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A comparison of alpha brainwave entrainment, with and without musical

accompaniment.

Cormac Doherty

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the BA Hons Degree in Psychology at

DBS School of Arts, Dublin.

Supervisor: Dr. Jonathan Murphy

Head of Department: Dr. Patricia Frazer

March 2014

Department of Psychology

DBS School of Arts

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Table of Contents:

Acknowledgements 4

Abstract 5

1. Introduction 6

1.1 Electrical activity in the human brain 8

1.2 Isochronic tones, Binaural beats and selection 10

1.3 Previous research on BWE and psychological outcome 12

1.4 PANAS and Audio comfort 15

1.5 Music, Mood and effects on temporary disposition 16

1.6 Rationale 17

1.7 Hypotheses 19

2. Method 22

2.1 Participants 22

2.2 Design 22

2.3 Apparatus 22

2.4 Materials 23

2.5 Procedure 25

3 Results 26

3.1 Shapiro-Wilk data and distribution 27

3.2 EEG Frequency, BWE with and without musical accompaniment 29

3.3 PANAS (Positive Affect) 30

3.4 PANAS (Negative Affect) 31

3.5 Comfort of Audio 32

4. Discussion 33

4.1 Comparison with previous research 33

4.2 The importance of carrier pitch with Isochronic tones 35

4.3 Advantages and Disadvantages 37

4.4 Future therapeutic and recreational possibilities of BWE 37

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References 39

Appendices 43

Appendix A: Consent Form 43

Appendix B: PANAS Questionnaire 44

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Acknowledgments:

Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Jonathan Murphy for his time, guidance and

professionalism throughout the process. Secondly, I would like to thank Michael Nolan for

his assistance and support using the biofeedback lab. I also extend my gratitude to all the

participants for their support.

I dedicate this work to my father, Bernard.

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Abstract:

Brainwave entrainment (BWE) studies have measured the effectiveness of manipulating

brainwave frequencies as an alternative to medicinal therapy. Isochronic tones are used to

entrain; through monotonous, repetitive, pulse like qualities. This study compared the

effectiveness of accompanying an isochronic tone with a musical composition; and an

isochronic tone only. In this double blinded experiment, participants (N=31) were

randomly assigned to a test group (musical composition with an isochronic tone) or

control group (isochronic tone only). Both groups were measured by EEG, and the

PANAS questionnaire was employed to measure mood. Data showed there was no

significant difference between achieving BWE with musical composition or isochronic

tone by itself; and pairing with music scored higher for comfort and positive affect.

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INTRODUCTION:

Alternative therapies and interventions such as mindfulness, flotation tanks and

brainwave entrainment (BWE) offer people the opportunity to achieve states of being that can

assist in perspective and peace of mind; both therapeutically and recreationally. In Wahbeh,

Elsas and Oken’s (2008) study on the merits of alternative therapies, they noted that “Mind–

body therapies are often implemented by patients because of the low physical and emotional

risk, the relatively low cost, and their ability to allow patients to take a more active role in

their treatment”(Wahbeh, Elsas and Oken, 2008). Furthermore, these interventions can

occupy a space as viable alternatives to medicinal based therapy, as has been evidenced in a

number of studies over the past decade (Siever, 2003; Siever and Berg, 2009; Ossebaard,

2000; Le Scouarenac, 2001). Entrainment is defined in physical systems as the process

whereby “two interacting oscillating systems assume the same period” (Zhuang, Zhao and

Tang, 2009). Brainwave entrainment employs audio-visual pulses delivered over a fixed

period of time to induce or entrain particular endogenous frequencies in the human brain

(Ossebaard, 2000). The frequency following activity correlates to the brains cortical evoked

response (CER); when the brain encounters an exogenous stimulus, it matches, or evokes an

internal, endogenous frequency response (Thut, Schyns and Gross, 2011).

The current study looked at the effectiveness of audio entrainment with a single,

evenly spaced pulse; an isochronic tone (Manns, 1981) and compared this when the tone was

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accompanied with a musical composition. There were a number of reasons why this should

be investigated: the ability to place these pulses (or tones) below a musical composition

provides an alternative aspect to entrainment; the saliency of the tone is greatly reduced. The

monotony of listening to a single tone for a 40 or 60 minute session could be diminished if

the listener could place the tone below a musical composition. Furthermore, to the best of the

current researcher’s knowledge, there has not been an investigation into using a musical

composition when paired with an Isochronic tone for entrainment purposes. In addition to

this, there is the ability to make this treatment more accessible for its clients; offering the

ability to place the tones beneath compositions of their choosing, on a portable audio device.

The ability for an individual to participate in actively exploring and altering their

consciousness through BWE, was seen as a tertiary interest to the present study.

Measurements of the participants cortical activity was made by EEG. This study

further employed the PANAS (positive and negative affect schedule) questionnaire (Watson,

Clark and Tellegen, 1988) to assess how participants felt after the entrainment experience;

their mood and/or psychological outcome. PANAS was selected for its reliability and ease of

use. Finally, the question was asked if the participants of the study “found the audio

experience comfortable or uncomfortable” in order to establish an aesthetic comparison

between isochronic tone, and the tone with musical composition.

The next subsections of the introduction will cover: the nature of EEG and

endogenous brainwave activity; the different frequencies and the corresponding states of

being. The second section will look at the most common audio frequencies of induction;

Isochronic tones and Binaural beats. The third section will focus on areas of previous

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research with respect to therapeutic and recreational outcome. Sections four and five will

look at the PANAS questionnaire, music and its effects on mood or temporary disposition.

