two violins on an equal par, that is, they share alike

in passages of equal difficulty, as can be seen in Figure

5.

tAIL AI

Viol.

II

Fig. 5--Excerpt from first "Allegro" of Corelli'sconcerto number 5 showing violin parts of equal difficulty.

I

Alk

AAWF

A.4&40,*/ 1400m®r moo* A&

AL w

61

In the later concertos, there is a tendency toward so-

loistic display in the first violin part. As the other

parts become mere accompaniment, there can be seen a resem-

blance to the solo concerto, as illustrated in Figure 6.

Vc.

AWAW

Oil 'AL qw

Ida

so

PIP

Fig. 6--Excerpt -from "Minuetto" of Corelli's concertonumber 10 showing tendency toward soloistic display in thefirst violin part.

The two violin parts are always in proximity but are

separated from the bass or 'cello part by a wide interval.

Very often the two upper voices cross, as can be seen in

Figure 7 on page 62. In movements that are homophonically

conceived they move frequently at an interval of a third,

as seen in Figure 8, also on page 62.

Form as Observed in Vivaldi's Individual Movements

Just as Corelli's style of writing was influenced by

both the former polyphony and the new monody, the same

holds true for Vivaldi's style. At the time when the Red

62

Ala

Aw

a A-v 'W sic 1 9w w

WASI

A-Aw V"

AV '""TIF IRL

-- A, awn" mr

WF I

I I

A II w 'V I

Fig. 7--Excerpt from first movement of Corellit s con-certo number 5 showing proximity and crossing of voices.

Viol.

II

Vc.

-1

ft I ka~

II

Fig. 8--Excerpt from first movement of Corelli's con-certo number 2 showing movement in thirds.

Priest was writing his Opus il, the two styles were in

open conflict. But like Corelli, Vivaldi was also able to

combine the two styles in a single work or even a single

movement and obtain a coherency and unity of construction

that few of his contemporaries were able to achieve. It

Viol.

II

Vc.

IMA

MF

r I W I I w

- - 4ro

63

is not at all unusual for one of his movements to begin in

a strictly contrapuntal style, afterwards transforming in-

to a texture that is characterized by imitative figures

occuring less and less, and finally becoming purely homo-

phonic and governed by vertical harmony.

Most of Vivaldi's individual movements exhibit forms

which are of broadly binary or ternary design, hence, they

are similar in outer form to Corelli's individual movements.

However, in regard to inner form, or internal organization,

there are striking differences.

The feature which most distinguishes Vivaldi's con-

certi grossi from those of Corelli is the former's use of

the ritornello. As put by Bukofzer, "As the length of the

single movement increased, the tutti ritornellos took on a

greater importance for the formal design."5 This is espe-

cially true for Vivaldi, who along with other Venetian

composers employed them in all types of movements, in-

cluding the slow movement.

The term "ritornello" is used by modern writers to

designate the "recurrent portions of the concerto grosso

and the rondo."6 In the concerti grossi of Corelli, there

are very few instances where a tutti section could justi-

fiably be called a ritornello. In most cases, after the

5 Bukofzer, op. ci't., p. 230.

6Apel, "Ritornello," Harvard Dictionary, p. 647.

64

concertina has answered the tutti, the tutti proceeds with

an advancing or new musical idea. In the concerti grossi

of Vivaldi, however, the alternation of solo sections with

the ritornelli begets a series of tensions and relax-

ations; each solo departure is an advancing factor and

each ritornello is a consolidating one.

Moreover, in Vivaldi's concerti grossi, the relation-

ship of the soloists to the tutti takes on a new meaning.

For Corelli, the alternation of the concertino and ripieno

was simply a means of achieving contrast between a larger

and smaller choir. Even in the works of Albinoni and

Torelli, whose concertos more closely resemble Vivaldi's,

the silencing of the tutti is merely aimed at giving the

soloists a greater independence and distinctiveness. With

Vivaldi, the primary purpose is the establishing of an es-

sentially dramatic conflict between the soloists and the

orchestra.

As has already been observed, the three-movement

scheme, allegro-largo-allegro, is the one most often

adopted by Vivaldi. In the discussion on form of Vivaldi's

individual movements, the opening allegro will be treated

first, followed by the slow middle movement and finally

the closing allegro. In addition, since ritornello organ-

ization plays such an important role in the form of the

movement, this subject, along with the several types of

65

relationships that exist between tutti and solo sections,

will receive particular attention.

The Opening Allgro

The majority of Vivaldi's opening allegros are in two

main sections. In the first, the motives are stated.

