A Case Study of A Case Study of Organizational Stress In Elite Organizational Stress In Elite

SportSport

Tim Woodman And Lew HardyTim Woodman And Lew Hardy

StressStress

• Jones (1990) defined stress as a state where Jones (1990) defined stress as a state where some demand is placed on an individual who some demand is placed on an individual who then needs to react to cope with the situation.then needs to react to cope with the situation.

• Organizational stress is then defined as stress Organizational stress is then defined as stress associated with an individuals appraisal of the associated with an individuals appraisal of the structure and function of the organization structure and function of the organization they are in.they are in.

• Organizational Stress: “work-related social Organizational Stress: “work-related social psychological stress” (Shirom, 1992)psychological stress” (Shirom, 1992)

Previous Studies in Non-Previous Studies in Non-Sporting AreasSporting Areas

• Previous Studies include medical Previous Studies include medical professions (Flett, Biggs & Alpass, professions (Flett, Biggs & Alpass, 1995), Police departments (Buunk & 1995), Police departments (Buunk & Verhoeven, 1991) and schools (Cox, Verhoeven, 1991) and schools (Cox, Boot, Cox & Harrison, 1988).Boot, Cox & Harrison, 1988).

• No Previous study into sporting No Previous study into sporting environmentenvironment

Sources of Organizational Sources of Organizational Stress Found In These SettingsStress Found In These Settings

• Work LoadWork Load

• Work DesignWork Design

• Job QualificationsJob Qualifications

• Performance EvaluationPerformance Evaluation

• Organizational StructureOrganizational Structure

• ResponsibilityResponsibility

• Authority AmbiguitiesAuthority Ambiguities

• (Rogers, Li & Shani, 1987)(Rogers, Li & Shani, 1987)

Previous Studies on Stress In Previous Studies on Stress In SportSport

• Scanlan, Stein & Ravizza, (1991) found 5 Scanlan, Stein & Ravizza, (1991) found 5 sources of stress in Elite figure skaters:sources of stress in Elite figure skaters:

• Negative aspects of CompetitionNegative aspects of Competition

• Negative Significant-Other RelationshipsNegative Significant-Other Relationships

• Demands/Costs of SkatingDemands/Costs of Skating

• Personal StrugglesPersonal Struggles

• Traumatic Experiences Traumatic Experiences

Previous Studies In Sport Previous Studies In Sport ContextContext

• Previous studies show sources of stress, which Previous studies show sources of stress, which are often beyond organizational stress issues, are often beyond organizational stress issues, i.e. family grievance. i.e. family grievance.

• Others may be the result of organizational Others may be the result of organizational stress, i.e. living with a team mate may put a stress, i.e. living with a team mate may put a strain on the relationship.strain on the relationship.

• This study is an attempt to investigate the This study is an attempt to investigate the issues that underlie organizational stress as issues that underlie organizational stress as athletes prepare for major international athletes prepare for major international competitions.competitions.

SubjectsSubjects

• 16 International elite performers were 16 International elite performers were selected for the study.selected for the study.

• Only 1 of the subjects did not complete Only 1 of the subjects did not complete the study due to time constraints.the study due to time constraints.

• Considerations for selection were that they Considerations for selection were that they were current or retired (no more than 4 were current or retired (no more than 4 years) national squad members and had years) national squad members and had been to an olympics or world been to an olympics or world championships.championships.

• Aged 17- 30, mean age 23.9, SD Aged 17- 30, mean age 23.9, SD ± ± 3.63.6

Study DesignStudy Design

• Interview BasedInterview Based

• Broadly based on Broadly based on Carrons, 1982 model Carrons, 1982 model of group cohesionof group cohesion..

Interview BasisInterview Basis

• Subjects were asked to discuss their Subjects were asked to discuss their experiences of international experiences of international competitions and how they relate to:competitions and how they relate to:

• Environmental IssuesEnvironmental Issues

• Personal IssuesPersonal Issues

• Leadership IssuesLeadership Issues

• Team IssuesTeam Issues

Interview TechniqueInterview Technique

• Interviews were carried out until saturation Interviews were carried out until saturation was achieved on a particular issue.was achieved on a particular issue.

• Clarification was achieved on issues by using Clarification was achieved on issues by using elaboration probes to ensure an accurate elaboration probes to ensure an accurate understanding of what the subject was understanding of what the subject was saying.saying.

• Participants were also asked if they could Participants were also asked if they could remember anything else relating to the last remember anything else relating to the last section, being careful to take their time if section, being careful to take their time if they could not remember anything, rather they could not remember anything, rather than guess.than guess.