The final section will focus on the rationale for the present study and its potential use or

contribution.

1.1 Electrical activity in the human brain:

Historically, Hans Berger’s (1924) study on neural oscillations brought about his

invention of the EEG (electroencephalogram) a device that can measure the brains electrical

activity. Each neuron produces an electrical charge, and the billions of neurons that make up

the brain produce waves of frequency; electrical activity (Tudor, 2005). The EEG has the

ability to measure and reflect the electrical activity of synchronous neuronal behaviour; and

these frequencies are banded into distinct groups: Beta, Alpha, Theta and Delta (Siever, 2003;

Zhuang, 2013). Each grouping corresponds with a particular frequency range, which in turn

correlates to specific state of being (see Figure 1.1.1). Beta wave frequencies (ranging 13-38

Hz) are associated with waking, alert consciousness. Alpha wave frequencies in the human

brain, (ranging between 8-12Hz) are associated with relaxed states or relaxed wakefulness.

Theta waves (3 - 8 Hz) correspond with drowsy, meditative responses, or light sleep. Delta

waves (ranging 0.2- 3 Hz) are associated with deep sleep. Evidence suggests (Ossebaard,

2000; Siever, 2003; Berg and Will, 2007) that when presented with a stimulus within a

specific brainwave frequency range, occipital, parietal and temporal lobes display a

frequency following or entrainment. These areas of the brain either resonate that of the

stimulus or enter within areas of sub-harmonic frequency. Patterson and Capel’s (1983) study

found that different neurotransmitters were triggered by different frequencies and wave

forms. Their use of a 10Hz BWE signal increased serotonin production, leading to their

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conclusion that "Each brain centre generates impulses at a specific frequency, based on the

predominant neurotransmitters it secretes" (Patterson and Capel, 1983). A study by Berg and

Will (2007) demonstrated how different brainwave frequencies correlated to different

perceptual and cognitive states. Siever and Berg (2009) also noted how brainwaves have been

shown to synchronise to external stimuli within brainwave frequency ranges in a

phenomenon called brainwave entrainment (BWE). The reports from Charyton and Huang’s

(2008) comprehensive review of brainwave entrainment measured 20 studies and

entrainments uses as a tool for affecting psychological outcomes of the participants; as an

alternative to medicinal interventions.

Beta 12Hz-38Hz Wide awake state

Alpha 8 Hz-12Hz Awake but relaxed.

Theta 3Hz-8Hz Light sleep or extreme relaxation.

Delta 0.2Hz-3Hz Deep, dreamless sleep.

Fig.1.1.1: Brainwaves and corresponding states of mind (Siever, 2003)

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1.2 Isochronic Tones, Binaural beats and selection:

There are number of manipulations of audio frequency that are employed with BWE. The

most commonly applied of these are Isochronic tones and Binaural beats. An early study in

this area (Manns, 1981) noted the entrainment capabilities of Isochronic tones; a tone of

regular interval and frequency, providing a monotonous, pulse like effect (see Figure 1.2.1).

“The effect excites the thalamus and causes a frequency following response, where the brain

internally recreates the frequency and this re-shapes the level of conscious awareness”

(Siever, 2003). This point being conducive with Patterson and Capels observations (1983) of

the brains cortical evoked response.

The more established of the two methods of induction, with respect to the number of

studies researched, are Binaural beats. Padmanabhan, Hildreth and Laws (2005) measured

BWE with binaural beats (see Figure 1.2.2) stating:

“They are produced within the brain in response to two similar pure tones being presented

separately to each ear. The rhythm of the binaural beat equals the difference between the two

tones and, if sustained, this rhythm can be entrained throughout the brain. The frequency of

the binaural beat can thus be selected to produce particular EEG-associated states”

(Padmanabhan et al. 2005).

The Binaural beat is created through stereo response (left and right).For example, two

altering frequencies, 100 Hz in the left ear and 90 Hz in the right ear would create a 10 Hz

Binaural frequency in the brain.

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The reasoning for selecting an isochronic tone over a binaural beat in the current

study was that, the isochronic tone is implicit within the specified frequency, it is not subject

to the perceptual effect; that is, the brain is not generating the effect. The exogenous

isochronic tone triggers the brains frequency following patterns; rather than the perceptive

creation of the binaural frequency. This means that even if headphones were not employed,

the Isochronic tone could activate BWE.

Fig.1.2.1: ISOCHRONIC TONE

Fig.1.2.2: BINAURAL BEAT

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1.3 Previous research on BWE on psychological outcome:

Audio-visual stimuli presented either in tandem or separately, are used regularly in

brainwave entrainment studies and neuro-therapies (Siever, 2003) as an alternative to

medication. These stimuli are presented as pulses at regular intervals; waveforms of light

and/or sound. Previous studies (Calabreses, Wahbleh and Zwickey, 2007; Siever and

Berg,2009; Ossebard,2000; Siever,2003; Padmanabhan, Hildreth and Laws; 2005; Le

Scouarenac, 2001; Berg and Will, 2007; Patterson and Capel, 1983) in BWE and AVE, have

selected either isochronic tones or binaural beats as the method of induction.