This section may be referred to as the exposition. The

second section consists of a development of principal mo-

tives in the dominant and other closely related keys and a

short recapitulation of the principal motive by the tutti

in the tonic key. The overall design is the ABA form.

Of the opening allegros of O III, several of them,

numbers 2, 5, and 8, begin with the ripieno or tutti. Of

these, concerto number 2 provides an excellent example of

an opening tutti which is constructed in such a way that

ritornelli can be drawn from it. Hutchings describes the

construction of Vivaldi's opening tuttis as being of

"... contrasted but organically connected ideas which can

later be disconnected and then rejoined in a different or-

der; one of them will be used as a ritornello and another

(either directly or in a varied form) for treatment by the

solo group." Figure 9 on page 66 shows the opening tutti

of concerto number 2.

7 Hutchings, _. _cit., p. 147.

66

Viol. I

bd k4 P--

Fig. 9--Excerpt from opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi'sconcerto number 2 showing construction of opening tutti.

Af ter the initial tutti, quoted above, two solo vio-

lins of the concertino enter with a small unit figure in

bravura style. This is followed by the first ritornello

which states the motive designated as B. After the first

ritornello, the two violins enter again with the same type

of figuration heard previously. In the fifth bar of this

section the solo 'cello joins in and the soloists deal

with motive A, now slightly modified. The second ritor-

nello states the whole of the opening tutti in D minor and

the third ritornello states the motive B again. When the

soloists reach the tonic key there is a short recapitu-

latory section to the end of the movement.

67

In regard to the exposition section and a little be-

yond, Vivaldi, in his allegro movements, established the

general first-movement design for the classical concerto.

It is distinct from the latter, however, in that there is

no second solo theme of strong individuality. Also, the

recapitulatory section is extremely brief as compared to

that of the classical concerto. Hutchings states, "After

the purposeful organization earlier in the movement, the

finish sometimes suggests an improvisory loss of grip." 8

The opening "Allegro" of concerto number 8 is unique

in that it is the only one of O III that exhibits a bi-

thematic construction. Although it is similar in overall

design to concerto number 2, it resembles even more

closely the form of the classical concerto in its presen-

tation, although in rudimentary fashion, of a secondary

theme. Figure 10 on page 68 shows the opening tutti. The

letters A, 13, C, and D designate the main motives that are

later used as ritornelli. After the initial tutti, the

soloists enter introducing the following secondary theme

as shown in Figure 11 on page 68. After the secondary

theme is announced, the procedure is the usual one, ri-

tornelli sections alternating with solo sections. Some-

times the soloists present material from the opening tut-

ti, or at other times, parts of the secondary theme are

tIbid., p. 148.

68

Viol. I

Tutti

U-L-j

q ; -"mom-

5 JkJU4NL4'~.tr

Fig. IG--Excerpt from opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi'sconcerto number 8 showing constitution of opening tutti.

-at

Viol. I

Solo

d ~ L4~U.B4oom="

Fig. l--Excerpt from opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi'sconcerto number 8 showing secondary theme.

IF

Awg

LIC aw I Imagm

-. %

aff I I a-

a RAE I-

a OL Mr. a

AMP

ANa in AL

I WF WF Ak

IL 1 11 1 a

............

f7

MFAda AML Am

wA AR

M-

40% 4AL 11 Am ICU-

WF li

IL It VF 11 A It It IL lk w it

75

IN

Ic i

69

heard in modification. The ending, as is usually the

case, is a recapitulation of a part of the opening tutti

in the tonic key.

In regard to Vivaldi's opening tuttis, Grout de-

scribes them as

..1.a rather loose series of related but separablemusical ideas any of which can be selected for devel-opment in the course of a movement; this treatmentrepresents a stage midway between the older Baroquepractice of spinning out a single theme and the latgrClassical practice of developing contrasted themes.

It would be hard to imagine a closed tutti or the use

of ritornelli in a movement of one of Corelli's church

concerti, especially in a slow prelude or a fugal allegro.

But Corelli's style is so smooth and flowing there is

hardly a need for ritornelli to maintain unity of con-

struction. His movements sustain a continuing forward

motion. Even in his chamber concerti, Corelli is very

sparing with ritornello. One remarkable exception is the

9th concerto. In it, the first allegro, or the "Allemande,"

begins with a closed initial tutti, as is shown in Figure

12 on the following page. In the first ritornello, the

portion from B is quoted while other shorter ritornellos

quote A or C. In this movement, Corelli achieves an in-

ner form, or method of organization that is very similar

to the type found in Vivaldi's allegros.