• Order of questions was not the same for Order of questions was not the same for each subject to allow for the interview to each subject to allow for the interview to flow naturally. However all questions were flow naturally. However all questions were the same. Similar prompts were used the same. Similar prompts were used where possible to allow the athletes to where possible to allow the athletes to take the interview where they wanted it to take the interview where they wanted it to go.go.

• All interviews were tape recorded and All interviews were tape recorded and lasted between 50-150 minutes.lasted between 50-150 minutes.

Data AnalysisData Analysis

• QSR NUD*IST 4, (1997) statistical QSR NUD*IST 4, (1997) statistical package was used to categorize the package was used to categorize the qualitative data.qualitative data.

• They found 4 general categories:They found 4 general categories:

Environmental IssuesEnvironmental Issues

• ““Those issues Those issues pertaining to the pertaining to the sport environment sport environment in which the athlete in which the athlete was operating or was operating or used to operate.”used to operate.”

• E.g. Noisy hotel E.g. Noisy hotel during competitionduring competition

En

viro

nm

en

tal

En

viro

nm

en

tal

Issues

Issues

Personal IssuesPersonal Issues

• ““Issues pertaining Issues pertaining directly to the directly to the individual”individual”

• E.g. InjuryE.g. Injury

Perso

nal Issu

es

Perso

nal Issu

es

Leadership IssuesLeadership Issues

• ““Issues pertaining Issues pertaining directly to coaches directly to coaches and managers”and managers”

• E.g. A E.g. A disagreement with disagreement with the manager.the manager.

Lead

ersh

ip Issu

es

Lead

ersh

ip Issu

es

Team IssuesTeam Issues

• ““Issues pertaining Issues pertaining directly, and for directly, and for the most part, to the most part, to the team.”the team.”

• E.g. Tension E.g. Tension between athletes.between athletes.

Team

Issues

Team

Issues

DiscussionDiscussion

• Organizational stress is negative in content.Organizational stress is negative in content.• Experiencing negative emotions does not Experiencing negative emotions does not

automatically produce a negative effect in sporting automatically produce a negative effect in sporting performance.performance.

• The organization should be commended for The organization should be commended for allowing the investigation to take place even allowing the investigation to take place even though it looks into a sensitive subject.though it looks into a sensitive subject.

• Many changes have been made to the organization Many changes have been made to the organization since this study was conducted.since this study was conducted.

• Sporting organizations sometimes appoint team Sporting organizations sometimes appoint team managers not on their managerial skills but their managers not on their managerial skills but their loyalty to the sport.loyalty to the sport.

DiscussionDiscussion

• Sport psychologists are not equipped to Sport psychologists are not equipped to help with organizational stress at the help with organizational stress at the organizational level.organizational level.

• One of the major findings was that One of the major findings was that communication between coaches, athletes communication between coaches, athletes and managers was often a cause for and managers was often a cause for organizational stress.organizational stress.

Helping With Helping With CommunicationCommunication

• Help can be offered in the form of workshops Help can be offered in the form of workshops which can be used to teach communication which can be used to teach communication strategies to allow clearer channels of strategies to allow clearer channels of communication between different levels of an communication between different levels of an organization.organization.

• Performance profiling was also discussed as a Performance profiling was also discussed as a useful way of creating a more open useful way of creating a more open atmosphere for communication. (Dale and atmosphere for communication. (Dale and Wrisberg, 1996)Wrisberg, 1996)

• This allows athletes to have input into This allows athletes to have input into competition goals and training.competition goals and training.

LeadershipLeadership

• In order to remove organizational stress In order to remove organizational stress from the leadership side of an athletes life, it from the leadership side of an athletes life, it has been discovered that they are happiest has been discovered that they are happiest when their leadership style is matched by when their leadership style is matched by that if their coach (Gordon, 1998)that if their coach (Gordon, 1998)

• This is not surprising, but must be taken into This is not surprising, but must be taken into consideration when receiving instruction consideration when receiving instruction from different sources, i.e. a national coach.from different sources, i.e. a national coach.

Drawbacks outlined in the Drawbacks outlined in the study include:study include:

• The anonymity of subjects.The anonymity of subjects.

• Other members of the sporting Other members of the sporting organization should be questioned. organization should be questioned. (managers, coaches, administrators)(managers, coaches, administrators)

• Should also look at athletes social, Should also look at athletes social, political and cultural environment.political and cultural environment.

How we Would Improve the How we Would Improve the Study?Study?

• Use the questions in the same order.Use the questions in the same order.• Use the same prompts as much as Use the same prompts as much as

possible.possible.• Interview variety of sporting Interview variety of sporting

organization members.organization members.• Look at differences between different Look at differences between different

levels of the same sport (amateur, levels of the same sport (amateur, semi-professional, professional).semi-professional, professional).

Any QuestionsAny Questions

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