A comprehensive review of twenty studies on BWE (Charyton and Huang, 2008),

compiled data of experiments that had employed isochronic tones, binaural beats and also

photic (visual) induction. Of that selection it was noted that “seventeen (of the) studies were

developed to confirm or challenge a hypothesis that a specific frequency or protocol would

have a beneficial effect on a specific outcome” (Charyton and Huang, 2008). The studies

focused on areas of cognition, mood, pain, headaches (migraines), behavioural problems

(ADHD), and attention. The length of the sessions ranged from 0.5 seconds to 60 minutes,

and the length from studies ranged from single sessions, to 12 week periods. The design of

these studies ranged from paired samples (before and after, test/re-test) to independent

between group measurements.

One previous study (Calabreses, Wahbleh and Zwickey, 2007) on eight adult

participants across a 60 day intervention of binaural beat BWE, investigated both

psychological and physiological factors. The psychological aspects measured were

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Depression (Beck Depression Inventory-2), Anxiety (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory), Mood

(Profile of Mood States), Absorption (Tellegen Absorption Scale) and quality of Life (World

Health Organization-Quality of Life Inventory) (Calbrese et.al, 2007). The resulting data

showed a statistically significant decrease in trait anxiety and an increase in quality of life.

The physiological aspects measured serotonin and dopamine levels, and found a significant

reduction in the neuromodulators in stress responses from pre to post experiment (Calbrese et

al. 2007). They concluded that Binaural beat technology may exhibit positive effect on self-

reported psychologic measures, in particular anxiety.

With respect to Padmanabhan et al’s. (2005) study, Binaural beats were used in

conjunction with an audio piece to examine their effectiveness in pre-operative anxiety. They

used a pre-existing BWE software and audio (Holosync) and administered this to 35 patients.

Results from this experiment concluded “that binaural beat audio has the potential to produce

anxiolysis in many preprocedural hospital settings in which pharmacological sedation is

undesirable” (Padmanabhan et al.,2005). It is unknown what the choice of song was for this

research and the potential priming / associative effects this could have on the participants.

Furthermore, there is no mention of carrier pitch; the pitch of the binaural beats themselves.

A carrier pitch is the pitch designated to the Isochronic tone or Binaural beat itself.

Siever and Berg’s (2009) study used AVE (audio-visual entrainment) with Isochronic

tones as an alternative to drug-dependent therapies for treatment of ADD (attention deficit

disorder) and SAD (seasonal affective disorder). Their four week study utilised AVE for

people suffering from SAD. Their particular experiment utilised a 1Hz AVE placebo for the

first 2 weeks and compared this with 2 weeks of the test condition at 20 Hz AVE. Results

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from the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory showed that a 20Hz AVE treatment condition reduced

stress and anxiety of 74 individuals participating (Siever and Berg, 2009). In their earlier

study (1999) over a 2 month period, they found Isochronic AVE sessions significantly

reduced fatigue and anxiety in women suffering from Fibromyalgia Syndrome (FMS). By

comparing three different methods of treatment: medicinal, nutritional and AVE, it was found

that “the AVE Group, in the combination of all three comparative treatments, lowered

anxiety, pain and fatigue the most” (Siever and Berg, 1999).

Ossebaards (2000) study looked at the effectiveness of 8-12 Hz alphawave

entrainment on stress reduction and anxiety with employees at a Dutch addiction care centre.

They noted the that “subjects showed a significant and immediate decrease in State-Trait

anxiety as assessed by Spielbergers State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and reported a range of

subjective effects” (Ossebard,2000).

Transcorp (Transparent Corporation), established in 2003, Columbus, Ohio, provides

bio and neuro-feedback software, as well as providing peer reviewed research, both academic

and clinical. Adam Hewett, director at Transcorp, states the purpose of their research, and

their making available of BWE home software, is to “allow people to easily benefit from

brainwave stimulation to achieve everyday goals like feeling more relaxed or being better

able to concentrate, or big goals like making real personal and cognitive changes towards a

better life”.

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In consideration of mind- body therapies, such as mindfulness, flotation tanks and

holistic approaches, there are now a number of studies that have investigated, and are

continuing to investigate, the use of BWE as an alternative to medicinal therapeutic

interventions. These are niche markets comparative to mainstream therapeutic practices such

as CBT (Cognitive Behavioural Therapy), ACT (Acceptance and Commitment Therapy),

Psychoanalytic psychotherapy and Psychiatry, however BWE can occupy a position as a

scientifically testable alternative to medicinal therapy (Siever, 2003; Siever and Berg, 2009;

Ossebaard, 2000; Le Scouarenac, 2001) and have potential to be further utilised for

recreational or home activity.

1.4 PANAS and audio comfort

The PANAS questionnaire was selected for its internal reliability and consistency “the

PANAS scales provide reliable, precise, and largely independent measures of Positive Affect

and Negative Affect, regardless of the subject population studied or the time frame and

response format used” (Watson, Clark and Tellegen, 1988) to capture the psychological

outcome for each participant.

A short test that is easy to administer, the PANAS questionnaire lists 20 words; each

word corresponding to a mood or feeling. A lexicon of 10 words associated with positive

affect (e.g “Inspired” “Interested” “Active”) and 10 associated with negative affect (e.g

“Anxious” “Ashamed” “Nervous”). Each positive and negative word is rated by each

participant, by selecting how strongly they feel about that word /mood with reference to the

present moment, or the past week. PANAS provides a numerical rating scale ranging from:

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Very slightly /Not at All: 1, A Little: 2, moderately: 3, Quite a bit: 4 to extremely: 6 to which

participants rate the mood or feeling. By totalling the scores, higher scores in positive affect

represent positive psychological outcome, and high scores in negative affect represent

negative psychological outcome.