9 Donald J. Grout, A History _of Western Music (NewYork, 1960), p. 373.

70

Viol. i

Tutti

Iig t a MRIN

U "LL r

I tTil ElirRAL

Ir .. O w

Fig. 12--Excerpt from "Allemande" of Corelli's con-certo number 9 showing closed opening tutti.

Another type of opening tutti that Vivaldi uses is

seen in the 5th concerto. It differs from the ones dis-

cussed above in that when it is heard as a subsequent

ritornello, it is in its entirety. It is also always

sounded in unison.

Viol. I

Tutti

ITTR lp

ML

OIL IIL,

mow -AL W;-', W W'.

Fig. 13--Excerpt from opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi'sconcerto number 5 showing opening tutti sounded in unison.

After the opening tutti, the solo violin enters and is

shortly afterwards joined by the second violin; then the

: - --

-6-.L-A=k

Ab

:Fm

71

entire opening tutti is repeated. When the two violins

enter again, the material is again the same but the end

of the episode is open and leads directly into the middle

or development section. The form of the movement is seen

in the following representation.

Form Description

tuttisoloists

A tuttisoloists

B development

A recapitulation

Fig. 14--Form and description of the opening "Alle-gro" of Vivaldi's concerto number 5.

Before examining the opening allegros of Vivaldi that

do not begin with the tutti, it is in order to discuss

here the various types of connections that exist between

the first tutti and the first solo section. There are es-

sentially three types. Concerto number 2 and concerto

number 5 are examples of the first kind where the first

solo section consists of a light and decorative figuration

that is not related to the main tutti. The second type

occurs most frequently and is distinct from the first in

that the solo section is derived from the opening tutti.

It may be described as a soloistic figuration and expansion

of the tutti idea. The third kind of connection is the

72

one least used by Vivaldi. It occurs when the soloist in-

troduces an idea or theme distinct from the opening tutti

such as in the Si concerto.

The intermediary solo sections serve mainly as di-

versions from the recurring tuttis. They are in most

cases related, in various degrees, to the melodic motives

of the piece. The exposition and development sections are

often unified by a solo section in each that are similar

or symmetrical. Similarities of rhythms and melodic pat-

terns between the two sections also serve as a means of

unification.

In regard to the opening allegros which begin with

the soloists, numbers 1, 4, 10, and 11 fall into this

category. They also consist of two main sections: the

first is the exposition; the second, the development with

a short recapitulation.

The form of concerto number 1 in D major and concerto

number 10 in B minor is shown in Figures 15 and 16 respec-

tively on page 73. Shown also is a description of the

musical procedure.

The first movement of concerto number 11 in D minor

is an exception to the usual format of Vivaldi. It is in

tripartite form: allegro-adagio-allegro (fugue). In the

first section, only the two solo violins are heard. The

second section is a bridge-type adagio of three measures

and is scored for the entire orchestra. The last section

73

Form Description

Exposition

Soloists*A Tutti** *different but related material

Soloists* **same materialTutti**

Development

B Consists of sequential treatment in relatedkeys with echo effects between solo and tuttisections.

Recapitulation

A Short restatement of tutti material fromthe exposition in the tonic key.

Fig. 15--Form and description of opening "Allegro" ofVivaldi's concerto number 1 in D major.

Form Description

Exposition

Soloists - state opening themeTutti - repeats theme

A Soloists - episodeTutti - states theme againSoloists - episodeTutti - material derived from opening theme

B

A

Development

Solo sections are sequential, tutti sectionsare derived from main theme.

Recapitulation

Restatement of main theme with a repeat oflast two bars.

Fig. 16--Form and description of opening "Allegro" ofVivaldi's concerto number 10 in B minor.

74

is a fugue; apart from this, it is also unique in that Vi-

valdi's characteristic emphasis on contrast between tutti

and concertino sections is almost totally lacking.

In concertos 2, 4, and 7, the first allegro is pre-

faced by a slow introductory movement, however, the make-

up of the following allegro is not altered by it. These

slow movements seldom admit solo sections. The introduc-

tory slow movement of concerto number 2 is in the stately,

strict style and allows only a two-measure solo section

near the end of the movement just before the last brief

tutti. The introductory slow movements of concerto num-

ber 4 and concerto number 7 exude the same spirit as those

of Corelli, with the qualification that they are more de-

veloped. The 4t concerto is reminiscent of the opera

overture with its pompous style and dotted rhythm. In

spirit and style, the first "Allegros" of concertos 4 and

7 are similar to those of Corelli; "... the concerto that

is most loyal to the old ideal, No. 7, seems to be less a

spontaneous outpouring than a tribute to the master of the

genre, Corelli, the nature and treatment of his themes

being invoked throughout the first movement." No

movement of Vivaldi, however, could easily be mistaken as

Corelli's. When the concertino enters, the individual

members very often enter in succession, rather than


75

simultaneously as in Corelli. The overall design of the

first "Allegros" in concertos 4 and 7 is the usual ABA

one.