In addition to responses on psychological outcome, at the end of the questionnaire

there was an additional question asking participants how they would rate their audio

experience; “comfortable” or “uncomfortable”. Participants circled which word corresponded

to their audio experience.

1.5 Music, mood and effects temporary disposition

Music is well known for its emotional valence and ability for psychological,

physiological arousal (Gabrielsson, 2001; Sloboda and Juslin, 2001; Husain, Thompson and

Schellenberg, 2002).One study by Hussain, Thompson and Schellenberg (2002) looked at the

effects of mode and tempo on mood and arousal. Participants listened to one of four

renditions of a Mozart sonata. The four versions differed in tempo (speed of composition)

and the mode (major or minor key). From their results, they concluded that tempo had no

effect on mood, and mode had no effect on arousal, though conversely, mode did affect mood

and tempo did affect arousal (Hussain et al, 2002). A major chord is generally associated with

upbeat, positive feelings and conversely a minor chord is generally associated with downbeat,

negative feelings. The complexity of measuring human mood with music was duly noted in

Hussain et al’s 2002 study; although sad feelings can be elicited from minor keys, there can

also be a satisfaction that comes from finding minor chords aesthetically pleasing. In

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consideration of this, the composition used in the present study employed both major and

minor chord sequences; so as not to bias mood in one particular direction. For 3.5 minutes of

the composition a positive major scale in B flat was used, after which a new chord sequence

was introduced blending minor notes to the piece, for the remaining duration.

1.6 Rationale:

Of the 17 studies that comprised Charyton and Huangs (2008) review, only 3

measured BWE with reference to mood (Wahbeh, 2007; Ossebaard, 2000; Le Scouarenac,

2001). Of the 3 that measured mood, none employed a musical composition; rather, rain

sounds were used to reduce saliency of the isochronic tone. One important conclusion from

Le Scouarenacs (2001) study was “Future studies should account for music preference among

participants” this is further echoed in the comprehensive review “Studies are needed to

compare the effects of auditory, photic and AVE stimulation, and to compare the clinical

benefits of monaural, binaural and isochronic beats and the use of white noise vs. music as a

background” (Charyton and Huang, 2008). The last point of “comparing an isochronic tone

with music as a background” was foundational to the present study. The reasoning for the

current research is to compare the effects of BWE with and without a musical composition;

using an EEG as a quantitative measure, with a further measure of mood as psychological

outcome. If the effects of isochronic BWE are successful with a musical composition, this

could provide an alternative to those that wish to utilise this therapy. It uses could extend not

just to the therapeutic setting, but also recreationally, to enable people to layer compositions

of their choosing.

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Another aspect of the present study was the choice of musical composition. The

choice to create an original composition was done to avoid participant biasing; to use a song

from popular music (or any recorded genre) could immediately affect the participants mood if

in fact they were primed or had particular associations to that song (Hussain, Thompson and

Schellenberg, 2002). This is not to suggest this had been eliminated; how any piece of music

may affect an individual, rather it is thought to have reduced the composition as a primed

variable. In consideration of Padmanabhan et al’s, (2005) study which utilised pre-

programmed Binaural beats and audio, it is unknown what the choice of song was for this

research and the potential priming / associative effects this could have on the participants.

Popular sites and companies that provide home or recreational software such as Peak Genius

or Braintune lay claim that “None of the pre –recorded tracks contain music because this

interferes with the purity of the frequency” (Peak Genius, 2014). To the best of the current

studies knowledge, no research has established whether music has an impact on BWE, or to

what outcome, or what factors should be considered when attempting to blend Isochronic

tones with musical composition. Furthermore, there is no mention of carrier pitch, or the

pitch of the binaural beats themselves when blending with a composition. This was a felt to

be a critical point towards the end of the present research; none of previous studies that have

used music have mentioned the relationship between the pitch of the frequency and the pitch

of the musical compositions.

The present study used the alpha frequency range 8- 12hz on the basis that this range

is associated to calm, relaxed wakefulness “Alpha waves appear immediately and spread

throughout the cortex when you close your eyes, which is part of the relaxation process

leading to sleep”. (Charyton and Huang, 2008). To achieve BWE in the alpha range, a median

isochronic tone of 10Hz was created. By layering the isochronic tone within the musical

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composition, the tones saliency was greatly reduced from the audible experience. The

composition containing the isochronic tone had a run time of 7 minutes; the Brainwave

Research Institute, London, England states “Within 7 minutes, your brain goes from a Beta to

Alpha”. As a control a separate audio track was created; this was the isochronic tone in

isolation, with duration of 7 minutes. The nature of the composition was ambient in genre;

soft synth sounds, 90 BPM (beats per minute) and entirely instrumental. Quantitatively the

EEG was employed to measure the output of Beta to Alpha frequency for each participant.

The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) was selected to measure mood; to

establish if the participants would feel any different from the time before the experiment, to

the time after the experiment. Finally, an additional question was placed at the end of the

questionnaire to identify if the tone or composition were perceived as “comfortable or

uncomfortable”.

1.7 Hypotheses:

Previous studies (Le Scouarenac, 2001; Charyton and Huang, 2008; Padmanabhan et

al, 2005) within the area of BWE have raised questions regarding the potential effectiveness

of isochronic tones with music as background; the current study aims to investigate this

proposition. Given the pulse like quality of both Isochronic tones and Binaural beats and the

duration of existing therapeutic treatments of BWE, the ability to sit these frequencies below

a musical composition is thought to provide a less salient entrainment experience. The

existence of holistic treatments such as flotation tanks and mindfulness techniques suggests

there is a niche market amongst the public to pursue non-ordinary states for relaxation and

recreation. Therapeutically, studies by Siever (2003); Ossebaard (2000); Padmanabhan (2005)

have shown how those suffering from depression and mild autism have responded to BWE,

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the advantage of this study could make BWE more compatible and accessible to people that

identify with this intervention.

(H 1A). It is hypothesised that the isochronic tone paired with the musical

composition will effectively achieve brainwave entrainment amongst the participants.

The previous studies (Wahbeh, 2007; Ossebaard, 2000; Le Scouarenac, 2001) that have

measured mood and BWE have not reported the effectiveness of BWE when paired with a

musical composition. Furthermore, in the present study there is the potential to reduce the

saliency of the tone itself could be used for therapeutic advantage (Siever, 2003; Charyton

and Huang, 2008).

(H 1B). It is hypothesised that those participants exposed to isochronic tone with

composition will have a stronger positive psychological outcome on PANAS questionnaire

than those with tone.

Music’s ability to affect temporary disposition has been noted in studies by Husain,

Thompson and Schellenberg (2002); this hypothesis will examine if the musical composition

had an effect on the participants’ mood during BWE. Previous studies have used Binaural

compositions as a carrier of the tone, however it has not been identified what effect this may

have on the participant. Furthermore, no reference has been made to the scale of the

compositions used in past research.

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(H 1C). It is hypothesised that participants will perceive the isochronic tone paired

with musical composition as a comfortable audio experience, compared to participants who

listen to the isochronic tone in isolation.

The ability to place the tone beneath a musical composition is thought to appeal more to the

listener than the isochronic tone itself. The tone in isolation can be perceived as a

monotonous, pulse like sound (Mann,1981). By layering beneath the composition, the tone’s

saliency is greatly diminished.

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Method:

2.1 Participants

In total, 31 people took part in the study (M=18, F=13). A random sampling method

was employed. Ages ranged from 28 to 64. Participants were emailed and contacted through

social media sites requesting their participation in the experiment. The message advised the

participants the experiment involved an EEG machine, a seven minute audio piece and a

questionnaire; with the total time taking no longer than 20 minutes. As a precaution, those

taking part were advised that if they suffered from tinnitus or idiopathic partial epilepsy, they

may wish to avoid participation. As a necessary deception, participants were not made aware

of the presence of the isochronic tones, BWE or the randomised condition. This was to

reduce participant bias to potential BWE effects.

2.2 Design

The study used a true experimental design that was between groups and double-

blinded. The research variables were positive psychological outcome on the PANAS

questionnaire and comfort of audio experience (dependent variables) and brainwave

entrainment with and without musical composition (independent variables).

2.3 Apparatus:

Adinstruments MLAEC1 EEG cap and Adinstruments MLAE11 electro gel were used

to capture brainwave activity. Adinstruments Labchart v8 and Adinstruments Powerlab 26/T

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were used in conjunction with dual Compaq microtower computers and monitors to create the

randomised experimental conditions (composition or tone) and for recording the brainwave

activity. Labchart Reader V8.0 was used to review the mean EEG results for participants of

both conditions, these items were provided by Dublin Business School and experiment

delivered at the colleges bio feedback lab. The PANAS questionnaire was retrieved from:

http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780123745170/Chapter%203/Chapter_3_Worksheet_3.1.pdf

JVC HA-5600 headphones were employed to deliver the tone and composition. The free

audio software Audacity 2.0.5 was used to create the isochronic tone. Music production

software Ableton 5.0 was used to record the composition, master and mix the tone. Each

participant completed a consent form and the PANAS questionnaire, pens -BIC grip 1.0-

were also provided. IBM PASW 20 (SPSS) was used to compile and analyse statistical data.

2.4 Materials:

An isochronic tone is defined as “a single tone with evenly spaced intervals” (Siever,

2009; Manns, 1981). Using the audio software program Audacity 2.0.5, a single tone was

generated for a period of 0.05 seconds; this was then followed by silence for the same length

or duration. By repeating this process of generating a tone, followed by a silent interval,

on/off for 7 minutes 25 seconds, an evenly spaced isochronic tone is created. The pitch of the

tone was selected at 466.16Hz (b flat), the root note of the musical composition. The

isochronic was then saved as a WAV. tone.

2.1.2 A 10Hz Isochronic tone from Audacity

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The original composition was composed using the Ableton 5.0 audio production suite;

the track duration was 7 minutes 25 seconds. The root note or key of the track was b flat. The

track itself employed, minimalist, ambient synth sounds at 90 BPM. Once this had been

recorded and mastered; the WAV. tone was placed below the mastered track. The volume of

the tone steadily increased within the first 20 seconds of the audio track, so that its saliency

was intact.

A.D instruments EEG machine and powerlab software were employed to measure

participants brainwaves. With the EEG cap, the nodes at the temples were used to focus on

brainwaves from the frontal lobes. The powerlab test was created to randomise one of two

possible conditions from the time participants press the spacebar: to play the isochronic tone,

or, to play the musical composition with the isochronic tone.

To measure and evaluate the psychological impact the tone and composition had on

each participant, the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) questionnaire was utilised.

PANAS was selected for its “internal consistency, and excellent convergent and discriminant

correlations” (Watson, Clark and Tellegen, 1988), as well as it ease to administer, and

relatively short turnaround time for completion with each participant.