The Middle Slow Movement

For Vivaldi's predecessors, the middle slow movement

served little more than a transitional role. Aside from

the short transitional "Adagios" of concertos 4 and 7,

Vivaldi, in Opus III, was the first composer to give the

slow movement of a concerto equal importance along with

the two allegros. With him, the slow movement became the

vehicle for great lyrical outpouring and the stamp of the

Venetian opera aria is often present. As for the form,

there is no standard scheme.

In concerto number 1, the slow movement is an ABA

form. Here again, the composer employs the ritornello.

The first section begins with the tutti stating the theme

and cadencing in the tonic, after which the soloists

enter. With the first ritornello, or restatement of the

theme, the tutti marks the second section by cadencing in

the dominant minor, from here the soloists again continue.

The final section is the recapitulation of the theme by

the tutti.

In concerto number 2, the slow movement consists of

two sections with repetitions. The second section, being

longer than the first, constitutes an asymmetrical binary

form.

The flexibility in Vivaldi's formal procedures is

further illustrated in the 5n concerto. Here, the slow

movement consists of a continuous song-like melody by the

soloists. The movement is totally without repetitions or

periodicity and may be construed as a monothematic cursive

form.

In the 8th concerto, Vivaldi again spins out a homo-

geneous melodic line for the soloists. In this movement

the melody is framed by a four-measure unison tutti. As

the soloists enter, the introductory four-bar phrase con-

tinues for a while as an ostinato and then breaks down into

a one-measure repetitive figure. The repetitive figure

which continues is in unison throughout, as is the ostinato

when it returns as a concluding tutti.

The slow movement of the 10th concerto consists of two

distinct sections. The first part is designated "Largo"

and is characterized by the stately dotted rhythm of the

opera overture. This rhythm, along with the alternation of

tutti and solo sections, puts it in sharp contrast with the

following "Larghetto."t Vivaldi's sense for rounded form

leads him to mark the last three bars "Largo" with a return

to the dotted rhythm.

Concerto number 11 has as its middle slow movement a

solo phrase framed by two tutti which are more rhythmic.

77

Vivaldi's slow movements vary not only in formal design,

but also in orchestration and emotional content.

The Closing Allegro

In regard to the final allegro of the concerto,

J. J. Quantz defines the reigning aesthetic of the first

half of the eighteenth century as follows:

The last allegro of a concerto should differ greatlyfrom the first both in the nature and kind of itsideas, and in its meter. As much as the first shouldbe serious, so the last should be, on the contrary,light and playful.... The accompaniment should notbe too full or overburdened with parts. It shouldrather consist of notes that the accompanying partcan perform without much work or trouble, becaufi thelast movement is generally played very rapidly.

In general, Vivaldi's finales conform to the above

description as given by Quantz. They are, on the average,

shorter in duration and less serious in nature than the

opening allegro. As put by Pincherle:

Nearly always it is a question of ending the workrather lightly, so as to leave the listener with sucha feeling of euphoria that he can pass without shockfrom the concert hall to the pace of everyday life,or can approach the j mainder of the program withfresh attentiveness.

Formally, the last movements of Opus III exhibit the

same basic overall structure as do the opening allegros.

In regard to inner form, however, there is even more

Johann Joachim Quantz, Versuch einer Anweisung dieFlote traversiere zu spielen (Berlin, 1752). New edition(Arnold Schering), 1906, cited in Pincherle, Vivaldi,p. 163.


78

freedom in the disposition of solo and tutti sections. In

one section of the "Finale" of concerto number 7, the alter-

nation occurs each measure. Figure 17 shows the disposition

of solo and tutti sections in the 72 concerto.

so

t t6OP i

s0l1 utti

s 1 tj o] tutti s l tutti

soli utt oli

tu ts

tit

101 t -4

79

soli

tutti

soli tutti

Fig. 17--Closing "Allegro" of Vivaldi's concerto num-ber 7T showing disposition of solo and tutti sections.