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2.5 Procedure

The experiment took place at Dublin Business School’s biofeedback room on

Tuesday evenings between 5:45pm and 7:30pm and on Saturday mornings from 9:00am until

1:00pm. On arrival participants were first requested to sign a consent form. The form advised

that the use of the EEG machine had been explained to them, that anonymity would remain

intact and that withdrawal from the experiment could occur at any point from the start of the

experiment, and up to two weeks after involvement.

The EEG cap was placed on the participants head, and the earth wire clipped to their

ear. For improved conductivity, electro gel was syringed into the frontal-temple nodes. The

EEG feed began once the participants were seated by the EEG machine. There were two

computers, one monitor showing the EEG feed and the other delivering the instruction to

commence the experiment. Before commencement, participants were told that they could

keep their eyes open or closed for the duration of the audio recording. On the researcher’s

instruction, participants were asked to follow the screen instruction to “press the spacebar”.

Participants were then requested to signal a “thumbs up” when they heard audio. The

researcher then left the room for the 7 minutes 20 second audio duration. On return to the lab

room, the researcher requested the participants to remove the EEG cap and move to an

adjacent desk to complete the PANAS questionnaire. Once the questionnaire had been

completed and handed over, the researcher commenced debriefing. The average time for the

experiment per participant was 15 minutes. Debriefing began by explaining the double

blinded aspect of the experiment, the two possible conditions, an explanation of BWE and

isochronic tones; their therapeutic and recreational possibilities, and the justification of the

deception. The deception was employed to avoid both participant and experimenter bias; that

to be aware of the possibilities of BWE prior to listening to the audio may affect the

participant’s response; and the researcher choosing what participants were listening to.

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Results:

This first test of data analysis was to establish descriptive statistics, the normality of

the distribution, with assumptions considered on each test variable. A visual check on the

histogram and Q-Q plot confirmed the approximate normality on EEG and PANAS Data. The

test variables for SPSS readout:

EEG - mean frequency reading per participant in the alpha range, 8-12Hz. POSTOT (Total

positive affect scores on PANAS). NEGTOT (Total negative affect scores on PANAS).

COMF (comfort of audio; comfortable / uncomfortable). Table 1 shows descriptive Statistics

for the variables.

Table 1 Descriptive Statistics for Variables

Variable Group N Mean Standard Deviation

EEG(Hz) Comp Tone

19 12

9.46 9.55

.183 .151

POSTOT Comp Tone

19 12

32.21 28.17

7.92 9.71

NEGTOT Comp Tone

19 12

20.74 21.17

3.26 5.52

COMF Comp Tone

19 12

1.05 1.50

.229 .522

27

3.1 Shapiro- Wilk data and distribution

A Shapiro Wilk test confirmed that the data was approximately normally distributed

for scores of both positive (POSTOT) and negative (NEGTOT) affect with reference to BWE

conditions COMP (composition) and TONE.

The skewness for POSTOT /COMP being -0.264 (SE =.524) and kurtosis -1.514

(SE=1.014) and the skewness of NEGTOT /COMP being -.167 (SE= .524) with kurtosis

being .592 (SE=1.014). The skewness for POSTOT /TONE was .043 (SE= .637) with

kurtosis value -.105 (SE=1.232), and for NEGTOT /TONE skewness being -.472 (SE= .637)

with kurtosis being -.959 (SE= 1.232).

With these variables assumptions met, an independent-samples t-test was conducted

to compare PANAS results with BWE COMP group and BWE TONE group. The secondary

rationale for the independent t-test was to compare the EEG frequency readings of BWE with

TONE, to BWE with COMP. Due to the comfort of audio (COMF) variable not meeting

parametric criterion; this variable was measured using a Mann Whitney U test.

28

Table 2 represents an Independent Samples T-test, displaying the differences between, EEG readout, PANAS results for the TONE and COMP groups.

Variables Groups Mean SD t df p

POSTOT TONE 28.17 9.713 1.269 29 .215

COMP 32.21 7.920

NEGTOT TONE 21.17 5.524 -.273 15.91(adj) .810

COMP 20.74 3.263

EEG TONE 9.558 .1519070 -1.488 29 .147

COMP 9.463 .1836977

3.2 EEG frequency, BWE with and without musical accompaniment

Hypothesis (1A) of the current study was to establish whether BWE was effective

with a musical accompaniment. To measure this, the spectrum analyser function in LabChart

reader was used to search for active frequencies in the alpha range for both groups (8-12Hz).

The mean results of both groups were then compared. The independent t test found there was

not a significant difference in the frequency scores for BWE in the alpha range with TONE

(M=9.558500, SD=.1519070) and BWE with COMP (M=9.463291, SD=.1836977)

conditions; t (29) =-1.49, p =0.147. These results suggested that BWE is equally effective in

both conditions; isochronic tone with musical accompaniment and without musical

accompaniment. This result was thought to have satisfied the first hypothesis.

29

Figure 1 shows Mean EEG (Hz) between the 2 groups

~ w w o " • ~

CompTone

30

3.3 PANAS (Positive Affect):

To evaluate the psychological outcome on both of the groups, the results from the

PANAS were entered into SPSS and totalled by Positive affect (POSTOT) and Negative

affect (NEGTOT). The other hypothesis of the current study was to propose that those that

listened to the musical composition would score higher in the positive affect than those that

listened to the tone. The independent t test found there was not a significant difference in the

positive affect scores for COMP group (M=32.21, SD=7.920) and TONE group (M=28.17,

SD=9.713) conditions; t (29) =1.27, p =.215. This result failed to satisfy the second

hypothesis, though suggested positive affect was increased in both groups.