In the above illustration, the solo-tutti relation-

ship is reminiscent of the one practiced by Corelli, where

the movement is carried forward by both solo and tutti

sections. In this case, the melody, simple and homogeneous

throughout, is merely divided between the two sections.

But concerto number 7 is an exception. Most of Vi-

valdi's allegro finales employ the ritornello, as do his

opening allegros. The ritornello, serving both as an or-

ganizing and controlling factor, functions in much the same

way as does the refrain section of the rondo. It differs

from the latter, however, in that when it reappears, it is

most often in a modified form and not necessarily in the

tonic key as is the Classical rondo. Still, there can be

80

seen in the allegro movement of Vivaldi not only the be-

ginnings of the Classical sonata form, but also the pattern

of the rondo; the two, not formally opposed, but merging in

much the same manner as in the Classical era.

General Comparison of Styles

Considering that Corelli's Opus VI and Vivaldi's _gus

III were published within two years of each other, and that

Corelli and Vivaldi were near contemporaries, it would seem

safe to assume that there are a great many similarities be-

tween the two works. In fact, Vivaldi began his career as

a composer by imitating very closely the works of Corelli.

In Vivaldi's Opus I and 2u _II, there can be found numer-

ous examples of harmonic schemes and melodic shapes that if

not for their transposition to another key could be super-

imposed over their Corellian models. But in Opus III,

there is a greater degree of individuality. There are, of

course, various harmonic sequences linking the two works,

and more than one melodic affinity exists especially in the

slow movements. However, in regard to general style, the

concerti grossi of _Ous III are quite distinct from Corel-

li's pug _VI. "Vivaldi differed from Corelli as much as

Bach differed from Handel, and if any of his concertos re-

minds us of Corelli, the resemblence can be traced to sin-

gle turns of melody or single musical ideas, not to design

81

or style." 1 3

Harmonically, Vivaldi's Opus III reveals an extension

and an elaboration of the tonal principles established by

Corelli. Corelli's harmony, whether resulting from linear

or horizontal conception, is almost completely diatonic.

His use of chromaticism is comparatively rare and is lim-

ited to a few diminished seventh chords, a few augmented

sixth chords, and an occasional Neapolitan sixth chord. In

comparison, Vivaldi's harmony is more varied, more com-

pelling and is sustained by a greater rhythmic drive. He

also employs chromaticism to a greater extent. After the

initial tonality is established, his harmony is varied not

only by the usual cycle of modulations, but also by chro-

matic modulation. Chromatic bass lines often emerge to

signal the approaching cadence. Characteristic also is the

use of minor thirds and minor sixths in a major key.

A fundamental technical device used extensively in

both Qpus VI and Q9u III is the sequence. Melodic and

harmonic sequences abound in both works. The most con-

spicuous of the harmonic formulas is the cycle of fifths

progression or chords with their roots a fifth apart. A

manifestation of this formula can be seen in Figure 18 on

the following page.

13 Hutchings, p. cit., p. 137.

82

Viol. 1

Vc.

Fig. 18--Excerpt from first "Allegro" of Corelli'sconcerto number 5 in B-flat major showing sequence of fifthsprogression.

Another favorite harmonic formula employed by Corelli

as a means of harmonizing the steps of the scale is the

ascending or descending series of sixth chords. This for-

mula is shown in Figure 19 on Page 83. The formula is also

frequently employed by Vivaldi. An example of Vivaldi's

use of ascending chords is shown in Figure 20, also on

page 83.

A constant feature of Corelli's harmonic style is the

suspension. Suspended fourths, sevenths, and ninths appear

frequently throughout. Vivaldi uses suspensions less fre-

quently.

Figure 21 on page 84 illustrates Corelli's practice of

dovetailing or overlapping suspensions of the seventh.

Similar use of this formula by Vivaldi is shown in Figure

22, also on page 84.

Before comparing the melodic style of Corelli and Vi-

valdi, it is to be remembered that both composers employed

the old polyphonic style as well as the new monodic style.

+A 4, a06 wpft

CIII-

S IP 1011

Viol. I-

Vc.

Viol. I

Vc.

Ascending

Descending

Fig.number 6chords.

Viol. 1

Cb.

19--Excerpts from "Vivace"l of Corelli's concertoshowing ascending and descending series of sixths

1).- 4'

4v

Fig. 20--Excerpt from opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi t sconcerto number 10 showing series of ascending sixthchords.

83

M-1

Of

IL At

ww MF

-Loh aim

00%IMA Am

w *

84

I LiI

qp -V * 7 i P -7 '

Fig. 21--Excerpt from first "Allegro" of Corelli sconcerto number 3 showing dovetailing suspensions of theseventh.

II

Viol.

III

Cb.

Fig. 22--Excerpt from opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi'sconcerto number 10 showing dovetailing suspensions of theseventh.

In those

does not

voices.

with the

sections where Polyphony prevails, the top voice

predominate but merely complements the other

In monodic sections, the melodic line is distinct

other voices reduced to accompaniment.

I

Viol.

II

Vc.

IL-A

ca

Iwo

i rqw

f

w I v q iro

85

Consequently, the two styles govern dissimilar melodic out-

lines. Of the two works, the polyphonic style is much more

prevalent in _ VI.

Corelli sought to transfer the sensuous expressiveness

of the human voice to the violin. Hence, his melodic style

is often lyrical, flowing and quite singable. The fol-

lowing excerpt is the first four measures from the "Pas-

torale" of concerto number 8. It is diatonic and of homo-

phonic conception.

Viol. I

Fig. 23--Excerpt from the "tPastorale"t of Corelli'sconcerto number 8 showing lyrical melodic style.

In movements where polyphony prevails, the melodic

line is more dis junct, employing interval leaps of fourths,

fifths, diminished sevenths, and octaves. The resulting

mood is of ten one of patheticism. The excerpt shown in

Figure 24 on the following page is the first ten measures

of the "Grave" from Corelli's concerto number 3.

In strict terminology, that particular kind of melody

referred to as a "theme" is lacking in many of Corelli's

86

I I I a I

Viol. I

Al

-7w--- -1I_ _I

Fig. 24--Excerpt from the "Grave" of Corelli's con-certo number 3 showing disjunct melodic style.

movements. In movements that begin contrapuntally, such

as in the above figure, the term "subject" is often ap-

plied, but not with the same structural implications as

when used in reference to a Bach fugue. Other movements

in Opus VI begin with an arpeggiated or broken-chord fig-

ure, as seen in the following excerpt.

.flio.Viol. I

(j ~ ~ AL

Fig. 25--Excerpt from central "Allegro" of Corelli'sconcerto number 1 showing broken-chord melodic pattern.

This type of melodic line hardly approaches the charac-

teristic distinctiveness of a true theme. It is more

often in reference to the dance movements, or in those

movements of the church concern 'ti that are influenced by

OPT7K- As AL-

-Itn.lir-puo-

-- ddm6w - lw a

' slop

.1-- t

t l . I

87

the dance, that it is possible to speak accurately of the

presence of a theme. An example of a distinctive melodic

theme is the following excerpt.

IIViol. I

LL4~ W-J4. W 1

Fig. 26--Theme of "Giga" of Corelli's concerto num-ber 12.

Vivaldi's themes are distinguishable from those of

Corelli in that they stress tonal feeling to a greater ex-

tent, are more vigorous and rhythmically animated, and ex-

hibit a wider breadth of melodic phrasing. Vivaldi's

characteristic insistence upon establishing the tonic to-

nality in the theme can be seen by referring back to Fig-

ure 13 on page 70. The first three measures of the open-

ing theme consist almost entirely of the tonic note. The

theme escapes monotony because of its briskness and rhyth-

mic drive. An extreme case in point is the opening "Al-

legro" of Vivaldi's concerto number 11 in D minor. During

the first twenty measures of the movement a D pedal point

is consistently present. The second five measures of the

movement are shown in Figure 27 on the following page.

3Ty

7ftft%%J 4

I 'a Af

88

01 ~qij~*e 4 1 ~rr~rrr rEp= was"

ef L Udtju 0 AWW 00 -W ,1 4f IF 4 i

Fig. 27--Excerpt from opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi'sconcerto number 11 showing insistence upon the tonic to-nality.

There is but one instance in Opus VI where Corelli's

insistence upon the tonic tonality is equal to that of Vi-

valdi's. It occurs in the first "Allegro" of Corelli's

concerto number 7 and is shown in Figure 28.

I

Viol.

II

%F 7 1 I. f

Fig. 28--Opening six measures of first "Allegro" ofCorelli's concerto number 7 showing insistence upon thetonic tonality.

A rhythmic device used more extensively by Vivaldi is

syncopation. An example of this can be seen in the fourth

measure, designated B, of Figure 9 on page 66. Although

Corelli also uses syncopation, it occurs more often in the

I

Viol0.