Figure 2 represents positive affects scores between the two groups

31

3.4 PANAS (Negative Affect):

Levene’s equality showed p=0.03 on the independent –t test; therefore assumptions

needed to be corrected. A Mann-Whitney U was employed and showed that mean rank for

negative affect scores in TONE group was higher, though not statistically significant different

from negative affect scores for COMP group where U(29) = 99.50 , Z=-.592 , p = >0.05

Figure 3 represents negative affect scores from the two groups:

32

3.5 COMFORT OF AUDIO:

The final hypothesis (1C) in the present study proposed that the test group exposed to

the tone with musical accompaniment would rate their audio experience as comfortable in

comparison to the group that listened to the tone. A Mann Whitney U test returned a

statistically significant difference in how the groups perceived the comfort of the audio they

listened to, with the TONE group scoring higher with the “Uncomfortable” rating where

U(29)=63.00, z=-2.28, p=.039. This result was thought to have satisfied the third hypothesis.

Figure 3 showing COMP scoring higher for comfort overall

33

Discussion:

The aim of the present study was to compare alpha brainwave entrainment with and

without musical accompaniment. Statistically, BWE with or without musical accompaniment

yielded no difference in the two conditions; that alpha wave entrainment was active when the

10 Hz isochronic tone was situated below a musical composition. The data results from the

PANAS questionnaire statistically reflected an overall positive affect for both conditions;

with and without musical accompaniment. The participant perception of their audio

experience suggested that BWE with a musical composition was a comfortable audio

experience in contrast to the tone in isolation. This is thought to have built on the questioning

from Charyton and Huangs (2008) comprehensive review and Le Scourenacs (2001) study

with respect to pairing BWE with music, and is thought to be novel to this particular study.

4.1 Comparison with previous research

The present study was seemingly consistent with past research on the entrainment

capabilities of isochronic tones and positive affect on mood. Statistically, on the PANAS

questionnaire there was no significant difference between positive outcome results in both

conditions: Composition with tone (N=31, M=32.21) and tone by itself (N=31, M=28.17),

and furthermore positive affect scores were higher than negative affect for both conditions:

Composition with tone (negative) (N=31, M=20.74) and tone (negative) (N=31, M=21.17).

Comparatively, the present study gravitated toward the single session research on BWE and

mood state when drawing reference to resulting data. In Ossebaard‘s (2000) research on

workplace stress and BWE, there was an immediate reduction in anxiety when administering

34

a 10Hz Binaural beat, and using Spielbergers State trait anxiety scale for measurement. The

current studies high ratings on positive affect after a 7 minute exposure to a 10Hz Isochronic

tone and isochronic tone with musical composition are thought to be conducive with

Ossebaards (2000) observation in the “short term pleasant effects of entrainment”.

Next, Le Scourenacs (2001) research looked at whether a group of 15 mildly anxious

people, exposed to a daily binaural beat session, for one month, would show a decrease in

anxiety and improvement in mood. The participants were given three tapes containing Theta

and Delta BWE beats. Their study noted that music accompanied these tones, though did not

specify genre, frequency or potential effect this may have on the participants. With respect to

measurement, participants kept a daily journal of how they felt after entrainment, also, the

researchers used Becks State-trait anxiety scoring. Listening to the daily 30 minute sessions

showed a significant reduction in anxiety by participants self-reporting, with perceived

anxiety dropping from 41.1% to 21.2%. Le Scourenacs (2001) conclusion made reference to

the choice of music for future studies, that genre or preference should be considered.

With regards Padmanabhan et al’s (2005) study, they used a 30 minute binaural beat

session to investigate the potential for stress reduction in pre-operative anxiety. A paired

samples, before and after BWE design was employed. The results were typical with Le

Scourenacs (2001), in so far as mean results for participant’s anxiety were approximately

halved on the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Again, their study made use of pairing an audio

piece with a binaural beat, though did not comment on the frequency, genre or effect this may

have on participants mood, noting “we did not extend the study to examine the impact of

35

anxiety levels on patient satisfaction, although it would be interesting to conduct such a

follow-up study”. (Padmanabhan et al, 2005).

Further research on Isochronic tones, PANAS and musical composition should look to

address mood state prior to BWE and compare with after BWE session to identify

differences. The current study did not take a baseline mood state, so comparison could not be

made prior to BWE. In light of this, the composition used in the present study started with in

a major key, and it cannot be ruled out that this contributed to participant’s scores on the

PANAS questionnaire; further studies should attempt to establish the mood of the participants

before and after entrainment with musical composition. It could be considered necessary for

future research to establish if different genres or frequency’s over-ride or excite the BWE

experience.

4.2 The importance of a carrier frequency with musical composition

Of the previous studies that have reviewed BWE and isochronic tones, none have

made reference to the pitch of the tone when attempting to bind with a musical composition.

A moderate understanding of musical theory would be desirable when attempting to create

and blend isochronic tones with a musical composition. It was apparent that the pitch chosen

to represent the tone, the carrier pitch, must be the root note of the composition, or a

derivative of the root note, a third or a fifth on the musical scale. A deviation or lack of

understanding of this, will result in harmonic dissonance; making an uncomfortable audio

experience for the listener. Harmonic dissonance is defined as “notes producing a harsh and

inharmonious sound; being at variance or disagreeing”. This can be conceived when we hear

36

singer or instrument out of key, the saliency of the dissonant pitch is amplified through its

difference to the other harmonious instruments or notes.

When creating an isochronic tone, the distance between tone and silent interval

creates the desired frequency; 0.05 sec tone, followed by 0.05 silent interval results in a 10Hz

isochronic tone. The pitch of this tone however, is how the listener will perceive it; the

isochronic tone must be an audible frequency to the listener.

If this was to be adopted into a therapeutic or recreational environment, those

administering the tone with a composition would need to know: the key of the musical

composition, and then the corresponding frequency of that note to employ an adequate carrier

frequency. Due to the composition being an original in the present study, the root note was a

known B flat; in turn the isochronic tone was then matched at B flat’s frequency, 466.16 Hz.

As well as avoiding harmonic dissonance, this further improves on reducing the saliency of

the tone itself. Given there is much home software available to create isochronic tones, from

companies such as Transcorp Inc, and a large number of user made isochronic tones and

binaural beats on popular sites such as Youtube, this point is a critical for making use of these

tones with a musical composition. One implication of using these tones on non- original

compositions would require, the listener having knowledge of the root note of each song they

wished to accompany with the tone, the known frequency of the corresponding root note, the

ability to create the tone for each song, and the software to place the tone below the mix of

the composition.

37

4.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of the present research:

The current study set out to examine if BWE was active with an Isochronic tone and

composition and compared this to an Isochronic tone in isolation. The data showed that this

was effective, and in scope with previous studies with respect to BWE in the alpha range and

short term positive effect on participants mood. It is felt the strongest contribution made was

the identification of carrier pitch for future studies to consider when attempting to blend with

a musical composition.

The disadvantages of this study were felt to be the lack of a baseline for measuring

mood. Given the scores on the PANAS questionnaire, it would have been beneficial to

compare the results of mood before and after the BWE. Furthermore, with more time and a

paired samples t-test, a comparison could have been made using two different genres of

music. The idea being, to see to what effect music and BWE complement or detract from

each other’s capabilities on participant’s mood.

4.4 Future therapeutic and recreational possibilities of BWE

Audio downloads for the purposes of BWE are becoming very popular. There are

presently upwards of 100 producers of “entraining” audio for relaxation, cognition, sleep,

performance, etc. (Siever, 2003). A recent study (Luangboriboon, Tantayanon and

Wongsawat, 2013) created a portable binaural entrainment device only 5X6X3 cm in size.

This utilises BWE possibilities by allowing the user to set a desired frequency. The device

then delivers binaural beats and “a PCM generated Binaural audio” (Luangboriboon, et. al,

2013). It was not noted in that study if the audio was thought to have any effect on the

38

participant’s mood, or what the pitch of the carrier frequencies was. The ability to create a

portable device that can deliver BWE frequencies has tremendous potential; therapeutic

sessions could be conducted from the comfort of the listener’s home, or journey to work.

Following from the current study, it is clear that pitch plays an important role when

pairing with BWE frequencies with an audio composition. If there was a way to for a portable

device to identify the frequency of the incoming song and then generate the correct

isochronic tone and pitch, BWE could become as accessible as listening to music on an

IPOD. This is not as radical as it may sound; there is existing software that can identify audio

frequency from the incoming signal. The “Quiztones” app was designed to assist sound

engineers identify frequencies from incoming audio. If this could be merged with

Luangboriboon, et. al’s (2013) device, and a portable music device like an IPOD it is

conceivable a prototype of this concept could be developed.

The benefits of BWE have shown both short term or temporary change in mood and

anxiety (Ossebaard, 2000; Calabreses, Wahbleh and Zwickey, 2007), as well as long term

changes (Siever, 2003; Siever and Berg 1999; Le Scourenac, 2001).Furthermore, as research

grows, new and novel ways to utilise BWE are becoming more apparent, such as stress

reduction in pre-operative anxiety, attention deficit disorder, depression and portable Binaural

generating devices. The ease at which these methods of induction can be created or

developed, contributes to making BWE an accessible, cost effective alternative to medicinal

therapy.

39

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Appendix A:

Consent Form

I………………………………………agree to participate in Cormac Doherty’s research study.

The purpose and nature of the study has been explained to me verbally.

I am participating voluntarily.

I give permission for my EEG reading and questionnaire to be used.

I understand that I can withdraw from the study, without repercussions, at any time, whether

before it starts or while I am participating.

I understand that I can withdraw permission to use the data within two weeks of the

interview, in which case the material will be deleted.

I understand that anonymity will be ensured in the write-up by disguising my identity.

I understand that disguised extracts from my participation may be quoted in the thesis and

any subsequent publications if I give permission below:

I agree to quotation/publication of extracts from my participation

Signed……………………………………. Date……………….

44

Appendix B:

PANAS Questionnaire

This scale consists of a number of words that describe different feelings and emotions.

Read each item and then list the number from the scale below next to each word.

Indicate to what extent you feel this way right now, that is, at the present moment OR indicate the

extent you have felt this way over the past week (circle the instructions you followed when taking

this measure)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Very Slightly Not at All A Little Moderately Quite a Bit Extremely

__________ 1. Interested __________ 11. Irritable

__________ 2. Distressed ________12. Alert

__________ 3. Excited __________ 13. Ashamed

__________ 4. Upset __________ 14. Inspired

__________ 5. Strong __________ 15. Nervous

__________ 6. Guilty __________ 16. Determined

__________ 7. Scared __________ 17. Attentive

__________ 8. Hostile __________ 18. Jittery

__________ 9. Enthusiastic _______19. Active

__________ 10. Proud __________ 20. Afraid

How would you rate the audio you have just listened to?

Comfortable or Uncomfortable