II

w W 7AI K I a

All I I a A

I I-A

ARE mit I

Ar As ot

Tit 111 11 L A .a & - -irA-- I A :w Af I ffll1 0

dig IL

enI I I 1 11 J -1

J L

a

--7C,

4eo

2

I-

89

context of a whole texture rather than in a distinct me-

lodic line. Vivaldi's melodic treatment also includes the

use of binary and ternary rhythmic patterns within the

framework of a four-beat measure, so that, in general, he

is less tied down to the bar line than Corelli.

In regard to the length of themes, O III exhibits

a wider range, extending from themes of a few measures in

length to ones of long periods of breadth. And to reit-

erate, Vivaldi's themes play a more decisive role in re-

lation to the structure of the entire movement.

Concerning orchestration, the concerti grossi of Vi-

valdi are much more advanced than those of Corelli. Dur-

ing the preceding pages dealing with Corelli's use of the

concertino, it has been noted that hardly ever is there a

structural distinction made between the two bodies of

sound. Corelli's solo parts do not differ in any essential

feature from those he gives to the ripieno instruments.

In Op_ III, not only is this structural distinction prac-

tically always maintained, but there is a more complete

independence among instruments of both groups, and a dis-

tinct feeling for solo effects. Vivaldi also uses devices

of orchestration that are completely foreign to Corelli.

In fact, much of the credit generally attributed to the

Mannheim school as the source of orchestral effects may

very well be transferred to Vivaldi in view of the illus-

tration on the following page.

90

II

Viol.

III

I\v

toe

$ArvA*%.

Am v3waI A>L

Fig. 29--Excerpt from the "Larghetto" of Vivaldi'sconcerto number 10 showing orchestral effect.

The above musical excerpt is completely devoid of a melod-

ic pattern. Rather, it is merely a series of superimposed

chords arpeggiated and articulated in four different ways.

The result is a shimmering harmonic effect, uncommon and

totally modern for the period.

Another device, absent in Corelli but used quite of-

ten by Vivaldi, is the unison setting. It produces a dra-

matic effect and reveals the operatic influence present in

Vivaldi's concerti. An example of the unison setting can

be seen in Figure 30 on page 91.

Such devices as the pizzicato and tremelo were also

used by Vivaldi, but they appear in works composed later

91

Viol. I

Fig. 30--Excerpt from the "Largo"t of Vivaldi's con-certo number 1 showing the unison setting.

than _Opus III. But Vivaldi's talent for orchestrating is

apparent through all of ,p0u Ill. Regarding orchestral

combinations, arrangement, and proportioning of various

timbres, there is a greater freedom and flexibility pre-

sent in Vivaldi's Opu I. And whereas Corelli very sel-

com goes beyond the third position on the violin, Vivaldi

extends considerably the range of the instrument, occa-

sionally up to the eighth position.

Conclusion

The concerti gross of Vivaldi are in all spheres of

composition more progressive than those of Corelli. Corel-

Ii's concerti grossi were the models of the new genre and

served as a point of departure for other composers. With

Vivaldi, Handel, and Bach, the form reached its peak of

development, and with the rise of sonata form it was dis-

carded as a normal musical vehicle.

ME

'10 A

I ME A

92

Corelli was the link between two musical epochs: the

polyphony of the seventeenth century and the melodic eman-

cipation of the eighteenth. Although he was not an inno-

vator, his art was the refining of all the instrumental

resources at his disposal.

... the epithet of "genius" traditionally associatedwith Corelli's name undoubtedly has not quite thesame connotation as when ascribed to a Vivaldi or aBach. It does not imply the same high soaring; but

instead a constant perfection, a volu4ary moderation,and an exemplary sense of proportion.

Vivaldi occupies an equally important position in the

history of music. He played a vital part in the tran-

sition from the late Baroque to the early Classical style

and his dramatic conception of the role of the soloist

paved the way for the Classical concerto.

14Pincherle, Corelli, p. 186.

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Hutchings, Arthur, The Baroque Concerto, New York,W. W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1961.

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Radcliffe, Philip, "Arcangelo Corelli and Antonio Vival-di, 1? The Heritage of Music, Vol. III, (3 volumes),London, Oxford University Press, 1951.

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Smith, Leo, Music in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Cen-turies, London, J. M. Dent and Sons, 1931.

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95

Articles

Berger, Jean, "Notes on Some Seventeenth Century Compo-

sitions for Trumpet and Strings in Bologna," The Mu-sical Quartery, XXXVII (July, 1951), 354-367.

Boyden, D., "The Violin and its Technique in the Eight-

eenth Century," The Musical Quarterly, XXXVI (Janu-ary, 1950), 9-38.

"When is a Concerto not a Concerto?" The Mu-

sical Quarterly, XLIII (April, 1957), 220-232.

Deas, Stewart, "Arcangelo Corelli," Music and Letters,XXXIV (January, 1953), 1-10.

Evans, P. A., "Seventeenth Century Chamber Music Manu-

scripts at Durham," Music and Letters, XXXVI (July,1955), 205-223.

Hawkins, Sir John, "The General History and Peculiar Char-acter of the Works of Arcangelo Corelli," UniversalMagazine of Knowledge and Pleasure, LX (April, 1777),418.

Meyer, E. H., "Form in the Instrumental Music of the Sev-

enteenth Century," Proceedins of the Musical Asso-ciation, Sixty-Fifth Session (January, 1939), 45-61.

Mishkin, H. G. "The Solo Violin Sonata of the Bologna

School," The Musical Quarterly, XXIX (January, 1943),92-112.

Newman, W. S., "The Sonatas of Albinoni and Vivaldi,"Journal of the American Musicological Society, VTSummer,~1952,99-113.

Pincherle, Marc, "Vivaldi and the Ospitali of Venice,"The Musical Quarterly, XXIV (October, 1938), 300-312.

Encyclopedia Articles

Apel, Willi, "Baroque," Harvard Dictionary of Music, Cam-

bridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press,1962.

"Concerto," Harvard Dictionary of Music, Cam-

bridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press,1962.

96

"Baroque," Webster's New World Dictionary fthe AmericanLanguage, College Edition, Cleveland, The World Pub-lishing Co., 1962.

Rudge, Olga, "Vivaldi," Grove's Dictionary of Music andMusicians, edited by Eric Blom, 5th ed., Vol. IX, NewYork, St. Martins Press, 1954.

Music Scores

Corelli, Arcangelo, Concerto Grosso in D, Op. 6, No. 1,edited by Th. W. Werner, London, Schott & Co. Ltd.,1929.

Concerto Grosso _. 6 No. 2, F Major,edited by Waldemar Woehl, New York, C. F. Peters Cor-poration, 1937.

Concerto Grosso No. 3, C Minor, editedby Alfred Einstein, Leipzig, Ernst Eulenburg, 1933.

Concerto Grosso _. 6 No. 4, D Major,edited by Waldemar Woehl, New York, C. F. Peters Cor-poration, 1937.

Concerto Grosso 9J2 6 _No. 5, B-FlatMajor, edited by Waldemar Woehl, New York, C. F. Pe-ters Corporation, 1937.

edited byporation,

edited byporation,

by Alfred

by Alfred1933.

edited byporation,

- Concerto Grosso _. 6 No. 6, F Major,Waldemar Woehl, New York, C. F. Peters Cor-1937.

Concerto Grosso Q . 6 No.7, D MajorWaldemar Woehl, New York, C. F. Peters Cor-1937.

-M Concerto Grosso No. 8, G Minor, editedEinstein, Leipzig, Ernst Eulenburg, 1926.

Concerto Grosso No. 9, F Major, editedEinstein, London, Ernst Eulenburg, Ltd.,

Concerto Grosso QO. 6 No. 10, C Major,Waldemar Woehl, New York,~C.~F. Peters Cor-1937.

97

Corelli, Arcangelo, Concerto Grosso . 6 No. 12, F Major,edited by Waldemar Woehl, New York, C. F. Peters Cor-poration, 1937.

Vivaldi, Antonio, Concerto Grosso 3 _No. 2, G Major,edited by Sam. Baud-Bovy, Leipzig, Ernst Eulenburg,1936.

Concerto for String-Orchestra, _O.No. 8 (P. 2), A Minor, edited by Sam Franko, NewYork, G. Schirmer, 1909.

Concerto Grosso 2.3 No. 10, B Minor,edited by Alfred Einstein, Leipzig, Ernst Eulenburg,n. d.

Concerto Grosso .3 No. 11, D Minor,edited by Alfred Einstein, Leipzig, Ernst Eulenburg,n. d.

L'Estro Armonico, Opera Terza, LibroPrimo, Amsterdam, Estienne Roger and Michel CharlesLe Cene, (1710? (microfilm - Library of Congress).

L'Estro Armonico, Opera Terza, LibroSecondo, Amsterdam, Estienne Roger and Michel CharlesLe Cene, (1710?] (microfilm - Library of Congress).

Documents

A COMPARISON OF FORMAL AND STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES …/67531/metadc... · A COMPARISON OF FORMAL AND STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES IN THE CONCERTI GROSSI OF CORELLI'S OPUS VI AND VIVALDI'S